SCIMATB Q1 REVIEWER

I. INTRODUCTION

Definition Application of technology to improve a biological

organism The application of the technology to modify the

biological function of an organism by adding genes from another organism

The techniques used by the biotechnology industry to modify genes and introduce them into transgenic organisms

Why is Biotechnology needed? Nature has a rich source of variation; however,

nature does not have all of the traits we need Purposeful design and modifications/assembly of

bio-oriented materials (proteins/enzymes, microorganisms, plant/animal cells, tissues, stem cells, etc) and unit processes to benefit humans or to make a profit

o To produce valuable products at commercial scale and to treat diseases

o To discover and understand the underlying mechanisms of behaviors and disorders in living organisms

Cost-effectiveness economically feasible

Definition of Biotechnology based on the use of techniques and methods

Traditional Biotechnology (before 1970)o Broad definition of biotechnologyo Using a biological system to make

productso Food Processing

Fermented foods, brewery, dairy products, etc.

Brewing beer: conversion of starch to sugar followed by the addition of a specific yeast

o Agriculture Modifications of living plants for

improved yield of food crops via artificial selection and hybridization

o Simple process Direct use of or isolation from

original biological sources Fermentation

Modern Biotechnologyo Use of recombinant DNA technology

since 1973 Stanly Cohen and Herbert Boyer

perfected techniques to cut and paste DNA (using restriction enzymes and ligases) and reproduce the new DNA in bacteria

o Combined use of different disciplines Biology-based knowledge Knowledge linked with practical

applications (Biochem Eng, etc.)o Use of genetically altered organisms

Enabling the production of existing medicines or products easily and cheaply

Traditional Biotechnology industries

o Adopts new approaches and modern techniques to improve the quality and productivity of their products

Biotechnology focuses on… Development of therapeutics based on underlying

mechanisms of diseases Development of new methods to cure diseases

o Gene and cell (stem cells) therapies Production of valuable products at commercial

scaleo Organic acids, antibiotics, amino acids,

proteins (enzymes), biofuels, vitamins, hormones, alcohol, fermented food, etc.

Development of tools and methodologyo Expression systems, gene

synthesis/sequencing, purification process, formulation, bioassays, diagnosis, delivery

Required Disciplines Integration of biology with engineering principles

o Cost-effectivenesso Process development/design/optimization

Basic biology Mass/energy balance Thermodynamics Physical, organic chemistry/Pharmacology Biochemical engineering Bioreaction engineering

Major Application Areas Health Care/Diagnostics

o Development of therapeutics: efficacy, toxicity

o Diagnosis: early detection and prevention Best solution compared to

treatments Prediction and treatment based

on genomes Invasive or non-invasive analysis

or detection of disease biomarkers

Agricultureo Crop production with high yield and

quality Bio-based processed

o Pollution, CO2 emission, global warming Bio-energy

o Use of renewable sources

Biotechnology

Molecular Biology

Biochemistry

Eng & Computer Science

Other traditional disciplines

Microbiology

Genetics

Key Technologies and Fields Protein engineering

o Design of proteins/enzymes based on structural and mechanistic knowledge, molecular evolution and computational design

Metabolic pathway engineeringo Design of more efficient metabolic

pathways; high yield of target product, low by-product

Computational modeling and optimizationo Systems biologyo Genome-wide analysis

Nano-biotechnologyo For diagnosis and imaging

Cell culture engineeringo Microorganisms and mammalian cellso Hybridoma technology

Forming hybrid cell lines (hybridomas) by fusing a specific antibody-producing B cell with a myeloma (B cell cancer) cell that is selected for its ability to grow in tissue culture

Separation technologyo Recovery and purification of a target

product Synthetic biology

o Creation of new biosystemso Systematic, hierarchal design of artificial,

bio-inspired system using robust, standardized and well-characterized building blocks

Branches of Biotechnologyo Blue biotechnology

Marine and aquatico Green biotechnology

Agriculturalo Red biotechnology

Medicalo White biotechnology

Industrial

Bio-based Economy: Impact on Global Economy Shift from petroleum-based economy

o Exhaustion and soaring price of petroleum

o Environmental issue Global warming and pollution

Development of renewable source-based Bioprocess

Replacement of chemical processes with Bio-based ones

Key role of enzymeso Use of enzymes in Biofuel production

from renewable biomass

Alternative Energy Sources Production of biofuels from natural resources

o Increase in the yield and alcohol tolerance

Redesign of pathway for the ethanol production in yeast to use raw materials

Elucidation of enzyme mechanisms

Redesign of pathway to increase the yield and to reduce by-products

Design of critical enzymes in the pathway

o Process development: fermentation process

o Separation and concentration

Therapeutic Proteins High specificity and less toxicity – high safety and

efficacy Therapeutic proteins

o Antibodies, proteins, enzymes, peptides, etc.

Therapeutic proteins will form the back-bone of future medicinal therapy

Perspectives Biotechnology will have an impact on human’s

health, life-style, and economy. Modern biotechnology constitutes a variety of

diverse areas and technologies, requiring interdisciplinary collaborations.

II. CHEMICAL COMPONENTS

Water Most abundant molecule Has special traits that make it important to life Polar molecule

o Oxygen atoms are large and hydrogen are small

Characteristicso Liquid at room temperatureo Universal solvent for polar moleculeso Water molecules are cohesiveo Temperature of water changes slowlyo High heat of vaporizationo Frozen water is less dense

Organic Molecule Contains carbon Macromolecules

Carbohydrates Serve as quick energy and short-term energy

storage Play a structural role in plants, bacteria and

insects Monomers are monosaccharides

o Glucose (C6H12O6)o Fructoseo Galactose

Disaccharideso Glucose + Fructose = Sucroseo Glucose + Galactose = Lactoseo Glucose + Glucose = Maltose

Larger polysaccharides are made from linking many monomer molecules together through condensation synthesis

o Starch

Polysaccharide composed of glucose

Predominantly made by plants Oligosaccharides

o 3-12 monosaccharides with proteins Polysaccharides

o 12 monosaccharides

Lipids Serve as long-term energy stores in cells and

form membranes Serve as hormones and insulation Do not dissolve in water Fats and oils are formed from a glycerol molecule

and three fatty acid molecules Fatty acids – long chains of hydrocarbons ending

in – COOHo Saturated (without double bonds)

Animal fats Coconut and palm oil

o Unsaturated (with double bonds, low melting point, fluid nature, sensitive to oxidation)

Corn, soybean, olive, canola oil

Food rich in plant sterols and sterolinso Avocado, walnuts, almonds, soybeans,

cold-pressed olive oil, peanuts, sunflower seeds, wheat germ oil, sesame seeds

Types of oilo Fixed

Palm, soybean, sunflower seed, tuba-tuba, kasuy (cashew), corn

o Fats Avocado, cacao

o Waxes Saging butuan, sisal

o Volatile Lavender, pine needle, rosemary,

jasminol (jasmine), geraniol (rose), citral (oranges), citronella, camphor (sambong, manzanilla), safrol (cinnamon)

Proteins Functions

o Serve as structural proteinso Act as enzymes to speed reactionso Serve as transport carrierso Allow materials to cross cell membraneso Expression of our genes

Proteins are polymers of amino acids Peptide bonds join amino acids

Proteins have levels of organizationo Primary structure

Peptide bondso Secondary structure

3D structure 3.6 amino acids per turn Alpha-helix stabilized by

hydrogen bonds H bonds between NH and CO

o Tertiary structure Formation of domains Functional unit of proteins Made up of about 200 amino

acids Stabilized by bonds

Disulfide Hydrophobic Hydrogen Ionic interactions

o Quaternary structure Several subunits of proteins Held together by hydrophobic

bonds, H bonds, ionic bonds Protein denaturation

o Unfolding and disorganization of the protein structure

o Destroys up to secondary structureo Peptide bonds not hydrolyzedo Heat, organic solvents, mechanical

mixing

Nucleic Acid Polymers of nucleotides

o Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Double-stranded with

complementary base pairing Strands are antiparallel G-C pairs have 3 hydrogen bonds A-T pairs have 2 hydrogen bonds One strand is the complement of

the other Major and minor grooves present

different surfaces Cellular DNA is almost exclusively

B-DNA B-DNA has ~10.5bp/turn of the

helix

o Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

III. CELLS

Animal cells

Plant cells

Cell wallo Primary wall

Microfibrils attached to the cell membrane

Polysaccharide Celluloses – polymers of

glucose Hemicelluloses – akali-

soluble portion Pectin – hot water-soluble

portiono Secondary wall

Lignin Aromatic polymer that

rigidifies secondary cell walls

Stained red by phloroglucinol solutions

o Mid lamella Pectin

Compartmentalization Eukaryotic cells are full of membrane-enclosed

compartmentso Separates incompatible chemical and

physical conditionso Proteins can be both synthesized and

hydrolyzed in a single cell Parts of the cell (incomplete :o)

Nucleoluso Holds the genetic information of the cell

Endoplasmic Reticulumo Rough and Smooth

Ribosomes attached outside = rough

Protein synthesis within endomembrane system

Protein synthesis for secretion Integral membrane protein

syntheshis Protein modification (Golgi also) Membrane assembly

Golgi Apparatuso Packages proteins before they are sent to

their destination Mitochondria

o The cell’s “powerhouse”, as it produces ATP

Chloroplasts

o Contains chlorophyll, which is a catalyst for photosynthesis

Central Vacuoleso Tonoplast

Single membraneo Contents

Water, salts, crystals, starch, protein bodies, granules/fibrous materials

o Function Storage of nutrient reserves and

waste materials Digestive organelle Impermeable to wastes

Ribosomeso Sites of protein synthesiso In plants, only few ribosomes except in

legumes and insectivorous plantso A cluster is called a polysome

IV. CELL DIVISION

Interphase G1 phase

o Period before

DNA synthesis

o gap between cell

division and

DNA synthesis

o Cell makes ER,

ribosomes, and

cytosol to make 2 functional

cells S phase

o DNA synthesiso Replicates its DNA for the

next 6-8 hours

o Goal of replication is to accurately copy the genetic information so that each daughter cell will have an exact copy of the parental DNA

o Steps

G2 phaseo Spans the time from the completion of

DNA synthesis to the onset of cell divisiono Spends 2-5 hours making proteins before

mitosis Cell performs all of its regular functions and gets

ready to divide

High metabolic activity DNA is duplicated DNA is in the form of chromatin

Chromosomes Before a cell starts dividing, the chromosomes

are duplicated (refer to S phase)o Produces sister chromatids

Structureo Homologous chromosomes = identical

pairso One inherited from mother, and one from

fathero Made of of sister chromatids joined at the

centromere

M phase (Mitosis)o Purpose: to make copies of cells and their

DNAo Events

Replicated chromosomes align at the metaphase plate

Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles

Nuclear membranes form around each new nucleus

Division of cytoplasm or cytokinesis

o Stages

Cell Cycle Control Checkpoint proteins monitor progression through

the cell cycle

Note: Please don’t rely on this reviewer alone! This is

just a summarized version of the PowerPoints we got from the FIRST HALF of the term. Good luck!