Segregation and Stratification

A Biosocial Approach

Figure 1. Level of segregation experienced by African Americans in 2000.Source: Iceland et al. 2002

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Figure 2. Segregation experienced by URBAN African Americans in 2000.Source: Iceland et al. 2002

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Figure 3. Trends in black-white residential segregation for hypersegregated metropolitan areas 1980-2000. Source: Iceland et al. 2002

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Figure 4. Degree of Black-White segregation in hypersegregated metro areas of the U.S. compared with Metro Areas in South Africa Under Apartheid.

Sources: Christopher 1993; Iceland 2003

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Figure 5. Segregegation of Blacks, Latinos, and Asians from Whites by income in 1990. Source: Massey and Fischer 1999

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<$15,000 $15,000-$34,999 $35,000-$49,999 $50,000+

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Figure 6. Ideal neighborhood desired by Whites and Blacks in 2000.Source: Charles 2003

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Figure 7. Preference for all in-group and no-outgroup neighborhoods in 2000.Source: Charles 2003

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Figure 8. Explaining White Preferences for White Neighbors.Source: Charles 2003

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Stereotyping of Blacks: Intelligence Laziness Violence Family Fairness

Figure 9. Explaining White Avoidance of Black NeighborsSource: Charles 2003

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Figure 10. Percentage Gaining Access to Rental Units and Percentage Having Credit Raised as an Issue, Philadelphia 2000.

Source: Massey and Lundy 2001.

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Figure 11. Effect of racial segregation on concentration of Black poverty: simulation results for city of 128,000 inhabitants that is 25% black and has class segregation.

Source: Massey 1990

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Figure 12. How segregation increases exposure to major crimes (murder, rape, assault, robbery, burglary, larceny, autho theft).

Source: Massey 2001.

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Figure 13. Percentage of freshmen at selective schools growing up in segregated schools and neighborhoods. Source: Massey et al. 2003

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Figure 14. Exposure of freshmen at selctive schools to school and neighborhood disorder while growing up. Source: Massey et al. 2003

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Figure 15. Exposure of freshmen at selctive schools to school and neighborhood iolence while growing up. Source: Massey et al. 2003

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Figure 16. Effect of segregation on grade point earned by African Americans during first three terms of freshman year. Source: Massey and Fischer 2003.

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Average Minority Proportion in Schools and Neighborhoods

GP

A

ß = -.171

Table 1. Reduced-form model estimating effect of social and economic background ongrade point earned during first three terms of college or university.Source: Massey and Fischer 2003

Independent Variables B SE Race/Ethnicity White (reference) ---- ---- Asian -0.011 0.023 Latino -0.145*** 0.030 Black -0.262*** 0.027Segregation Average While Growing Up -0.028 0.035Demographic Background Foreign Born Parent 0.016 0.016 Two Parent Family 0.021 0.019 Siblings under 18 0.002 0.009Socioeconomic StatusEducation of Parents No College Degrees (reference) ---- ---- One College Degree 0.002 0.019 Two College Degrees 0.071** 0.024 One Advanced Degree 0.086*** 0.020 Two Advanced Degrees 0.153*** 0.023Economic Status Home Value (000) -0.017 0.035 Ever on Welfare -0.010 0.023 Income>$75,000 0.018 0.024Correlates of Segregation School Quality 0.074*** 0.046 Academic Preparation 0.003*** 0.001 Social Preparation -0.395*** 0.065 Psychological Preparation 0.256*** 0.062 Exposure to Disorder 0.167 0.110 Exposure to Violence -0.527*** 0.126

Intercept 3.183***R2 0.287

Number of Cases 3,920

Allostasis:

*The tendency for organisms to maintain stability through change

*Occurs through a delicate interaction between the brain, the endocrine system, and the immune system

*when a person perceives an external threat, a brain organ known as the hypothalamus triggers an allostatic response.

-hypothalamus signals adrenal glands to release adrenaline-accelerates heartbeat-constricts blood vessels to skin-expands flow of blood to internal organs-dilates bronchial tubes-triggers release of fibrogen into blood (clotting)-releases glucose and fatty acids from stored fats (glycogen)-signals brain to produce endorphins

-hypothalamus simultaneously signals pituitary to release adrenocorticotropic hormone

-causes adrenal glands to secrete cortisol into the blood. -works to replace energy stores depleted by adrenaline-converts food into glycogen and fat-promotes conversion of muscle protein to fat-blocks insulin from taking up glucose-causes loss of minerals from bones-changes texture of white blood cells to make them “stickier”

*allostatic response is nature’s way of maximizing an organism’s resources to meet an immediate, short-term threat

-long-term functions such as building and maintaining muscle, bone, and brain cells are temporarily sacrificed

-put more energy into the bloodstream for evasive or aggressive action

-mammalian allostatic systems designed for infrequent and sporadic use

-but unlike most mammals, humans are capable of keeping the HPA axis turned on indefinitely

-can experience stress from *ideas * in addition to immediate threats

Allostatic Load

*Results whenever stress response is triggered repeatedly or chronically

*As when someone is compelled by socioeconomic circumstances or racial discrimination to live in a dangerous environment

*inhabitants of such settings not only experience an allostatic response when they perceive dangers directly,

*also when they anticipate them mentally—when they imagine threatening events that might occur or when they recall past traumas

Consequences of Allostatic Load for Bodily Systems

*cardiovascular system:-elevated adrenaline levels increase blood pressure to raise the risk of hypertension

-elevated fibrogen levels increase the propensity for blood to clot and raise the risk of thrombosis

-the build-up of “sticky” white blood cells causes the formation of arterial plaques that contribute to atherosclerosis

-elevated cortisol levels cause the production of excess glycogen and fat, to raise the risk of obesity

-the suppression of insulin production leads to excessive blood sugar and increases the risk of Type II diabetes

-chronically elevated adrenaline disrupts the functioning of vagal nervous system, which slows heart and reduces tension

-raises the likelihood of impulsive behaviors associated with a Type A personality

-Type A persons exacerbate allostatic load by making poor coping choices:

smokingtaking drugsdrinking alcohol

*immune system:

-elevated cortisol lowers immune response to increase risk of illness and infection

-elevated cortisol overstimulates the immune system and goads it into attacking targets that normally don’t pose \ a threat

-leads to the expression of inflammatory disorders -asthma-autoimmune diseases

-multiple sclerosis-arthritis-Type I diabetes

*brain system-hippocampus is responsible for consolidation and storage of memory -rich in cortisol receptors

-stressful events are important to remember

-elevated cortisol causes receptors to become saturated

-leads to atrophy of hippocampus-undermines both short- and long-term memory

-excessive cortisol also interferes with the operation of excitatory neurotransmitters

-such as glutamate -inhibits long-term potentiation of neural synapses-fundamental neurological event of learning

-hippocampus also plays an essential in shutting off the HPA axis, so that damage to it creates a vicious cycle:

-excessive cortisol causes shrinkage of hippocampus-causes less inhibition of cortisol production-causes more shrinkage-leads to dendritic remodeling -neurons become shorter and sprout fewer

branches-suppresses neurogenesis,

-creation of new neurons

Leads to Biosocial Model of Health and Cognition:

*There is a causal path between segregation, stressful neighborhoods, allostatic load, and compromised health and cognitive outcomes

Segregation-->Stressful Neighborhoods-->Allostatic Load-->Outcomes

*what is needed to confirm the links in this chain of events is a dataset that connects individuals and their characteristics to measuresof allostatic load and to neighborhood stress

*Adolescent Health Survey

Neighborhood Conditions at Waves I, II, and III

School Conditions at Wave I and II

Total Cortisol at Wave III

Health Outcomes at Wave III

Cognitive Outcomes at Wave III

Health Statuson Waves I and II

Cognitive Status on Wave I

Prejudice Against Biosocial Theories in Social Science

Letter from Editor of Social Science Journal with Instructions for Review:

“Downplay the speculative biosocial explanation of the findings. This is a ‘red flag’ to reviewers...”

Emphasis in original.

Segregation and Stratification:

A Biosocial Approach

Douglas S. Massey

Princeton University