Seidenberg - The Ritual Origin of Counting

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The Ritual Or igin of ounting

A . S E I D E N B E R G

Communica ted by B. L. VAN DER WAERDEN

Page

t. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Number-mysticism and ritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3. Toward a hypothesis of ritual origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4. The creative word . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

5. Counting rituals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

6. Tabus on counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

7. The census . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

8. Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t 7

9. Taxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t 9

10. Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

11. Sacrifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2212. Counting at Creation and elsewhere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

t 3. The ordinal name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

14. Gematria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

t 5. The Heavenly Shepherd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

16. The Sand Reckoner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

17. The ritual challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

18. The creative number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

t9. Summary and conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

1 . In t roduct ion

The following stu dy is int end ed as a c ontr ibut ion to Lord RAGLAN S general

theory that civi lizat ion had a r i tual or igin and is writ te n in accordance with his

suggestion that the various components of civi l izat ion be s tudied with that

theory in mind, in order to build i t up inductively1. T he the ory is associ ated

with another, namely, the theory of the Diffusion of Culture, according to which

various widespread practices and beliefs are not the spontaneous reactions of

the hum an m ind to environing condit ions but are the product of cer tain special

circumstances. One problem is to establish the diffused character of a phe nom eno n

in question and to trace its spread; anot her is to throw light on the special circum-stances of its origin.

Anthropologi sts have long been familiar with th e idea tha t the use of a thin g

by no mean s necessarily indicates its origin. Yet ther e exists a strong tendency ,

1 Lord RAGLAN How Came Civilization? p. vi.

Arch. Hist. Exact . Sci. Vol. 2 1



2 A S E I D E N B E R G :

g e n e r a l l y a n d a l so a m o n g s t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , t o a r g u e f r o m u s e to o r ig i n. N o o n e

a s s e r ts t h a t K E PL ER i n v e n t e d t h e e ll ip s e il l o r d e r t o d e s c r i b e t h e m o t i o n o f t h e

p l a n e t s , m a i n l y b e c a u s e t h e r e i s a w e l l - a t t e s t e d h i s t o r y o f t h e e ll ip s e c o v e r i n g

t w o t h o u s a n d y e a r s . Y e t w h e n i t co m e s t o w h a t a p p e a r t o b e t h e s im p l e st m a t h e -

m a t i c a l d e v i c e s , f o r e x a m p l e , c o u n t i n g , t h e s e a r e d i s m i s s e d a s s o o b v i o u s t h a t

t h e y n o d o u b t w e r e s p o n t a n e o u s l y d i s c o v e r e d a g a i n a n d a g a in , b e i n g d i r e c t l y

s u g g e st e d b y t h e u s es t o w h i c h t h e y a r e p u t.

T h u s t h e s h e p h e r d i s pi c t, u re d a s as k i n g h o w m a n y s h e e p a r e i n h i s f lo c k a n d

i n v e n t i n g c o u n t in g il l o r d e r t o a ns w e r. B u t h o w c a n o n e a s k H o w m a n y ?

u n t i l o n e k n o w s h o w t o c o u n t ? I t i s t r u e t h a t FREGE t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f

t h e l a s t c e n t u r y , a n d R U SS EL L, a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s, s o a n a l y z e d t h e c o n -

c e p t o f n u m b e r t h a t t h e y c o u ld a s k a n d a n s w e r t h e q u e s ti o n H o w m a n y ?

w i t h o u t t h e d e v i c e o f c o u n ti n g , b u t t h e i r i d e as a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y f a m i l ia r t o

s h e p h e r d s 2 .

T h e c o m m o n l y h e l d v i e w is t h a t t h e o r ig i n o f m a t h e m a t i c s i s t o b e s e e n i n

i t s p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . B u t a n a p p l i c a t i o n o f a d e v i c e ( o r i d e a ) i s a n e f f e c t

o f t h e d e v i c e , n o t a c a u se . A s e f fe c t s a r e m u l t ip l e , o n e c a n g e t a t t h e c a u s e t h r o u g h

t h e e f f e c t s o n l y i f o n e c o n s i d e r s a ll t h e e f f e c ts , p r a c t i c a l a n d o t h e r w i s e . F o r

e x a m p l e , t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s h e l d t h a t o d d n u m b e r s a r e m a l e , e v e n n u m b e r s

f e m a l e . A t h e o r y t h a t d o e s n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t s u c h i d e a s - - a n d t h e u t i l it a r i a n

t h e o r i e s n e v e r d o - - c a n n o t b e c o n s id e r e d a d e q u a t e .

S i n ce a c c o r d i n g t o o u r t h e o r y c o u n t i n g w a s i n v e n t e d u n d e r s p e ci a l c i rc u m -

s t a n c es , i n f a c t in r e l a ti o n t o t h e c r e a t i o n r it u a l , i t m a y b e t h o u g h t t h a t i t w o u l db e s u f f i c ie n t to p r e s e n t t h a t t h e o r y , w h i c h i s a t h e o r y o f o ri g in s , d ir e c t ly , w i t h o u t

s p e c ia l e m p h a s i s o n t h e t h e o r y o f d if f u si o n , a n d t o l e t t h e f a t e o f th e t h e o r y

r e s t o n w h a t e v e r p l a u s ib i l it y w e c a n m a n a g e t o im p a r t t o it . U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,

t h a t i s n o t s o . A w i d e l y h e l d v ie w is t h a t t h e v a r i o u s p e o p l e s o f t h e e a r t h m a d e

t h e i r w a y t o t h e i r p r e s e n t l o c a ti o n s c o m p l e t e l y w i t h o u t c u l t u r e a n d t h e r e , q u i t e

w i t h o u t c o m m u n i c a t io n e v e n w i t h t h e i r n e ig h b o rs , p r o c e e d e d t o b u i ld u p t h e

c u l t u re s t h a t t h e y n o w p o s se s s. T h e i n f e r e n c e w o u l d b e t h a t a l l t h e s e p e o p l e s

i n d e p e n d e n t l y b u i l t u p t h e c r e a t i o n r it u a l , w h i c h is a c o m p l e x c o n t a i n i n g m a n y

a p p a r e n t l y a r b i t r a r y e l e m e n t s , a n d t h e n , r e a c t i n g s im i l a r ly t o i t, d e v e l o p e d

c o u n t in g . S u c h a t h e o r y c o u l d h a r d l y b e r e c o m m e n d e d f o r i t s p l a u s ib i l it y .C o n v e r s e l y , i f w e c o u l d s h o w t h a t c o u n t i n g h a d a s in g le o r ig i n, w e w o u l d

b e p r e p a r e d t o s e e i t s o ri g in u n d e r s p e c ia l , e v e n w e i r d , c i r c u m s t a n c e s. F o r t h i s

r e a s o n w e h a v e t a k e n u p f ir s t, in a p r e v i o u s p a p e r , t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e d i f fu s i o n

o f c o u n t i n g p r a c t i c e s ~. T h a t p a p e r n e e d n o t b e , f o r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s , f a m i l ia r

t o t h e r e a d e r ; o r , i f f a m i li a r, it s a r g u m e n t s n e e d n o t b e a c c e p t e d . A l l t h a t i s

r e q u i r e d is a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r o u g h t t o b e s ee n in r e la t i o n

t o t h e t h e o r y o f a s i n g l e o r i g i n .

E v e n s o, i t w i l l b e w e l l to g i v e b r i e f l y s o m e o f t h e p o i n t s o f t h a t p a p e r .

A l e a d in g i d e a i s t o e x a m i n e c o u n t i n g f o r i t s c o n v e n t i o n a l e le m e n t s . C o u n t i n g

i t se l f m a y b e l o # c a l , b u t t h e p a r t i c u l a r w a y s o f c o u n t i n g a r e n o t : t h e y a r e c o n -

z G. FREGE T h e F o u n d a t io n o [ A r i t h me t i c . B . RUSSELL T h e P r in c ip l e s o [ M a th e -mat ics .

3 The D i f f us i on o f Coun t i ng P r ac t i c e s , Un iv . o [ C a l l [ . P u b l . i n M a th . vol . 3,no. 4 (1960).



Ri t ua l o r ig i n o f coun t i ng 3

v e n t io n s . T h e p a p e r s t a r t s b y l o o k in g a t t h e c o u n t in g m e t h o d s o f t h r e e f a r

a p a r t p e o p l e s :

G u m u l g al B a k a i r i B u s h m e n(Aus t ra li a ) (Sou th Am er ica) (So uth Africa)

t . u r a p o n t o k a l e x a2 . u k a s a r a h a g e t ' o a3 . ukas a r - u r ap on ahage t oka l e ' quo

o r ahawao)4 . ukas a r - uk as a r ahage ahage t ' oa - t ' o a5 . ukas a r - uka s a r - u r apon ahage ahage t oka l e t ' oa - t ' oa - t ' a6 . ukas a r - ukas a r - uka s a r ahage ahage ahage t ' oa - t ' o a - t ' oa

T h e m o s t s t r ik i n g fe a t u r e h e r e is t h a t t h e c o u n t i n g p ro c e e d s b y t w o ' s . S o m e -

w h a t l e s s s t r i k i n g , b u t s t i l l n o t e w o r t h y , i s t h a t t h e l a r g e r n u m b e r ( t w o ) p r e c e d e st h e s m a l l e r ( o ne ) i n t h e w o r d s f o r t h r e e a n d f i v e ; a n d t h a t n o c o p u l a i s u s e d .

T h e s e a r e p u r e l y c o n v e n t i o n a l f e a tu r e s o f t h e c o u n t i n g a n d i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e

c o u n t i n g o f a ll th r e e p e o p l e s g o es b a c k t o a c o m m o n s o u r c e.

A g r e a t d e a l o f e f f o r t h a s b e e n s p e n t , a s w e h a v e r e p o r t e d , o n d e r i v i n g t h e

2 o f p u r e 2 - c o u n t i n g ( a s w e c a ll t h e a b o v e m e t h o d ) f r o m s o m e u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r

o f t h e h u m a n m i n d ( th o u g h n o o n e s e em s t o h a v e c o n c e r n e d h i m s e l f w i t h t h e

o t h e r p o i n t s m e n t i o n e d ) . O u r e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e u n i f o r m i t y i s, a s s t a t e d , t h a t

t h e 2 - s y s t e m h a d a si n gl e o r ig i n. F r o m t h i s p o i n t o f o r ig i n i t s p r e a d o u t o v e r

t h e w h o l e e a r th ; l a te r , o t h e r m e t h o d s o f c o u n t i n g a ro s e a n d s p r e a d o u t o v e r

a l m o s t a ll , b u t n o t q u i t e al l, o f t h e w o r l d , a n d w e n o t e t h a t t h e 2 - s y s t e m a p p e a r sn o w o n l y a t t h e e d g e s , a n d s e e m s r e a d y t o b e w i p e d o f f t h e f a c e o f t h e g l o b e

( se e m a p s t a n d 2 ) 4 . -

W e p l a c e d 2 - c o u n t i n g f ir s t. T h e m a i n r e a s o n f o r d o in g s o i s i ts g e o g r a p h i c a l

d i s t r ib u t i o n , i t s p e r i p h e r a l c h a r a c t e r , t h o u g h i t s s e e m i n g l y p r i m i t i v e s t r u c t u r e

a n d i t s p o s s e s s i o n b y p e o p l e s o t h e r w i s e t h e m o s t c u l t u r a l l y i m p o v e r i s h e d a l s o

e n t e r e d i n t o o u r j u d g m e n t . A c o n s e q u e n ce is t h a t c o u n t i n g d i d n o t s t a r t w i t h

f i n g e r - c o u n t i n g , a s fi n g e r - c o u n t i n g w o u l d p r o d u c e 6 = 5 + 1 a n d n o t 6 ----2 + 2 + 2.

T h e r e i s e p i g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e f r o m S u m e r i a s h o w i n g t h a t t h e 2 - s y s t e m w a s

k n o w n t h e r e i n 3 0 0 0 B . C . ~. B e t w e e n S u m e r i a a n d t h e l o c a l e o f t h e m o d e r n

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f 2 - c o u n t i n g o n e f in d s , m o r e o r l es s as e x p e c t e d , t r a c e s o f 2 - co u rt -r in g , f o r e x a m p l e , o n e f in d s 3 ~ 2 + t i n t h e T u k u d h l a n g u a g e , s p o k e n i n t h e

i n t e r i o r o f A l a s k a e. S o m e w h a t m o r e s u r p ri s in g , o n e f in d s a s y s t e m , n o t t h e p u r e

2 - s y s t e m , b u t o n e c l e a r ly a l li e d t o 2 - c o u n t i n g : in t h is s y s t e m , w h i c h w e h a v e

c a ll ed n e o -2 - co u n t in g , o n e f in d s t h e f or m s 6 = 2 × 3 (o r 6 = 3 + 3 ) , 7 - - - - 4 + 3 ,

8 = 2 × 4 ( o r 4 + 4 ) , 9 = 5 + 4 , and s l i gh t v a r i a n t s o f t he s e .

T h e n e o - 2 - c o u n t i n g h a s a w i d e s p r e a d e x i s te n c e . I n t h e A m e r i c a s i t o c c u r s

( if w e s u b t r a c t t h e E s k i m o ) a t t h e e x t r e m e s a n d a lo n g t h e w e s t c o a s t o f N o r t h

A m e r i c a ; i t a ls o o c c u r s w i t h t h e E s k i m o o f L a b r a d o r a n d o f M e l v il le B a y , G r e e n l a n d ,

b u t i t is n o t t y p i c a l o f t h e E s k i m o , w h o f o r t h e m o s t p a r t h a v e w h a t i s c a l l ed a

5 - - 2 0 s y s te m . I n n o r t h e a s t e r n m o s t A s ia i t is f o u n d w i t h t h e Y u k a g h ir . I t h a s

a w i d e s p r e a d i f s p o r a d i c o c c u r r e n c e i n s o u t h e a s t A s ia a n d t h e P a c i f ic , a n d i n

4 I b i d . , p. 218.5 I b i d . , p. 237 and Plate I (p. 299) .6 1 b i d . , p. 226.

1




particu lar occurs in Australia. In Africa it occurs on the pe riph ery of the Sudan;

it scarcely occurs in Bantu, but there is a system of neo-2-gestures widespread

in the Congo forests. Fro m epigraphical evidence, it is clear th at the Ancient

Egyp tia ns knew the neo-2-system 7.

It may be suggested that although the 2-system really was first, it was eventu-

ally forgotten, and tha t m an got a new start wi th the 10- or 20-system. It seems

to us that the widespread occurrence of the pure 2- and the neo-2-COUllting

excludes this possibility, and that 10- or 20-counting must have been an ampli-

fication of 2-counting.

In examining number vocabularies one notes that they can for the most

par t be separat ed according to structure into a small numb er of categories. Thus

there are the pure 2- and the neo-2-counting mentioned; in t0-counting the count

proceeds, as in English, by tens; ill 5--20-counting, the count is by twenties and

there is further structure in the lower number words -- thus there are the forms

6 ----5 + t, 7 = 5 + 2, 8 = 5 + 3, 9 ~ 5 + 4; a nd one can speak of neo-2-t0-sys tems,

of 5d0-systems, of 4-systems, et alia. In analyzing individual number voca-

bularies one observes, with some surprise at first, tha t th ey are freque ntly crosses;

for example, in a given vo cabul ary one may find th e forms 6 = 2 × 3, 7 = 5 + 2,

8----2 × 4 -- this is a cross between neo-2 and q uina ry co unting ; or one may

find 40 ----20 × 2, 30 = 3 X 10, which are typ ica l fo rms in 20- and t0-c ount ing,

respectively s. It is, of course, impossible to under stan d this ph enomenon ap art

from diffusion.

In our D i f f u s i o n paper, we consider the relation of I 0-counting to 20-counting

and the relation of both to gesture counting. In doing so, we encounter difficulties

and we do not regard our conclusions or surmises) on these matt ers wi th the

same confidence as the points mentioned above. Thus we have come to the view

that 10-counting preceded 5--20 counting, that 5--20 counting communicated

its quinary character to 10-counting, and even that the 10-counters got their

gestures from 5--20-counters. These views ma y be wrong, but, alt hough we

felt obliged to consider these questions, one ought to realize that they do not

bear directly on the unique origin of counting, which we consider to be suf-

ficiently well-founded on th e points already made above 9.

The theory of diffusion as a whole is an inductive theory depending on theaccumulation of evidence. In our D i H u s i o n paper we consider not only counting

systems but also other counting practices that may be regarded as evidence of

diffusion; and all the various phenomena that we consider below are likewise

evidence for diffusion. For example, we find a widespread belief th at odd numbers

are lucky, even number s unlucky. If odd numbe rs really are lucky, we ma y

7 1bid., pp. 225--233.s An example of the fi rst is Tukudh loc. cit., p. 226); of the second, Sumerian

see A. POEBEL,Grundzi~ge der S~merische Gram matik, p. 104).9 We take this opportunity to correct misprints in footnotes 64--79 of Di[]usion.

S = W. SCHMIDT,Sprach[amilien un d Sprachenkreis der Erd e, K -----T. KLUGE,Zahlen-

begri/ /e der V Olker Am ericas, Nordeurasiens, der M un da , un d der Palaioatricaner,M = F.Mf3LL~R, Grundrifl der Sprachwissenscha[t, vol. 2: 1. The footnotes shouldread: 64: S 375; 65: S 374; 66: S 378; 67: K 231, 20, t64, t46ff.; 68: K 208; 69:K 199; 70: K 203; 71: K245 , 151; 72: K 140, 141, a07ff.; 73 :M 359, 379; 74: M 379,438, K 6, 50; 75: K t91, 229, M 363, K t63 54, 39, 8; 76: K 50t; 77: M 439, K 141,229, 105: 78: K 346; 79: K 607, 608, 449, 456, 442, 636, 400, 439.



R i t u a l o r ig i n o f c o u n t in g

r e g a r d t h i s b e l i e f a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f o b s e r v a t i o n , b u t i f n o t , w e o u g h t t o l o o k t o a

c o m m o n s o u r c e f o r t h e b e li e f. S i m i l a r ly , o n e fi n d s a w i d e s p r e a d b e l i e f t h a t c o u n t i n g

p e o p l e c a n k i ll t h e m ; i f c o u n t i n g p e o p l e r e a l ly d o e s e n d a n g e r t h e m , t h e n t h a t w o u l d

b e a n e n d o f t h e m a t t e r , o t h e r w i s e h e r e t o o w e sh o u l d lo o k f o r a c o m m o n s o ur c e.

F r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f m e t h o d , t h e q u e s t io n o f d i ff u s io n o u g h t t o b e

t a k e n u p b e f o r e t h a t o f o r ig i n . T h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g f o r t u n a t e i n t h i s o r d e r , f o r

i n s t u d y i n g d i f fu s io n o n e h a s t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t o n l y t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p h e n o -

m e n o n in q u e s ti o n a n d i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r t h e e a r t h . P s y c h o l o g y - - a n d i t i s

a l l f a l s e p s y c h o l o g y , s i n c e t he s ,e a r e n o t p s y c h o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s 1° - - i s a u t o m a t i c -

a l l y e x c l u d e d ; t h e h u m a n b e i n g s c a r c e l y e n t e r s , a t m o s t h i s f i n g e rs a n d t o e s d o .

N o r d o e s o n e h a v e t o c o n si d e r t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e f a c t s; a n d n o t h e o r y

i s n e e d e d . I n d e e d , o n e c a n o n ly k n o w t h e f a c ts - - o n e m i g h t s a y , e v e n k n o w

w h a t a f a c t i s - - a f t e r a p r e l i m i n a r y s u r v e y o f t h e p h e n o m e n a i n q u es t io n . F o r

e x a m p l e , a l m o s t e v e r y o n e w h o m e n t i o n s t h e 1 0 - s y s t e m f ee ls o b l ig e d t o s a y t h a t

w e p r o b a b l y c o u n t b y t e n s b e c a u s e w e h a v e t e n f i n g e r s , a n d s o m e e v e n p r o d u c e

e v i d e n c e t o s h o w t h a t t h e r e a r e 5 - - 1 0 - s y s t e m s . B u t w h a t i f t h e q u i n a r y c h a r a c t e r

o f 5 - - 1 0 - s y s t e m s w a s r e c e iv e d , a s w e h a v e s u g g e st e d , ,f ro m 5 - - 2 0 - s y s t e m s ? W e

c a n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e i n v e s t i g a ti o n s e t u p t h e c a t e g o r y o f 5 - - 1 0 - c o u n t i n g ;

b u t t h e t e n d e n c y i s t o r e a d f a c t s i n to t h e c a t e g o r y , t h a t i s , t o r e g a r d 5 - - 1 0 - c o u n t -

i n g as a n a t o m r a t h e r t h a n a m o l ec u le . I t i s n o t p o s s i b le to d e c i d e o n th i s b y a n

o f f - h a n d ju d g m e n t , b u t o n l y b y a s u r v e y o f t h e e v i d e n c e .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , o r i g in a n d d i ff u s i o n a r e o b j e c t i v e l y r e l a t e d . T h e t h e o r y

o f r i t u a l o r i g in s , a l t h o u g h n o t e s p e c i a l l y w e l l - k n o w n , i s n o t a b s o l u t e l y b r a n dn e w : w e w e r e f a m i l i a r w i t h i t f r o m L o r d R A GL A N S a n d A . M .H O C A R T S b o o k s

w h e n w e fi r s t b e g a n t o s u s p e c t a u n i q u e a n d i n f a c t r i tu a l o r i g i n o f c o u n t i n g - - i t

w o u l d b e c o r r e c t to s a y t h a t t h i s s u s pi c io n f o r m e d i t se l f b e c a u s e o f t h a t t h e o r y n .

A t t h e b e g i n n in g , w e k n e w s o m e o f t h e f a c t s a b o u t 2 - c o u n t in g a n d w e r e f a m i l i a r

w i t h P y t h a g o r e a n n u m b e r m y s t i ci s m . C o n f id e n t t h a t t h e u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e

p u r e 2 - c o u n t i n g i n d i c a t e d a u n i q u e o r ig i n f o r c o u n t i n g , w e w e r e e n c o u r a g e d t o

s e e k a r i tu a l o r i g in f o r i t. T h e r e w a s n o d i f f ic u l t y f in d i n g e v i d e n c e : i t w a s f o r t h -

c o m i n g f r o m a l l p a r t s o f t h e e a r t h a n d i n a l l h i s t o r i c a l p e ri o d s . T h i s , i n tu r n ,

s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e c a s e fo r t h e t h e o r y o f a s i n gl e o r ig i n .

U n l i k e t h e D i / / u s i o n p a p e r , w h i c h r e q u i r e d n o s p e c i a l k n o w l e d g e f o r i t sr e a d in g , t h e p r e s e n t o n e r e a l l y p r e s u p p o s e s s o m e f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h a r c h a i c t h o u g h t ;

h o w e v e r , i n t h e c o u r se o f th e e x p o s i ti o n w e w i l l s u m m a r i z e w h a t e v e r i s n e e d e d .

2 . N u m b e r m y s t i c i s m a n d r i t u a l

O u r s t a r t i n g p o i n t is t h e P y t h a g o r e a n ( an d , m o r e g e n e r a ll y , G r e e k ) n u m b e r

m y s t i c i s m . H e r e a r e a f e w s a y i n g s o f t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s :

1. O d d n u m b e r s a r e m a l e , e v e n n u m b e r s f e m a l e 1~.

2 . T e n i s a p e r f e c t n u m b e r 18.

lo T h i s p o i n t h a s b e e n w e l l m a d e b y E . DURKHEIM T h e R u l e s o / S o c i o l o g ic a l M e t h o d ;see a l so L .WHITE, T h e S c i e n c e o / C u l t u r e .

11 O f RAGLA N Swork s s ee e spec i a l l y O r i g i n s o [ R e l i g i o n , T h e H e r o , J o c a s t a s C r i m e ;of HOCART S, see espec ia l ly K i n g s h i p .

12 ARISTO TLE, M e t a p h y s i c a , A 5, 986 a 24 - -25 .13 Ib id . , A 5, 986 a.




3 . F i v e i s t h e m a r r i a g e n u m b e r z4.

4 . O ne 1s G o d 15.

5 . O n e i s b o t h e v e n a n d o d d le.6 . E v e r y t h i n g i s n u m b e r 17.

O u r m a i n i d e a i n u n ra v e l i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f s u c h s a y in g s is to r e g a r d t h e m

a s m y t h s ( or , p o s s i b ly , a s d e r i v a t i v e s o f m y t h s ) a n d t o u s e t h e b a s i c , k e y i d e a

t h a t m y t h a n d r i t u al a r e a s s o ci a t ed p h e n o m e n a : a s L o r d R A GLA N s a ys , a m y t h

i s n o t h i n g b u t t h e f o r m o f w o r d s a s s o c ia t e d w i t h a r i t e . M y t h a n d r i t u a l

a r e c o m p l e m e n t a r y ; r i tu a l is a m a g i c d r a m a t o w h i c h m y t h i s t h e b o o k o f w o r d s,

w h i c h o f t e n s u r v i v e s a f t e r t h e d r a m a h a s c e a s e d t o b e p e rf o rm e d 1 8 . ' ' W i t h e a c h

m y t h , t h e n , t h e r e i s , o r w a s , a r i t e w h i c h s t a n d s i n in t e l li g i b le r e l a t i o n t o i t. T h e

i n t e n t i o n o f t h e m y t h i s t o t e l l t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e r i t e : b u t c o n v e r s e ly , i f w e

k n o w , o r c a n g u es s , t h e r i t e, t h i s w i l l t h r o w l i g h t o n t h e m y t h .

T h e r o le o f n u m b e r - m y s t i c i s m i n c r y st a l l i z i n g t h e n o t i o n o f ]orm i s w e l l

k n o w n ( fo r e x a m p l e , 2 2 0 a n d 2 8 4 a re f r ie n d s , b e c a u s e e a c h is t h e s u m o f t h e

p r o p e r d i v i so r s o f t h e o t h e r - - o n e h a s b u t t o t a k e t h e l a s t p h r a s e a s a d e fi n i ti o n

t o c o m e t o a v a l i d a n d in t e r e st i n g m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r e m ) , b u t t h e n a t u r e o f

t h e m y s t i c i s m i t se l f i s l i tt l e u n d e r s t o o d . T h e C e n t r a l F i r e o f PY TH AG OR AS

( o r o f PH IL OL At~ S), a r o u n d w h i c h m o v e t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s , i s f a m i l i a r a n d h a s

p l a y e d a p a r t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f a s t r o n o m y Ig. B e i n g a p a r t o f m y s t i c i s m , i t h a s

r e m a i n e d a m y s t e r y : o n e s u p p o se s t h a t s p e a k i n g o f i t is a n o b sc u r e w a y o f c o m -

m u n i c a t i n g a n a s t r o n o m i c a l t h e o r y . A s so o n , h o w e v e r , a s o n e r e g a rd s t h e P y t h a -

g o r e a n d o c t r i n e s n o t m e r e l y a s a b o d y o f b e li e fs , b u t a s a p a r t o r o u t g r o w t h o f

r i tu a l , t h e i d e a s u g g e s t s i t se l f t h a t t h e C e n t r a l F i r e w a s t h e a c t u a l c e n t r a l

f ir e a r o u n d w h i c h t e n p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a r i t u a l a r r a n g e d t h e m s e l v e s . C i r c u m -

a m b u l a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l ly a r o u n d a f ir e, a r e w e l l k n o w n , a n d t h e C a m b o d i a n s te l l

u s p la i n l y t h a t w h e n t h e y p a s s s e v e n c a n dl e s f ro m h a n d t o h a n d r o u n d t h e k i n g

t h e y a r e i m i t a t i n g t h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e s e v e n p l a n e t s r o u n d t h e w o r id ~° . '

W h y P Y T HA G O RA Ss h o u l d c o n s id e r t h a t o d d n u m b e r s a r e m a l e ; e v e n n u m b e r s ,

f e m a l e i t w o u l d s e e m ( as E . T . B E L L r e m a r k s *z) i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y ; b u t p e r h a p s

1~ P LU T AR C H a s s o c i a t e s t h e m a r r i a g e n u m b e r w i t h t h e P y t h a g o r e a n 3 , 4 , 5 r i g h t

t r i a n g le , w h i c h h e c a ll s t h e N u p t i a l F i g u r e . I n o u r p a p e r T h e R i t u a l O r i g in o f G e o -m e t r y , w e c o n n e c t t h e T h e o r e m o f PY TH AG OR ASw i t h C r e a t io n , i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h g e n e -r a t i o n . P LU TA R CH e a l iz e s t h a t h e m u s t g e t t h e f i v e f r o m t h e t h r e e a n d t h e f o u r , b u t i n -

s t e a d o f b e in g c o n t e n t w i t h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t 5 = 3 ~ - + 4*, w h i c h i s h e r e t h e u n d e r l y i n g

r e a s o n , h e a r g u e s t h a t 5 = 3 + V 4 = 3 + 2 = m a l e + f e m a l e . T h e f i r s t r e a s o n a p p e a r st o u s t o b e t h e o r i g i n a l r e a s o n b e c a u s e w e c a n t r a c e i t h i s t o r i c a l l y b a c k t o r i t u a l ,w h e r e a s t h e s e c o n d l o o k s l i k e a n ad hoc v e r i f i c a t i o n o f a k n o w n d o c t r i n e .

zs See IAMBLICHOS, Theologoumena Arithmeticae, p . 3 .21 (de Fa lc o) , o r P . FEsTU-GIgRE, La Rdvflation d Herm~s Trismdgiste, v o l . 4 , p . 4 3 . A c c o r d in g t o ARIS T OTL E 'Sr e p o r t (Metaphysica A 5 ), t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s h e ld t h a t n u m b e r p r o c e e d s f ro m t h e O n e(986a 2 0) a n d t h a t n u m b e r i s t h e s u b s t a n c e o f a l l t h in g s ( 98 7 a 1 8) . XE NOP HANES , OO,s a i d t h a t O n e is G o d ( 98 6b 25).

zs Metaphysica, A 5, 986a t 9.z7 Ibid., A 5, 985 bf.~8 The Hero, p . t 3 0 ; Jocasta s Crime, p . t o 6 .z8 J . L . E . D R E Y E R , A History o[ Astronomy, p p . 4 0 - - 5 2 .20 HOCART, Progress o/Man, p. 156.2z The Magic o] Numbers, p . t 5 5 .



Z Ritua l o r i g in o f c o u n t in g 7

t h e p r o b l e m is n o t a l t o g e t h e r h o p e le s s if t a k e n i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e p h e n o -

m e n o n o f g e n d e r i n l a n g u a g e a n d w i t h t h e s e x u a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r. A s i s o b v i o u s

f o r n u m b e r s , " t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f s e x t o i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t s - - s t a rs , r i ve r s , b o a t s ,

a n d s o o n - - c a n n o t b e t h e r e s u l t o f o b s e r v a t i o n , e v e n f a u l t y o b s e r v a t i o n , a n d

c a n n e v e r h a v e s e r v e d a n y u s e f u l p u rp o se 2 2. ' ' R A GL AN g o e s o n t o s u g g e s t t h a t

i t d oe s r e s u l t f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n r i t u a l : t h e w o r l d i s c r e a t e d a n e w b y t h e d i v i n e

k i n g a n d q u e e n , t h a t i s, b y a m a n a n d w o m a n i n r i t u a l u n i o n , t h e t h in g s c r e a t e d

b y t h e k i n g b e i n g m a l e , t h o s e b y t h e q u e e n f e m a l e. O n e m i g h t t h e n s u g g e s t

t h a t t h i s d i v i s io n o f t h e w o r l d is e l a b o r a t e d u n t i l i t in c l u d e s n u m b e r s a ls o , o n e

g o i n g t o t h e m e n , t w o t o t h e w o m e n , th ree t o t h e m e n , a n d s o f o r t h .

T h e a b o v e c o n n e c t s t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f s e x i n n u m b e r w i t h a b r o a d e r c l as s o f

s i m il a r p h e n o m e n a a n d t h is w i t h r i tu a l , b u t i t m a k e s o f s t a t e m e n t ( t) n o t h i n g b u t a

l a t t e r - d a y d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e v i ew t h a t e v e r y t h i n g m u s t h a v e s ex . W e n e e d n o td o u b t t h a t s u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s t a k e p l a c e ; i n f a c t, w e c a n m o r e o r le ss s e e t h e m

t a k i n g p l a ce . W h y i s t e n p e r f e c t ? F r o m SPEUSIPPUS, h e s u c c e s s o r o f PL AT O i n t h e

A c a d e m y , w e g e t t h e a n s w e r , a m o n g o t h e r s , t h a t t e n i s p e r f e c t b e c a u s e i t is t h e

s m a l le s t n u m b e r n s u c h t h a t t h e r e a r e a s m a n y c o m p o s i t e n u m b e r s a s p r i m e s

b e t w e e n t a n d n ( s ee I . THOMAS, G r e e k M a t h e m a t i c s , v o l . 1 , p . 7 9 ) . T h i s s e e m s t o u s

n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a f o r m o f a p o l o g et i c s, a d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e d o c t r i n e t h a t t e n i s p e r -

f e c t ; t h a t is , t e n w a s p e r f e c t l o n g b e f o r e it w a s c o n s i d e r e d p e r f e c t o n t h e b a s i s o f v a l i d

m a t h e m a t i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s . W h i l e w e c o n s i d e I th i s l in e o f t h o u g h t t o b e c o r r e c t,

t h e r e a l p r o b l e m a s w e s e e i t i s : W h y w a s t e n p e r f e c t i n t h e f i rs t p l a c e ? S i m i l a rl y ,

w e a r e n o t c o n t e n t w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t s e x i n n u m b e r is a d o g m a t i c d e v e l o p -m e n t , b u t w a n t , i f w e c a n , t o c o n n e c t t h e p h e n o m e n o n d i r e c t l y w i t h r it u al .

W e t r y t o i m a g i n e a r i t e c o rr e s p o n d in g t o t h e m y t h t h a t o d d n u m b e r s a r e

m a l e , e v e n n u m b e r s f em a l e , a n d t h e i m a g e t h a t f o r m s it se lf is t h a t o f m e n a n d

w o m e n b e i n g n u m b e r e d i n a r i te , i n f a c t, b e i n g c o u n t e d , f i r st a m a n , t h e n a w o m a n ,

a n d s o o n , s o t h a t t h e o d d n u m b e r s f a ll t o m e n , t h e e v e n t o w o m e n . T h i s is a

g u e ss , a n d i f n o e v i d e n c e i s f o r th c o m i n g , w e c a n a b a n d o n i t.

T h e q u e s t i o n t h e n i s (o r w a s ) : I s t h e r e a n y e v i d e n c e t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s i n r i t u a l

w e r e n u m b e r e d ? D o t h e r e e x i st c o u n t i n g r it e s , or , a t t h e v e r y l e a st , o t h e r c o u n t -

i n g b el ie f s b e a r i n g o n t h e a b o v e g u e s s ? L o o k i n g t o t h e l i k e l y s ou r c e s, w e f o u n d

t h a t i n B a b y l o n i a , t h e n u m b e r s f r o m 6 0 d o w n t o 1 c a m e t o b e r e s e rv e d e a c h fo r

a s p e ci a l d e i t y - - t h e r e w a s a g o d E i g h t , a g o d T h r e e , et a l ia23; t h e S a t a p a t h a

B r a h m a n a p r e s e n t e d t h e n u m b e r s f r o m t t o t 0 1 a s d e i ti e s t o w h o m o f f e r in g s a r e

m a d e a t t h e h o r s e sa cr if ic e~ 4 ; w i t h t h e M a y a t h e n u m b e r s I t o t 3 w e r e ( a n d st il l

a r e) r e g a r d e d a s s a c r e d b e i n g s a n d i n v o k e d a s s u c h *s. T h e s e s t il l a r e m y t h s ,

I ~ A G L A N Or ig in s o /R e l i g io n , p . t 1 t .~ E n c y c lo p a e d ia o [ R e l i g io n a n d E th i c s , a r t i c le " N u m b e r " , v o l . 9, p . 4 16 .24 S a c r ed B o o k s o[ th e E a s t S . B . E . ) , v . 44 , p . 2 9 7 a n d p . 2 9 7 n . I n t h e T a i t t i r i y a

S a m h i t a v i i , 2 , t l K E I T H , vol. 19, p . 582) , a t t h e h o r s e s a c r i f i c e , t h e r e o c c u r s a ni n v o c a t i o n t o t h e n u m b e r s : " T o o n e h a i l T o t w o h a il . .. T o n i n e t e e n h a i l T o

t w e n t y - n i n e h a il . . . T o n i n e t y - n i n e h a i l T o a h u n d r e d h ai l T o t w o h u n d r e dh a i l " T h e n i n v i i, 2 , 12 , t h e r e i s a s im i l a r i n v o c a t i o n t o t h e o d d n u m b e r s ; t h e n t o t h ee v e n s , t h e n t o m u l t i p l e s o f f o u r , o f f iv e , o f t e n , o f t w e n t y , o f f i f ty , o f h u n d r e d ; t h e nt o a s e q u e n c e i n w h i c h o c c u r s t e n h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d m i l l io n .

35 j. S. LINCOLN, " T h e M a y a C a l e nd a r o f t h e I x i l of G u a t e m a l a " , Carnegie Contr .to A m e r . . 4 n t h . a . n d H i s t . , No. 38 (1942), pp. 107, 1~2.



8 A SEIDENBERG :

not r i t e s , bu t i t s eems to t ake le s s o f an e f for t to imagine the cor r esponding r i t e s :

pa r t i c ipa n ts in r i tua l a r e ca l led on to the r i tua l scene by nu mb er s . As to ri t e s ,

f rom FRAZER'S book s we lea rned abo ut t abu s on count in g e,, bu t f ound (or tho ug ht

we found) on ly one c lea r r i t e ( the r e f r a in ing f rom count ing can ha rd ly count

as a r i t e ) : accord ing to FRAZER th e Wala chian s look on ST. GEORGE'S D ay as

ver y ho ly ; f o r the y a r e ma in ly a pas t ora l f o lk and ST. GEORGE is the pa t ron of

he r ds a nd he r ds m e n . On t ha t da y a l so , a s wel l a s on t he da y be f o r e a nd t he da y

a f t e r , t he W a l a c h i a n num be r s h i s he r d , be g i nn i ng a t one a nd c oun t i ng up t o t he

tota l27. ' ' In Numbers I V : 49 , i t i s r e qu i r e d t ha t t hos e who e n t e r i n t o t he s e r v i c e

o f t he t a be r na c l e be num be r e d , e a c h a c c o rd i ng t o h i s s e rv i c e. F r om s ti ll a no t he r

source , we r eca l l th a t in the O r thod ox Synagogue , a t p r esen t , th e r e a r e 7 + t

pe op l e c a l l e d up t o t he r e a d i ng of t he T o r a h on t he S a bba t h 28. T he s e ar e

c a ll e d f o r wa r d by na m e ( a nd by t he f a t he r ' s na m e ) a nd a wor d i nd i c a ti ng t he

order o f be ing ca l led : the f i rs t , the pr ie s t , by the t i t l e Co hen ; the second , the

Levi te , by the t i t l e Le vi ; the ne x t f ive , o rd in a ry Is r ae l i t e s, by n um ber , She li sh i ,

t h i r d ; R e b i i , f ou r t h ; Ha m i s h i , f i f t h ; a nd so on ; t he la s t pos i ti on , t he

Maf t i r , i s somewhat spec ia l and the e igh th man i s no t a s s igned a number as such .

3 . T o w a r d a h y p o t h e s i s o f r it u a l o r i g in

I f we agree tha t cou nt ing i s no t a s imple process inve nted in one s t roke , we

m a y e xa m i ne i t f o r e l e m e n t s i t c on t a i n s t ha t c ou l d ha ve ha d a n i nde pe nde n t

e x i s t e nc e a nd ou t o f wh i c h i t m i gh t h a ve g r own . T he r e i s no pa r t i c u l a r c a l l t o

c oun t t he f i nge r s , a nd we m a y s a f e l y s uppos e t ha t t he y ha ve no be a r i ng on t heinvent ion . Th e bas ic th ings nee ded for count ing a r e a de f in i te sequence of words

a nd a f a m i l ia r a c t i v i t y i n wh i c h t he y a r e e m p l oye d . T he c r e a t ion r i t ua l o ff e rs

us pr ec i se ly such sequence and ac t iv i ty . P rocess ions of couples in ri tua l a r e we l l

k n o w n . M a l e a n d f e m a l e h e c r e a t e d t h e m . T h e r e w e n t i n t w o a n d t w o u n t o

N o a h i n t o t h e a r k , t h e m a l e a n d t h e f e m a le , a s G o d h a d c o m m a n d e d N o a h .

P r e s um a b l y , a c oup le is a nnoun c e d (in r i t ua l t he W or d a l wa ys a c c om pa n i e s t he

De e d ) a nd t he n t he y m a ke t he i r a ppe a r a n c e on t he r i t ua l sc e ne . T he s e quenc e

o f wor ds s o u s e d m i gh t ha ve c om e t o be u s e d a s t he i n i t i a l num be r - wor ds .

T h e a bov e i s i n a c c o r da nc e w i t h , a nd e xp l a in s , t he phe nom e na : f i rs t , t h e

a s s oci a t ion o f num be r s w i t h de i ti e s, i n f a c t , a c c o r d i ng t o t he a bove , num b e r s

d i d no t e x i s t p r i o r t o t he i r r i t ua l a pp l i c a t i on , v i z , f o r t he pu r pos e o f i nvok i ng

de i t i e s , t h a t i s, p a r t i c i pa n t s i n r i t ua l ; s e c ond , t he m a r ke d p r e f e re nc e no t

i n f r e que n t l y obs e r ve d a m on g s a va ge s fo r c oun t i ng by pa i r s ~9 _ t h i s is ou r

2s Folklore in the Old Testament, ch apt er on Th e Sin of a Census , p. 307.2~ The Magic Avt and the Evolution o/Kings, vol. 2, p. 338.2s The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, article To rah , vol. 10, p. 275.~9 L.L.CoNANT, The Number Concept, p. t 04. The pur e 2-counters cou nt by pairs,

bu t the evidence is muc h broader . Fo r example , the B avi l i, il l Luang o (nor thernpor t ion of the Congo coast) , use beads in count ing and count these in pairs . (R.E.

DE~NETT, At the Back o/the Black Man s Mind, p. 62.) The Oedd-Ostiacks, a Siberianpeople , have specif ic terms, not formed by composi t ion, for a l l the even numbersf rom 20 to t00 inclus ive; s imilar ly with th e M anchus (20- -90) and the M ongols ( J.CRAWFURD, Nu me rals as Evid ence oI Civilization , Tr. Ethn. Soc. o[ London, n.s.,vol. 2, p. 84) . Pair-co untin g is wide spread in the Pacif ic (CoNANT, op. cir., p. 115).See also E.FETTWEIS, Das Rechnen der NaturvOlker, p. 1 .



R i t u a l o r i g in o f c o u n t i n g 9

e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e 2 o f t i l e 2 - s y s t e m 3 ° ; t h i r d , t h e r i t u a l d i v i s i o n o f n u m b e r s i n t o

e v e n a n d o d d , k n o w n a l so t o t h e E g y p t i a n s , B a b y l o n i a n s , I n d i a n s , C h i n e s e , a n d

I n c a s , a s w e l l a s t o s a v a g e s i n A f r i c a , S u m a t r a , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , P o l y n e s i a , a n d

N o r t h A m e r i c a 31.

3o C/. Di[[usion, p . 260 , n . 97 .

~1 A c c o r d i n g t o t h e S a t a p a t h a B r a h m a n a X l I I , 8, 1, 3) : . . . t h e u n e v e n E n u m b e r s ]

b e l o n g to t h e F a t h e r s . . . I n t h e f i v e - l a y e r V e d i c a l ta r , l a y er s t h r e e a n d f i v e p l e a s e d

t h e g o ds , b u t l a y er s t w o a n d f o u r w e r e t o t h e i r m i n d u n f i r m a n d u n s e t t l e d (Sa ta -p a t h a B r a h m a n a , v i i i , 3 , 1, 2 ; 5 , 1 , 2 ; 2 , t , 2 ; 4 , 1 , 2 ) . S e e al s o f o o t n o t e 2 4 a b o v e .

T h e n u m b e r s 1 , 3, 5, 7, 9 ( a ik a , t e r a s , p a n k a , s a t t a , n a y ) o c c u r il l a n a n c i e n t A r y a n

d o c u m e n t o n h o r s e - b r e e d in g a n d a r e ( a l o n g w i t h c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l n a m e s ) t h e o l d e s t

a c t u a l s p e c i m e n s o f a n y A r y a n s p e e c h t h a t w e p o s s e s s ( V . G O RD O N CHILDE, T h eA r y a n s , p . t 9 ) . A . DAR MES TETER ( T h e L i [ e o [ W o r d s , p . 9 0) s a y s : I t w o u l d s e e m

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n m i n d , o r a t l ea s t of t h e A r y a n f a m i l y i n E u r o p e ,

t o s t a r t f r o m t h e i d e a o f two, a n d , b y a n a t u r a l a n d u n c o n s c i o u s p r o c e ss t o a r r i v e a t t h ei d e a o f b a d n e s s . H e g iv e s m a n y e x a m p l e s . I t s h o u ld b e c l ea r , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e i d e a o f

two i n n o w a y o f i t se l f c o n t a i n s t h e i d e a o f pr o g r e ss o r d e s t r u c t io n o r a n y m o r a l i d e a .

A c c o r d i n g t o T h e G r ea t A p p e n d i x to th e Y i - K i n g ( S a c r ed B o o k s o f t h e E a s t ,

vo l . t 6 , p . 365 ) : T o h e a v e n b e l o n g s ( t h e n u m b e r ) 1 ; t o e a r t h 2 ; t o h e a v e n 3 ; . . . ; t o

e a r t h t 0 .

T h e I n c a s d i v i n e d b y o d d s a n d e v e n s ( C .R .M A R K H A M , I n c a s o / P e r u , p. 107,

R i t e s a n d L a ws o / t h e Y n c a s , p . 14 ; E. NORDENSKIOLD, Compara t ive E thno log ica lS tud ies , v o l . 6 : t , p . 9 ). I t i s n o t s a i d w h i c h , t h e o d d o r ti l e e v e n , w e r e f a v o r a b l e ;

h o w e v e r , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e I n c a s a d o u b l e w i l l i s s i n f u l, a s i n g l e h e a r t w i l l b e s h o w n

f a v o u r ( R i t e s a n d L a ws , p . 2 7) , a n d t h is m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e o d d w e r e f a v o r a b l e .

T h e M a y a a n d A z t e c s u s ed b e an s a n d m a i z e i n d i v i n a t i o n b y n u m b e r s ( J . E . S .

T I~ OM PS ON , M a y a A r i t h m e t i c , Co ntr . t o A m . A n th r , a n d H i s t . , 36, Carneg ie Ins t .o[ Wash . , P u b l . 5 28 ( 1 9 4 t ), v o l . 4 0 3, p . 42 ), b u t w e a r e n o t t o l d t h a t t h i s w a s b y e v e n s

a n d o d d s .

E u r o p e a n l i t e r a t u r e f r e q u e n t l y r e f e rs to t h e d i v i si o n , as w h e n D A N T E ( De V u lg a r iE lo q u e n t ia , B k . I , C h a p . X V I ) s a y s t h a t J u s t a s t h e s i m p l e s t o f s u b s t a n c e s, w h i c h

i s G o d , i s m o r e p e r c e p t i b l e i n m a n t h a n i l l a b r u t e . . . [so 7 t i l e s i m p l e s t q u a n t i t y ,

w h i c h i s u n i t y , i s m o r e p e r c e p t i b l e i n a n o d d t h a n i n a n e v e n n u m b e r . ~H KESPE RE

r e f er s t o t h e b e l i ef t h a t G o o d l u c k l ie s i n o d d n u m b e r s . . , t h e y s ay t h e r e i s d i v i n i t y in

o d d n u m b e r s , e i t h e r in n a t i v i t y , c h a n c e , o r d e a t h ( M e r r y W iv e s o [ W in d s o r , V , i , 2 ) .T h e M u h a m m a d a n s s a y : G o d is o d d , H e lo v e s t h e o d d ( J.A B B O TT , T h e K e y s

o[ Power , p . 309 ) .P a s s i n g n o w t o p e o p l e s o f l o w e r c u lt u r e , w e f i r st c o n s i d e r A f r i c a . S p e a k i n g o f

t h e B u s h m e n , G . W . S T o w s a ys : I t i s c e r t a i n . . , t h a t t h e c o n s t a n t r e p e t i t i o n o f t h en u m b e r s 3, 5, a n d 7, t h e i r ' q u o , t 'o a - t ' o a - t ' a a n d t ' o a - t ' o a - t ' o a - t a i n t h e i r s y m b o l i c

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i ll t h e v a l l e y s o f t h e G u m a a p a n d t h e V a a l , e v i d e n t l y i n d i c a t e d t h a t

t h e y h a d a sa c re d m e a n i n g , n o w l os t, b u t k n o w n a n d u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e t i m e b y t h e

i n i t i a t e d (Na t ive Races o[ S . A[r ica , p . 1 9). T h e G a n d a o f U g a n d a c o u n t sp o t s o n

e n t r a i l s i ll d i v i n a t i o n : a n o d d n u m b e r i s g o o d , a n e v e n n u m b e r i s b a d ( G . P . M U RD O CK ,

OUV Pr im i t ive Con temporar ies , p . 5 41 .) ( T h e N a n d i m e d i c i n e m e n d i v i n e b y c o u n t i n g

p e b b l e s , b u t n o t b y e v e n s a n d o d d s : t h e l u c k y n u m b e r s a r e 2, 3, 5, 8 , t 0 ; t h e u n l u c k y ,

1 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 9 ( A . C . H o L L I S , T h e N a n d i , p . 89 ).) W i t h t h e G o l d C o a s t A k a n t h e n u m b e r s

3 , 5, 7, 9 a r e f a v o r a b l e i n d i v i n a t i o n ( E . L . R . M E Y E R O W l T Z , The Sacred State o] ~heA h a n , p . 1 5 t ) .

W i t h t h e n a t i v e s o f C e n t r a l S u m a t r a , s t r a n g e l y e n o u g h , t h e e v e n a r e g o o d a n d

t h e o d d b a d A. MAAS, D u t c h Z e n t r a l - S u m a t r a , vo l . t , p . 524 ) .W i t h t h e B a g o b o o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t o o , t h e e v e n a r e lu c k y , t h e o d d u n l u c k y

( e x c e p t 9 ) ( L . W . B E N E D I C T , A S t u d y o f B a g o b o C e r e m o n i a l , M a g i c , a n d M y t h ,

A n n a l s N . Y . A c a d . . S c i e n c e , v o l . 2 8 , p p . 2 0 6 f . ) .

T h e P u k a p u k a n s h a v e a v e r s i o n o f o u r g a m e o f j a c k s t o n e s t h a t is p l a y e d w i t h a

s t o n e a n d s h e ll s. A f t e r t h r o w i n g u p t h e s t o n e, o n e g a t h e r s a s m a n y s h e ll s a s p o s s ib l e



t0 A SEIDENBERG:

O u r c o n j e c t u r e i s, t h e n , f i r s t, t h a t t h e n a m e s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s i n r i t u a l , o r t h e

w o r d s a n n o u n c i n g t h e m , w e r e t h e in i t i a l n u m b e r w o r d s . T h i s r i t u a l s u f fu s e s

i t s e l f i n t o a l l s o r t s o f a c t i v i t i e s - - a c c o r d i n g t o R A GL AN a l l r i t e s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y

c r e a t i o n r i t e s , a n d i n e s s e n c e a r e s o s ti ll a~ . ' A c o l l e c t i o n o f o b j e c t s , s a y a c a t c h

o f f is h , m u s t u n d e r g o a r i t e . T h e s e r i a l i z i n g i s t h e r i te , a n d t h e c o u n t i n g

i s t h e m y t h . T h e o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n i s t o m i m i c a p o r t i o n o f t h e C r e a t i o n r i t u a l .

I t i s i n t h is w a y th a t w e e nv i s ag e c o u n t i n g t o h a v e b e c o m e d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e

r i t u a l a n d t o h a v e a c q u i r e d i t s a b s t r a c t o r g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r .

S e c o nd , w e t h i n k t h a t t h e h i g h e r c o u n t i n g m a y h a v e s t a r t e d a s a m e t h o d o f

t a k i n g c a r e o f l o n g e r a n d l o n g e r p r o c e s s io n s ( n o t w i t h t h e i d e a o f c o u n t i n g t h e m ,

h o w e v e r ) . T h e b a s e ( w h i ch is n o t l o g i c a l ly i n h e r e n t i n c o u n t in g ) c o r r e s p o n d s t o

t h e n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s in t h e b a s i c r i t u a l , a n d t h e h i g h e r c o u n t i n g d e r i v e s f r o m

t h e c o n t i n u e d r e p e t i t i o n , w i t h s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n s , o f t h i s b a s i c r i tu a l .

A s w e h a v e s e e n i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n , c o u n t i n g s t a r t e d w i t h o u t t h e e m p l o y -

m e n t o f f in g e rs . W e h a v e s e e n r e a s o n ( in o u r D i f f u s i o n p a p e r ) f o r s u p p o s i n g t h a t

t h e h i g h e r i 0 - c o u n t i n g p r e c e d e d f i n g e r c o u n t i n g , b u t , o f c o ur s e , t h e c o n c l u si o n

i s n o t c e r t a i n . M o r e o v e r , m o s t h i g h e r c o u n t i n g h a s t 0 o r a m u l t i p l e t h e r e o f a s

b a s e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e r e d o e s e x i st s o m e h i g h e r c o u n t i n g w i t h a b a s e le s s t h a n t 0 :

b e f o r e c a t c h i n g t h e s t o n e . I f t h e n u m b e r o f s h e ll s i s o d d , o n e c o n t i n u e s ; t h a t i s, o d d =f a v o r a b le , e v e n = u n f a v o r a b l e ( E . & P . B EA GL EH OL E, E t h n o l o g y o f P u k a p u k a ,B . P . B i s h o p M u s e u m , B ull . 150, p . 3 6t f . ) .

T h e F o x I n d i a n s , f o r m e r l y o f W i s c o n s in , h a d a g a m e p l a y e d w i t h t w o b u n d l e s

o f s t i c k s , o n e o f 51 , o n e o f 10 2. O n e d r o p p e d a b u n d l e i n a p i l e a n d t h e n t r i e d t o

s e p a ra t e o ff 1 0 n + l , 1 0 n + 3 , t 0 n + 5 , t 0 n + 7 o r t 0 n + 9 . T h e y h a d a n a m e f ore a c h o f t h e s e r e s i d u e c l a ss e s a n d t h e n a m e h a d t o b e c a l l e d o u t b e f o r e m a k i n g t h e

d i v i s i o n ( W . JO N ES , E t h n o l o g y o f t h e F o x I n d i a n s , S m i t h. I n st . B u r . o / A m . E t h n .B u l l . 1 25 ( t 9 3 9 ) , p . |1 1 ) . T h e P o m o , o f C a l i f o r n i a , i n e ff e c t m a k e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n , b u tf i rs t t a k e t h e r e m a i n d e r a f t e r s e p a r a t i n g o ff g r o u p s of f o ur s ( E .M . L o E B , P o m o

F o l k w a y s , U n i v . o / C a li [. P u b l . i n A m e r . A r c h . a n d E t h n . , vo l . 19 (1926) , p . 2 t5 ) .C l e a r l y r e l a t e d t o t h e a b o v e p h e n o m e n o n ( a n d in o u r v i e w d e r i v a t i v e o f i t) is th e

c u s t o m o f a s s ig n i n g a p a i r o f a d j a c e n t n u m b e r s t o t h e t w o s e x e s. T h u s i n th e E g y p t i a n

p y r a m i d t e x t s t h e r e i s a r e f e re n c e t o 5 m e a l t i m e s , 3 f o r H e a v e n , 2 f o r E a r t h ( L . F RO B E-NIUS, V o m K u l t u r r e i c h d e s F e s t l a n d e s , p . t 0 8 ). T h e O l d B a b y l o n i a n s a s s ig n e d 6 0 t oH e a v e n , 4 0 t o E a r t h , t h a t i s, H e a v e n : E a r t h = 3 : 2 Ib id . , p . t 0 8 ). ( H o w e v e r , b o t h i nE g y p t a n d i n B a b y l o n i a , H e a v e n w a s f e m a le , E a r t h m a l e , t h e r e v e r s e o f t h e m o r e

u s u a l a tt r i b u t io n . ) T h e A l t a r o f H e a v e n i n P e k i n g i s a m a g n i f i c e n t s t r u c t u r e o f w h i t em a r b l e 2 7 f e e t h i g h , c o m p o s e d o f t h r e e c i r c u l a r t e r r a c e s , t h e l o w e s t o f w h i c h i s 2 1 0

f e e t i n d i a m e t e r ; t h e m i d d l e , 1 5 0 ; t h e u p p e r , 9 0. S o m e d i s t a n c e n o r t h i s t h e A l t a ro f E a r t h , a y e l l o w e d if i ce o f tw o s q u a r e t e r r a c e s e a c h 6 f e e t in h e i g h t ; t h e l o w e r ,

t 0 0 f e e t s q u a r e ; t h e u p p e r, 6 0 f e e t s q u a r e. H e r e w e h a v e H e a v e n : E a r t h = 3 : 2( t e r r ac es ) = 3 × 3 : 3 × 2 (he igh t l~e r t e r r a ce ) E n c y c l o p a e d i a o / R e l i g io n a n d E t h i c s ,vol . 1 , p . 37) .

I n A f ri ca ;- f r o m A b y s s i n i a o v e r t o t h e c o u n t r y w e s t o f L a k e C h a d , o n e f i n d s m a l e

= 3 , f e m a l e = 2. F o r e x a m p l e , i n n o r t h K o r d o f a n t h e b i r t h o f a b o y is a n n o u n c e dt h r e e t i m e s , t h a t o f a g ir l, tw i c e . ( T h u s s o m e t i m e s , a t l e a s t , a r i t e i s p e r f o r m e d t h r e e

t i m e s i n o r d e r t o b r i n g i t i n t o r e la t i o n w i t h t h e m a l e s ex .) F a r t h e r w e s t, o v e r t o

S e n e g a l , o n e f i n d s m a l e = 3 , f e m a l e = 4 ( FR O B E N IU S , op . c i t . , p p . 1 0 9 - - t t l ) . H o w e v e r ,

W i t h t h e A k a n , t h e s a c r e d n u m b e r o f t h e G r e a t M o t h e r a n d o f h e r c o u n t e r p a r t o ne a r t h , t h e q u e e n m o t h e r , i s 3 ; t h a t f o r t h e k i n g , 4 ( M E Y E R O W r r Z , op. c i t . , p. 57).

T h e E s k i m o i n a r e s u r r e c t i o n m y t h s a y t h e C r e a t o r b r e a t h e d o n c e o n t h e m e n ,t w i c e o n t h e w o m e n , t o b r i n g t h e m a l i v e ( D . G . B RIN T ON , T h e M y t h s o [ th e N e w W o r l d ,

p. 303) .3~ O r ig ins o / R e l ig io n , p . 63 .



R i t u a l o r i g i n o f c o u n t i n g 11

f o r e x a m p l e , t h e C u m a s I n d i a n s o f C a l i fo r n ia c o u n t t o t 6 b y a 4 - s y s t e m ( t h o u g h

f r o m 2 0 t h e y c o n t i n u e w i t h a 10 - sy s te m ) ~ a. T h u s t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t w e c o u n t

b y t e n s b e c a u s e w e h a v e t e n f i ng e rs d oe s n o t m e e t t h e e v i d e n c e . S u c h a n e x p l a n a -

t i o n n o t o n l y d o e s n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f 2 -, 4- , 6 -, a n d 8 - s y s t e m s

( e x c e p t to d i s m i s s t h e m a s n o t s i g n i f ic a n t ), b u t a l m o s t a p r i o r i e x c l u d e s t h e i r

b e i n g t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . T h u s A R IS TO TL E, w h o c o n s i d e r s t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e

b a s e , w r i t e s 84 :

W h y d o al l m e n , b a r b a r i a n s a n d G r e e k s a li ke , c o u n t u p t o te n , a n d n o t u p t oa n y o t h e r n u m b e r ? . . . F o r i t i s c l e a r ly n o t t h e r e s u lt o f c h a n c e t h a t a l l m e n i n v a r i a b l yc o u n t i n t e n s : a n d t h a t w h i c h is i n v a r i a b l e a n d u n i v e r s a l i s n o t t h e r e s u l t o f c h a n c e ,b u t i s i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s . I s it b e c a u s e t e n i s a p e r f e c t n u m b e r ? . . . O r i s i t b e c a u s et h e b o d i e s w h i c h m o v e i n h e a v e n a r e n i n e i n n u m b e r ? a5 O r i s i t b e c a u s e a l l m e n h a v et e n f i n g e r s ? O n e r a c e a m o n g t h e T h r a c i a n s a l o n e o f a l l m e n c o u n t i n f o u rs , b e c a u s e

t h e i r m e m o r y , l ik e t h a t o f c h il d re n , c a n n o t e x t e n d f a r t h e r a n d t h e y d o n o t u s e a la r g en u m b e r o f a n y t h in g .

T h e n e g l e c t o f t h e T h r a c i a n 4 - s y s t e m i s q u i t e t y p i c a l o f G r e e k ra t i o n a l i s t

i d e o l o g y a n d s po il s t h e a r g u m e n t s o m e w h a t . P e r h a p s t h e o t h e r a n s w e r s su g g e s te d ,

b u t r h e t o r i c a l l y d i s m i s s e d , m i g h t p o i n t t o t h e t r u t h .

4 . T h e c r e a t i v e w o r d

T h e a b o v e h y p o t h e s i s h a s a n u m b e r o f as p e c t s a n d d e p e n d s f o r i ts v a l i d i t y

o n e v i d e n c e i n m y t h , r i t u a l, a n d c u s t o m f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e f o l lo w i n g f e a t u r e s :

( a) t h e r i t u a l p r o c e s s i o n ,( b ) t h e r i t u a l p r o c e s s i o n i n p a i r s ,

(c) t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n r i t u a l o n t h e r i t u a l s c e n e u p o n

a n n o u n c e m e n t ,

(d ) t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t t a k i n g t h e f o r m o f n u m b e r s .

O f t h e s e , ( a) a n d ( b) a r e a n c i e n t , w i d e s p r e a d , a n d w e l l k n o w n 8~. I t e m (c)

s e r v e s t o e x p l a i n s o m e f a c ts o t h e r w i s e q u i t e o b s c u r e , o r e v e n i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e ;

f o r e x a m p l e , t h e g r e a t i n t er e s t a n d i m p o r t a n c e a t t a c h e d t o n a m e s . T h e n a m e ,

s o t h e B a b y l o n i a n s b e l i e v e d , w a s t h e e s s e n c e o f a p e r s o n o r t h i n g t o w h i c h i t

w a s a t t a c h e d ; t h a t w h i c h h a d n o n a m e d i d n o t e xi st , a n d i t s e x i s t e n ce c o m m e n c e d

o n l y w h e n i t r e c e i v e d i ts n a m e 8 7.- A s p h i l o s o p h y t h i s v i e w m a y b e f al se , b u t a sa d e s c r ip t i o n o f r i t u al , i t is t h e s i m p l e a n d d i r e c t t r u t h : t h e p e r s o n c o m e s i n t o

r i tu a l e x is t en c e a t pr e c is e l y t h e m o m e n t h e is a n n o u n c e d . W h e n t h e E g y p t i a n

38 KLUGE, op. cir . , p . 4 5 8 ; A . L . K r o e b e r , E l e m e n t s o f C u l t u r e i n N a t i v e C a li -f o r n i a , U n i v . o [ C a l i[ . P u b l . i n A m e r . A r c h . a n d E t h n o . , vo l. 13, (1922), p . 327. T h eY u k i h a v e a n 8 - s y s t e m t o 6 4. T h e l a t t e r o p e r a t e b y l a y i n g p a i r s o f t w i g s b e t w e e nt h e f i ng e rs . T h u s t h e a n o m a l y is p r e s e n t e d o f a n o e t o n a r y s y s t e m b a s e d o n t h e h a n d .T h e Y u k i o p e r a t e q u i t e s k i l l f u l l y b y t h i s m e t h o d : w h e n a s k e d t o c o u n t o n t h e i rf i n g e r s a s s u c h , l i k e t h e i r n e i g h b o r s , t h e y w o r k s l o w l y a n d w i t h f r e q u e n t e r r o r s( Ib id . , p. 327).

3 , P r o b l e m a t a , XV, 3 .

a5 A R IS TO T LE s b e i n g i r o n i ca l : t h e r e w e r e f i v e k n o w n p l a n e t s ; s u n a n d m o o n m a d es e v e n , e a r t h e i g h t , t h e s p h e r e o f t h e f i x e d st a r s n in e . T o c o m p l e t e t h e d e c a d e , t h eP y t h a g o r e a n s i n v e n t e d t h e coun ter - ear th

3e F o r a n e x a m p le o f w h a t w e m e a n , s e e G .C .VAI LL A•T , T h e A z t e c s o / M e x i c o ,P la t e 3 3 .

87 A. H . SAY CE, T h e R e l i g io n o [ A n c i e n t E g y p t a n d B a b y l o n i a , p. 331.



t 2 A . S E I D E N B E R G :

god (RA, or Nu, or whoever he is) is praised as the one a t whose utterance the

gods came into being 'ss, we are being told tha t he is the one who announ ced

the gods' coming forth onto the ritual scene. Similarly, when the Babylon ian

Creation myth says: At th at time the heaven above had not yet announced,

nor the earth ben eath recorded, a name 39, it is simply telling us that the play

had not yet begun and that it does begin by someone, who is assimilated to

heaven, a nnouncin g a name. One ver y puzzling feature in Creation my th s is

that of the Self-begotten -- if anything is a self-contradiction, so it seems to us,

it is a god who creates himself: yet it is managed -- the Egyptian Creator of

the gods, KHEPERA, gave being to himself by uttering his own name. In other

words, the first person on the scene announces himself. This solution may seem

ingenious to us, but it must also have seemed ingenious, or somehow special,

to the early ritualists, because it is a basic rule tha t no one may perfo rm the ritual

for himself (with ver y few exceptions)4o. Thus th ere would be one and only one

Self-begotten, and this explains why the Egyptians could, amidst a multitude

of gods, praise a god as One, as the only One. The Creator announce s himself

as One, and the god One is Self -begot ten 41.

Similar ideas (that is, of creation by utterances) were held by the Sumerians,

the Persians a nd the Indians, and ot her anci ent peoples 42. It is, of course, well

known from G e n e s i s that God created the world by pronouncements. Later,

when Adam named the animals the act had a creative character, conferring

upon him a power over the animal creation; and Adam was by some regarded

as having been the creator of animals43. ''The Maori, the Polynesian natives of New Zealand, in their account of Crea-

tion, speak of hu ma n beings [being] called into existence4~. ''

In the Marquesas, the name of a thing is its essence (or, rather, the thing

itself), and ever ythin g has a personal name. As a consequence, the accoun t of

the Creation need be nothing more tha n a genealogy. And so it is: the Creation

myth, which is chanted on ceremonial occasions, consists simply of two lists of

about t4 0 names each. The chanting, what ever the occasion, was always done

by women. At formal festivals two old women skilled in the art were chosen;

these two stood up together and recited alternately, one the men's names, the

other the women's*5. '

3s T h e B o o k o / t h e D e a d (trans. by E.A.WALLIS BUDGE , p. 647.a9 A.H. SAYCE,Or ig in a n d Gr o wth o [ R e l i g io n , p. 384.4o HOCART,P r o g r e s s o / M a n , p. 242f. There are exceptions. Thus, in many places,

the King is ritually killed, and often this is by suicide (The Golden Bough , Chap.XXlV . HOCART (loc. cit.) connects the rule with the dual organization, but itappears to be of broader applicability. Perhaps it results because the ritual is derivat iveof a ritual of death and rebir th -- the principals are assimilated to the newly born,who can do nothing for themselves.

41 See various remarks on One in The Book o[ the Dead , for example, pp. 13--14,65, 178, 93, 219--220, and E.A.WALLIS BUDGE, T h e G o ds o / t h e E g y p t i a n s , p. 400.

42 R. BRIFFAULT, T h e M o th e r s , vol. I, p. 4ft.aa Ib id. , p. J 1.a4 G. GREY, The Creation According to the Maori , in A.L. KROEBER & T.T.

W A T E R M A N S o u r c e B o o k i n A n th r o p o lo g y , p. 445.l~ E.S.C. HANDY, Nat ive Culture in the Marquesas , B . P . B i sh o p M u s e u m

B u l l e t i n 9 0923), p. 85, p. 342.



Ritual origin of counting 13

According to th e Maidu .6, Indians of northe rn California, "in the beginning

there was no sun, no moon, no stars... From the sky a rope of feathers, called

Po-kelma, was let down, and down it came Ear th-I nit iate ... Then Earth -

Initi ate said: "Look tha t way to the east I am going to tell my sister to come

up." Then it began to grow light.., and the sun came u p After the sun went

down. .. Earth- Initia te said, 'T ll tell my brother to come up." Then the moon

rose... Then Earth -Initia te asked Turtle and Father-of-the-Secret-Society,

"How do you like it ?" and they both answered, I t is ve ry good47. ' Then Tur tle

asked, I s tha t all you are going to do for us ?" and Ear th- Ini tia te answered,

N o , I am going to do more ye t." Then he called the stars each by its name,

and they came out...48,,.

The Athapascans of Canada and the Maya-speaking Quiches of Guatemala

know Creation by words 4°.The Word has power and in particular the power to invoke. "No t only can

the spirit or soul of a man, and therefore also the ghosts of the dead and all

spiritual beings or gods be drawn or evoked by uttering their names, but the

uttered word is regarded as having the power actually to translate a man bodily

from one place to a noth er.. . [The Annamites I believe tha t t o name a being is

to evoke him, to render him pre sent ... " The Zulus believe the same thing quite

as vividly, [as do~ the natives of Duke of York Isla nd. .. Ina nimate objects are

also subject to the power of the word...5o.-

5. Counting rituals

These phenomena flow from the fact that every ritual action is accompanied

-by words; they illustrate and establish point (c). Thus the core of the problem

is (d) -- the conversion of the Creative Word into the Creative Number. The

clearest evidence would be actual rituals in which counting plays an essential

role. We have already given some examples of such rites -- the numbering of

those who entered into the service of the tabernacle, the "calling up" to the

reading of the Torah by number, t he Walachian 's counting of his sheep. These were

our first examples, found, or at any rate sought, on the basis of an idea, and we

were happ y to have them, perhaps because we had none before. Still, the countingmay not seem to be essential -- the numbering of those "called up " to the reading

of the Torah, it may be suggested, merely describes a fact and is scarely significant;

and if the shepherd counts his sheep, it is because he wants to know how many

he has. Because of this, it will be well to give here some furthe r evidence, so as to

4s R.B.DlXON, "The Creation According to the Maidu", in T h e S o u r c e B o o k ,

p. 458f.47 C[. Ge nes is I, 18. It is because of such identities that some people have thought

that the American Indians are the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. This explanation is,of course, much more plausible than the one current in American anthropological

circles, according to which such identities result from the similar working of the humanmind under similar conditions.

as C / . P s a l m 147, 4: He telleth the number of the stars, he calleth them all bytheir names.

49 BRINTON,op . c ir . , p. 229.50 BRIFFAULT op ci t . , p . 11 .



1 4 A S E I D E N B E R G :

p l a c e b e y o n d d o u b t t h a t i n c o u n t i n g r it u a l s w e h a v e a n e x t e n s i v e , a n c i e n t , a n d

s i gn i fi c an t b o d y o f p h e n o m e n a .

I n E g y p t y e a r s c a m e t o b e n a m e d a f t e r t h e f i s c a l e n u m e r a t i o n : t hu s ,

Y e a r o f t h e S e c o n d O c c u r r e n c e o f t h e N u m b e r i n g o f a l l L a r g e a n d S m a l l C a t t l e

o f t h e N o r t h a n d S o u t h . T h i s b e c a m e s ta n d a r d b y t h e F i f t h D y n a s t y , a n d w a s

a b b r e v i a t e d t o Y e a r o f t h e n th N u m b e r i n g , th o u g h t h e n u m b e r i n g s a l re a d y

o c c u r i n t h e F i r s t D y n a s t y . T h e r e w a s a n u m b e r i n g o f a l l t h e p e o p l e , al so . W e

l e a r n t h e s e f a c t s f r o m t h e P a l e r m o s t o n e , a f e w l in e s f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f

E g y p t i a n h i st o ry . T h e g r e a t a c h i e v e m e n t s o f t h e P h a r o a h s re c o r de d f o r t h e

f i r s t t w o d y n a s t i e s a r e f o r t h e m o s t p a r t c e l e b r a t i o n s o f r e li g io u s f e a s t s a n d t h e

l i k e : s o t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e g a r d t h e s e n u m b e r i n g s a s p u r e l y o r e v e n m a i n l y

s e c u l a r ; o n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e y m u s t h a v e b e e n r e l i gi o u s sl.

T h e H e b r e w s a n d R o m a n s h a d s i m i la r r e li g io u s c o un t in g s , w h i c h w e c o n s id e r

b e l o w i n m o r e d e t a i l .

W i t h t h e I n c a s , in a n a n n u a l c e r e m o n y , o n e a c h N o v e m b e r 2 2 i n f a c t , t h e

p r i e s ts o f t h e C r e a to r a n d t h e S u n , o f T h u n d e r a n d t h e M o o n , a n d t h e s h e p h e r d s

o f t h e I n c a s c o u n t e d t h e f l o c k s ~2.

S a v a g e s a ls o h a v e c o u n t i n g ri te s . W i t h t h e K w a k i u t l , I n d i a n s o f t h e n o r t h -

w e s t c o a s t o f N o r t h A m e r i c a, t h e r e e x i s t tw o h e r e d i t a r y o f fi ce s c a l le d T h e C o u n t e r

a n d T h e T a l l y e r . W h e n a m a n g i v e s a f e a s t , t h e C o u n t e r c o u n t s g r o u p s o f d i s h e s

b y t e n s , g u e st s b y s i xe s , a n d s o fo r t h . T h e T a l l y e r a ss i st s h im , k e e p i n g a c c o u n t

o f t h e n u m b e r o f g r o u p s t h u s c o u n t e d 5s. T h e P o m o , I n d i a n s o f C a li fo r n i a, w e r e

g r e a t c o u n t e r s - - a c tu a l c o u n t e r s . S t i c k s o f v a r i o u s s i ze s w e r e u s e d t o k e e p

t r a c k o f t h e c o u n t i n g o f l a r g e q u a n t i ti e s o f b e a d s ; t h e e q u i p m e n t w a s s u f fi c ie n t

f o r a c o u n t t o 4 0 0 0 0 . O n e o f L O EB 'S i n f o r m a n t s a c t u a l l y w i t n e s s e d a c o u n t t o

m o r e t h a n 2 0 00 0. L a r g e c o u n t s w e r e c o m m o n l y p e r f o r m e d b y t h e P o m o a t

t h e t i m e o f d e a t h s a n d p e a c e t re a ti e sS * . ' '

T h e r e i s n o l a ck o f e v i d en c e . T h e p r o b l e m is t o c o n n e c t t h e e v i d e n c e w i t h

C r e a t i o n .

6 . T a b u s o n c o u n t i n g

T h e t a b u a g a i n s t c o u n t i n g i s j u s t a b o u t w o r i d -w i d e , a n d th e m o s t u s ua l r e s u l t

o f t h e b r e a c h o f t h e t a b u is d e a th . F R A ZE R g i v e s e x a m p l e s f ro m m a n y p a r t s o f

A f r i c a o f t a b u s a g a i n s t c o u n t i n g m e n a n d b e as ts 5 5; t y p i c a l l y , it is v e r y b a d f o r m

t o a s k a m o t h e r h o w m a n y c h i ld r en s h e h a s. F o r e x a m p l e , a m o n g t h e B a k o n go ,

o f t h e L o w e r C o n go , ' i t i s c o n s i d er e d e x t r e m e l y u n l u c k y f o r a w o m a n t o c o u n t

h e r c h i l d r e n o n e , t w o , t h r e e , a n d s o o n , f o r t h e e v i l s p i r i ts w i ll h e a r a n d t a k e s o m e

o f t h e m a w a y b y d e a t h . T h e p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s d o n o t l ik e t o b e c o u n t e d ; f o r

t h e y f e a r t h a t c o u n t i n g w i ll d r a w t o t h e m t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e e v il s p ir it s, a n d

a s a r e s u l t o f t h e c o u n t i n g s o m e o f t h e m w i l l s o o n d i e. I n t 9 0 8 t h e C o n g o S t a t e

o f fi c ia l s, d e s i r in g t o n u m b e r t h e p e o p l e f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f a t a x , s e n t a n o f f i c e r

51 J.H. BREASTED A n c i e n t R e c o rd s o f E g y p t vol. 1, pp. 54, 59.

53 MARKHAM R i te s a n d L a w s o / t h e Y n c a s p. 46.~a F . BoAs , Con t r . t o t he E th n . o f t he K w aku i t l , Colum bia U niv . Con tr. to Au th .

vol. 3, p. 57.s4 LOE B, op. cir. p. 229f .5~ Fo lk lore in the Old Tes tam en t p p . 3 0 8 - -3 0 9 . T h e f a c t s o f t h i s a n d t h e n e x t

s e v e n p a r a g r a p h s a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e s a m e s o u rc e .



R i tua l o r i g in o f coun t i ng 15

w i t h s o l di er s t o c o u n t t h e m . T h e n a t i v e s w o u l d h a v e r e s i st e d t h e o f f ic e r, b u t

h e h a d t o o m a n y s o ld i er s w i t h h i m ; a n d i t i s n o t i m p r o b a b l e t h a t f i g h ts h a v e

t a k e n p l a c e •b e t w e e n w h i t e s a n d b l a c k s i n o t h e r p a r t s o f A f r ic a , n o t t h a t t h e y

r e s is t e d t h e t a x a t i o n , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y o b j e c t e d t o b e i n g c o u n t e d f o r f e a r t h e

s p i ri ts w o u l d h e a r a n d k i ll t h e m ' . S i m i l a r b e l ie f s h o l d a m o n g t h e B o l o k i o r

B a n g a l a o f t h e U p p e r C o ng o, t h e W a - S a n i a a n d t h e A k i k u y u o f B r i ti s h E a s t

A f r ic a , a n d t h e H o t t e n t o t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t .

T h e M a s ai o f E a s t A f r i ca c o u n t n e i t h e r m e n n o r b e a s t s , b e l i e ~ n g t h a t i f

t h e y d i d s o t h e m e n o r b e a s t s w o u l d d i e . . . T o th e A k a m b a , a n o t h e r t r i b e [ of

B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a ] , t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e c a t t l e i s a m a t t e r o f g r e a t c o n c e r n ; h e n c e

t h e p e o p l e o b s e r v e c e r t a i n s u p e r s t i t i o u s r u le s , t h e b r e a c h o f w h i c h i s b e l i e v e d

t o e n t a il m i s f o r t u n e o n t h e h e r d s . O n e o f t h e s e r u le s is t h a t t h e c a t t l e m a y n e v e r

b e c o u n t e d ; s o w h e n t h e h e r d r e t u r n s t o t h e v i l l ag e t h e o w n e r w il l m e r e l y c a s t

h i s e y e o v e r i t to d i s c o v e r i f a b e a s t is m i s s i n g . T h e G a l l a s o f E a s t A f r i c a t h i n k

t h a t t o c o u n t c a t t l e im p e d e s t h e i n c re a s e o f t h e h e r d .

T h e s u p e r s t it i o u s o b j e c ti o n t o n u m b e r i n g p e o p l e s e e m s t o b e g e n e r a l i n

N o r t h A f r i c a . . . N o r i s t h i s r e p u g n a n c e l i m i t e d t o t h e c o u n t i n g o f p e r s o n s ; i t i s

e x h i b i t e d a l s o i n t h e c o u n t i n g o f m e a s u r e s o f g r a i n , a n o p e r a t i o n w h i c h h a s a

s a c r e d c h a r a c t e r . F o r e x a m p l e , a t O r a n t h e p e r s o n w h o c o u n t s t h e m e a s u r e s

o f g r a i n s h o u l d b e in a s t a t e o f c e r e m o n i a l p u r i t y , a n d i n s t e a d o f c o u n t i n g o n e ,

t w o , t h r e e, a n d s o o n , h e s a y s , ' I n t h e n a m e o f G o d f o r ' o n e ' ; ' t w o b l e s s in g s '

f o r ' t w o ' ; ' h o s p i t a l i t y o f t h e P r o p h e t ' f o r ' t h r e e ' ; ' w e s h al l g a in , p le a s e

G o d ' f o r ' f o u r ' ; ' i n t h e e y e o f t h e D e v i l ' f o r ' f i v e ' ; ' i n t h e e y e o f h i s s o n 'f o r ' s i x ' ; ' i t is G o d w h o g i v e s u s o u r f i l l' f o r ' s e v e n ' ; a n d s o o n u p to 't w e l v e ' ,

f o r w h i c h t h e e x p r e s s io n i s ' t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f G o d ' . S i m i l a r ly , w i t h t h e P a l e s t i n i a n

M o h a m m e d a n s , c e r t a i n o d d n u m b e r s a re c o n s id e re d u n l u c k y a n d p a s s e d o v e r in

s i l ence .

I n t h e S h o r t l a n d g r o u p o f i s la n d s in t h e w e s t e r n P a c i fi c , w h e n l e a v e s a r e

c o l l e c t e d f o r t h e b u i l d i n g o f a c h i e f ' s h o u s e , t h e b u i l d e r s a r e n o t a l l o w e d to c o u n t

t h e n u m b e r , a s t h a t w o u l d b e d e e m e d u n l u c k y ; i f a n i n su f fi ci en t i m m b e r h a s

b e e n c o l l e c t e d , t h e h o u s e , t h o u g h n e a r i n g c o m p l e t i o n , w i l l b e a b a n d o n e d , a t

c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p e n s e i t m a y b e .

C o u n t i n g m e l o n s a n d s q u a s h e s , a t l e a s t w h i l e t h e y a r e s t i l l g r o w i n g o n t h ev i n e, i s t a b u w i t h t h e C h e r o k e e I n d i a n s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a. I n B r it i sh C o l u m b i a a

p l a g u e o f m e a s l e s, w h i c h r e s u l te d i n m a n y d e a th s , w a s a t t r i b u t e d b y t h e I n d i a n s

t o a c e n s u s o f t h e m t h a t h a d b e e n t a k e n 56.

S i m i l ar s u p e r s t it i o n s a r e f o u n d in E u r o p e . I n D e n m a r k o n e s h o u ld n o t c o u n t

b l o s s o m s o r f r u it , e l s e t h e b l o s s o m s w i l l w i t h e r a n d t h e f r u i t w i l l f a l l u n t i m e l y

f r o m t h e b o u g h , n o r s h o u l d o n e c o u n t e g g s u n d e r a b r o o d i n g h e n ( w e s a y : D o n ' t

c o u n t y o u r c h i c k en s b e f o r e t h e e g g s a r e h a t c h e d ; t h e F r e n c h s a y : B r e b i s c o m p t 6 e s ,

l e l o u p l es m a n g e ) . I n E n g l a n d o n e sh o u l d n o t c o u n t s h e e p . T h e L a p p s u s e d

t o b e , a n d p e r h a p s s t i l l a r e , u n w i l l i n g t o c o u n t t h e m s e l v e s . T h e H i g h l a n d S c o t s

c o n s id e r i t u n l u c k y t o n u m b e r p e o p l e o r c a t t le , e s p e c i a ll y o n F r i d a y ; t h ec o w h e r d k n o w s e v e r y c r e a t u r e c o m m i t t e d t o h i s c h a r g e b y t h e c o l or , s iz e, a n d

5s Acco rd ing t o H .S . SCHOOLCRAFT ~ ' T h e w h o l e a b o r i g i n a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s h a s , a t a l l p e r i o d s o f t h e i r h i s t o r y , f e lt a s t r o n g r e p u g n a n c e t o b e n u m -b e r e d Archives o/A borigina l Knowledge, vol. 3, p. 249).



1 6 A SEIDENBERG

o t h e r p a r t i c u l a r m a r k s , b u t i s p e r h a p s a l l a lo n g ig n O r a n t o f t h e s u m t o t a l o f h i s

f l o c k s ." A g o o d w a y t o t e a s e fi s h e r w o m e n o f t h e n o r t h e a s t c o a s t o f S c o t l a n d

i s " t o p o i n t a t t h e m w i t h a fi n g er a n d b e g i n t o n u m b e r t h e m a l o u d :

Ane , twa , t h r eeFah t a f i she r s I s eeG y a i n o u r t h e b r f g g , o 'D e eD e e l p ic k t h e i r m u c k l e g r e e t h y e e . "

I n B a v a r i a , in t h e U p p e r P a l a t i n a t e , o n e s h o u ld n o t c o u n t lo a v e s i n t h e o v e n ,

w h i le in U p p e r F r a n c o n i a , o n e s h o u l d n o t c o u n t d u m p l i n g s i n t h e p a n .

I t i s a p o p u l a r G e r m a n b e l ie f t h a t i f y o u c o u n t y o n r m o n e y o f t e n i t w il l s t e a d i l y

d e c re a s e. O n th e o t h e r h a n d , i n D e n m a r k , i f y o u c o u n t t h e m i c e c a u g h t b y t h e

c a t , t h e m i c e w i ll i n c r e a s e in n u m b e r . L i k e w i s e in G r e e c e a n d A r m e n i a , i f y o uc o u n t y o u r w a r t s t h e y w i ll i n c re a s e in n u m b e r .

T h e r e a r e m a n y t r a c e s c u r r e n t o f a n a s s o c ia t io n o f d e a t h a n d c o u n t i ng . T h u s

o f s o m e o n e w h o h a s n a r r o w l y e s c a p e d d e at h , w e s a y : " H i s n u m b e r j u s t w a s n ' t

u p . " W e h a v e a ls o e n c o u n t e r e d t h e t a b u o n c o u n t in g , a s, f o r e x a m p l e , o n e

s h o u l d n o t c o u n t t h e g u e s t s a t a p a r t y .

T h e r e l u c t a n c e t o u s e n u m b e r - w o r d s f r e q u e n t l y o b s e r v e d a m o n g s t s a v a g e s ,

p r e f e r e n c e b e i n g g iv e n t o p a n t o m i m e , m a y b e e v i d e n c e o f a t a b u . T h i s r e lu c t a n c e

a m o n g t h e C o m a n c h e s , I n d i a n s o f t h e S o u t h w e s t , g a v e " r i s e to t h e i m p r e s s i o n

w h i c h a t o n e t i m e b e c a m e c u r r e n t t h a t t h e y h a d n o n u m e r a l s a t a ll f o r o r d i n a r y

c ou ntin gS ~ . ' ' " T h e W a t c h a n d i e s o f A u s t r a l i a h a v e b u t t w o s i m p l e n u m e r a l s , a n dt h e i r e n ti r e n u m b e r s y s t e m i s cooteon, t ; ~ tarra , 2; uta rra cooteoo, 3 ; atarra utarra,

4 . B e y o n d t h i s t h e y c a n o n l y s a y booltha, m a n y , a n d booltha bat, v e r y m a n y . A l t h o u gh

t h e y h a v e t h e e x p r e ss i o n s h e r e g i v e n fo r 3 a n d 4 , t h e y a r e r e l u c t a n t t o u s e t h e m ,

a n d o n l y d o so w h e n a b s o l u t e l y r e q u i r e d . " T h e M a i ra s s is o f t h e i n t e r i o r o f N e w

G u i n e a a p p e a r t o u s e n o t h in g b u t f i ng e r p a n t o m i m e , t h e s in g le w o r d awar i b e i n g

u t t e r e d w i t h d i s p l a y o f f i n g e rs : n o d is i n c l in a t i o n t o u s e n u m b e r - w o r d s h a s b e e n

r e p o r t e d . T h e r e l u c t a n c e t o c o u n t b y w o r d s h a s , a c c o r d i n g t o L . L . C O N A N T l e d

t o l i m i t s b e i n g " a s s i g n e d f o r s p o k e n n u m e r a l s , w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t i n v e s ti g a t io n

p r o v e d t o f a l l f a r s h o r t o f t h e r e a l e x t e n t o f t h e n u m b e r s y s t e m s t o w h i c h t h e) "

b e l o n g e d . "

T h e u s e o f f i n g e r g e s t u r e s i s c e r t a i n l y s o m e t i m e s r e l a t e d t o t h e f e a r o f u t t e r i n g

n u m b e r w o r d s : t h u s , w i t h t h e A f r ic a n n e o - 2 -g e s t u re p e o p le , w h e n t h e s p e a k e r

c o m e s to a n u m b e r , h e u t t e r s t h e i n i t ia l s y ll a b le o f t h e w o r d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e

m a k i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e g e s t u r e ; th e n t h e i n t e rl o c u t o r p r o n o u n c e s th e w o r d , a n d

o n l y t h e n d o e s t h e s p e a k e r c o n t i n u e ~s. I n t h i s , w a y ( so w e s u g g e s t ) , t h e d a n g e r

a t t e n d a n t u p o n t h e u t t e r a n c e o f n u m b e r s is s h a r e d w i t h th e i n te r lo c u t o r . I n

o u r D i / / u s i o n p a p e r , w e h a v e v e n t u r e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t f i n g e r - t o e c o u n t i n g

a r o se a s a n a t t e m p t t o c i r c u m v e n t a t a b u o f s il en c e. H o w e v e r , th i s p o i n t is n o t

a t i ss u e f or t h e m o m e n t .T h e t a b u o n c o u n t i n g p o i n t s t o t h e e x i s t e n ce o f c o u n t i n g r it e s. B u t w h a t

a r e t h e r i t e s ? A n d h o w d o e s t h e t a b u f i t i n t o C r e a t i o n ?

~? CONANT 0p. Cir. p. 83; for the next fac t s , pp . 29 , 10 , 83 .S SL t. E N G EL S , " L e s W a n g a t a " , Rev. Congolaise, vol . 2 (191 i ) , p . 2 i0 . P . RE I-

CHARD, "G eb~ rden und Mienensp i e l de r Neger , Aus land, vol . 63 (1890), p. 408.



R i t u a l o r i g i n o f c o u n t i n g 1 7

7 T h e c e n s u s

The story from the Bible tha t ini tiates FRAZEn'S discussion of The Sin of a

Census is anoth er example of the tabu of counting, in fact, its proto type . Fr omtwo well-known narratives in the B o o k s o / S a m u e l and the Chron ic l e s we learn

that at one period of his career Jehovah cherished a singular antipathy to the

taking of a census, which he appears to have regarded as a crime of even deeper

dye than boiling milk or jumping on a threshold. We read tha t Jehovah, or

Satan, inspired King David with the unhap py idea of counting his people. What -

ever the precise source of the inspiration may have been -- for on that point

the sacred writers differ -- the result, or at least the sequel, was disastrous. The

numbering of the people was immediately followed by a grea t pestilence, and

public opinion viewed the calamity as a righteous retribution for the sin of a

census. In short, the Bible story is another example of the kind mentionedabove. Yet there are numerous censuses, undert aken upon God's express com-

mand, related in the Bible: the B o o k o / N u m b e r s contains several. Even in

I I S a m u e l t 8, Dav id himself numbers his men, without doing wrong. Obviously,

it was not to find out how many were there, bu t somehow to confer a blessing on

them : after being numbered, t he troops pass in review; that is, Davi d succours

(them) out of the city. (It ma y be objected tha t it was the passing-in-review,

not the numbering, as required by hypothesis, that conferred the blessing, but

duplication, detachment, and displacement of parts of the ritual are a common

phenomenon. What we find notewo rthy is the juxtaposition of the numbering

and the passing-in-review59.) A similar rite, th e lustrum, which was a kind ofwholesale initiation , and which directly followed the census, obtained amongst

the Romans 6°. We recall, too, the censuses of the Egypti ans and the annua l

ceremonies of the Incas previously mentioned.

From the examples of the census as sin, it should be clear that the censuses

mentioned in N u m b e r s are not bona fide, that is, secular, censuses, but are rituals

involving the numbering of the participants. Of course we canno t expect the

Bible to tell us this explicitly, but the countings are usually undertaken at God's

comma nd and sometimes have a purely ritual purpose al.

Corresponding to the tabu on counting, we have the rite of a census; and the

census appea rs to be related to the passing-in-review. We have the rite, then.The question remains: What is the meaning of the tabu within the rite ?

8 S t o n e s

Rites or ceremonies in which each participant deposits a stone are wide-

spread. Speaking of the New World in general, D.G.BRINTON says that at a

victory, a treaty, or the founding of a village, sometimes a pillar or heap of stones

was erected equalling in number the persons present at the occasion, or the

numbe r fallen6~. '' When the Inc a Sinchi Rusas sent his captains and men to

~9 I t o c c u r s t o u s t h a t t h e c o u n t i n g is a c o m i n g i n c e r e m o n y , t h e p a s s i n g - i n -

review, a going out ceremony. According to HOCART Progress o f Man, p. 1 5 6 ) ,

processions usually mark the end, but sometimes open the proceedings.s0 DIONYSIUS of HALICARNASSUSRoman An t iqu i t i e s , Book IV, Sections 15 and

2 2 ; H O C A R T , Caste, p. 27.~1 For example, N u m b e r s IV.,2 BRINTON,op. cir., p. 28. See also J.R. SWANTON, Indians of the Southeastern

United States , Smi th son ian In s t . , Bur . Amer . E thn . , Bull. t37 (t946), p. 610.

Arch. Hist. Exact Sci. , Vol. 2 2



]8 i . SEIDENBERG:

m a k e c o n q u e s ts , th e s e m a d e s t o n e h e a p s i n e a c h r a v in e . " T h e y s a y t h a t a n

I n d i a n w i z a r d a p p e a r e d t o o n e o f t h e o f fi ce rs o f w a r , a n d t o l d h i m t h a t t h e h e a p s

m u s t b e c a l l e d a p a c h i t a s . A r i t e w a s es t a b li s h e d , w h i c h w a s t h a t e a c h p a s s e r b y

s h o u l d b r i n g a g r e a t s t o n e . . . " T h e p r a c t i c e i s c o n t i n u e d t o t h i s d a y ~3. A n

e l a b o r a t e c e n su s is sa i d to h a v e b e e n t a k e n o f t h e C h i c h im e c s w h o e m i g r a t e d u n d e r

X o l o t l to A n a h u a c . T h e c o u n t , t o o v e r 3 0 0 0 0 00 s o m e s ay , w a s r e p e a t e d s e v e r a l

t i m e s a l o n g t h e r o u t e a t n e p o h u a l c o s , " c o u n t i n g p l a c e s . " T h e c o u n t in g w a s

e f f e c t e d b y e a c h p l e b i a n c a s t i n g a s m a l l s t o n e i n t o a h e a p s e t a p a r t f o r h i s c la s s,

a n d e a c h l o r d o r o f f i ce r a l a r g e r s t o n e i n t o a n o t h e r h e ap 6 4. ' '

A s i m i l a r c e r e m o n i a l c o u n t i n g o f t r o o p s h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d in M a d a g a s c a r ,

w h e r e t h e r e w a s " a c u r io u s b u t s i m p l e m o d e o f a s c e r ta i n i n g t h e n u m b e r o f s o ld i er s

i n a n a r m y . E a c h s o ld i er w a s m a d e t o g o t h r o u g h a p a s s a g e i n th e p r e s e n c e o f

t h e p r i n c i p a l c h ie f s; a n d a s h e w e n t t h r o u g h , a p e b b l e w a s d r o p p e d o n t h e g r o u n d .

T h i s c o n t in u e d u n t i l a h e a p o f t e n w a s o b t a i n e d a n d a n e w h e a p b e g u n . U p o n

c o m p l e t i o n o f t e n h e a p s , a p e b b l e w a s s e t a s id e t o i n d i c a t e t 0 0 ; a n d s o o n u n t i l

t h e e n t i re a r m y h a d b e e n n u m b e re d ~ 5. ' '

I n P a l e s t in e a n d A r a b i a t h e f e l la h i n a c c u m u l a t e h e a p s o f st o n e s a t t h e p o i n t

i n th e r o a d w h e r e o n e f ir s t c a t c h e s s ig h t o f a h o l y p l a c e o r i m p o r t a n t t o w n . E a c h

t r a v e l e r c a s t s h i s s t o n e o n o n e o f t h e h e a p s , a n d t h e a c t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d m e r i -

t o r i o u s . " I n I n d i a , l i k e p r a c t i c e s d i s p e l f a t i g u e 6~.

I n G e n e s i s X X X 1 : 4 4 f f . , J a c o b a n d h i s f a th e r - in - l a w , L a b a n , m a k e a c o v e n a n t

b y p i l i n g u p a h e a p o f s t o n e s ( j u s t a s i n A m e r i c a ) . A li k e c u s t o m s t il l o b t a i n s i n

Sy r i a 67. T he w ord c a i r n , f r o m t h e G a e li c w o r d f o r h e a p , m e a n s a h e a p o f st o n e sr a is e d f o r a m e m o r i a l . . . "

A l l t h e s e r i t e s , w e s u g g e s t , d e r i v e f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n r i t u a l : a n d o c c a s i o n a l ly

c r e a t i o n i t se l f i s e f f e c t e d b y t h e c a s t i n g o f s t o n e s. I n t h e G r e e k s t o r y o f t h e

D e l u g e , a f t e r t h e w a t e r s s u b s i d e d , t h e G r e e k N o a h , D e u c a l io n , t h r e w s t o n e s

o v e r h i s h e a d , w h i c h t h e r e u p o n b e c a m e m e n : t h e s t o n e s th r o w n b y h is w if e,

P y r r h a , b e c a m e w o m e n . T h e m y t h o g r a p h e r A PO LLO DO RU S a d d s : " T h a t is w h y

i n G r e e k , p e o p l e a r e c a l l e d l ao i , f r o m l a a s , ' a s t o n e ' % " S i m i l a r s t o r ie s a re r e c o u n t e d

b y t h e M a c u s i, o f B r i t i s h G u i n e a , a n d t h e T a m a n a q u e s , a l s o o f S o u t h A m e r ic a e g;

w i t h t h e Q u i c h e s, a M a y a - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e , a s t o n e , i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i n g s ,

f e ll f r o m h e a v e n t o e a r t h , a n d b r o k e i n t o t 6 0 0 p i e c e s , e a c h o f w h i c h s p r a n g

u p a g o d " , a n d t h e M e x i c a n s u s e d t o s a y t h a t a ll m e n h a v e , a t o n e t i m e , b e e n

st on es 70.

W h y e a c h p a r t ic i p a n t , a s h e c a m e f o r w a r d , w a s r eq u i r e d t o b r i n g a s t o n e o r

o t h e r o b j e c t i s a q u e s t i o n w e h o p e t o a n s w e r b e l o w .

63 MARKHAM R i t es a nd L a w s o / t h e Y n c a s , p. 78f .64 H.H.BA NC RO FT, N a t i v e R a c e s , vol. 5, p. 292.e5 CONANT, op. cit . , p . 8 , a f t e r DE FLACOURT H i s t o i r e d e l a G r a n d e I s l e d e M a d a -

gascar. Th ere s t il l ex i s ts , i nc iden t a l ly , a c e r em on ia l coun t i ng i n t oda y ' s a rm ie s ,n a m e l y , t h e o p e r a t i o n " C o u n t o f f "

6~ E n c y c l o p a e d i a o / R e l i g i o n a n d E t h i c s , Ar t . S t o n e s , vol . 11, p. 877. J .ABBOTT,op. cir. , Chap. X, espec ia l ly pp . 243 , 250 .

~7 Fo lk lore in the Old Tes ta me n t , p. 250.~8 Ibid . , p. 67.~9 Ibid., p. t03f .vo BRINT ON, op. cir. , pp. 189 , 294 .



R i t u a l o r i g i n o f c o u n t i n g 1 9

9 T a x a t i o n

I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t c e n s u s e s w e r e i n v e n t e d a s a m e a n s o f i m p o s i n g a

t a x , a n d h e n c e t h a t c o u n t i n g a r o s e o u t o f t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r t a x a t i o n . B u t t h e r ei s n o t h i n g o b v i o u s a b o u t t a x e s . A K u a n y a m a A m b o c h i e f t a i n , i f h e fe e ls t h e

n e e d o f a l i t t l e e x t r a s o m e t h i n g , g o e s o u t a n d s t e a l s i t 71. T h e R o m a n s c o u l d n o t

g e t th e i d e a o f t a x a t i o n e i t h e r : t h e r e s i d e n t s of a c i v i t a s w e r e p r a c t i c a l l y e x e m p t

f ro m t h e p a y m e n t o f m u n i c i p a l t a x e s , L o c a l t a x a t i o n c o u ld n o t b e in t r o d u c e d ,

b e c a u s e th e t a x w a s a s i gn o f s e r v i t u d e . R o m e c o u l d e x a c t t r i b u t e , b e c a u s e s h e

w a s m i s t r e s s o f t h e w o r l d , b u t f o r c i t iz e n s o f a m u n i c i p a l i t y t o p a y t a x e s t o a

g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h t h e y t h e m s e l v e s h a d e s t a b l i s h e d w a s o u t of h a r m o n y w i t h

t h e i r w a y o f t h in k i n g 7 2 . ' '

H OC AR T h a s a t h e o r y o f th e o r ig i n of t a x a t i o n w h i c h , h o w e v e r w r o n g i t m a y

t u r n o u t t o b e , d o e s n o t a s k u s t o a s s e r t w h a t w a s o r w a s n o t o b v i o u s t o th ea n c i e n t s , b u t i n s t e a d t r i e s t o f in d t h e a n s w e r i n t e r m s o f t h e k n o w n a c t i v i t i e s

a n d i d e a s o f a r c h a i c s o c i e t y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h is t h e o r y , t a x a t i o n i s a r e s u l t o f t h e

a n c i e n t b e l ie f t h a t t h e g o o d o f t h e c o m m u n i t y w a s b o u n d u p w i t h t h a t o f a s i ng le

m a n , t h e k i ng . T h e l i f e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y w a s m a d e t o p as s th r o u g h t h e k i ng ,

a n d w a s , a c c o r d i n g to t h o s e i d e a s , d e r i v e d f ro m t h e k i n g . T a x a t i o n w a s , i n o r ig i n ,

a w a y o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e r i t u a l 73.

W e w o u l d li k e t o a d d t o t h i s th e o r y , a n d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t a x i s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h t h e c e n su s a n d w i t h t h e t a b u o n c o u n t i n g : t he t ax i s t ha t wh ich i s coun ted

i n s t e a d o / t h e p e r s o n h i m s e l / . S p e a k i n g o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n o f th e c e ns u s a m o n g s t

t h e R o m a n s , D I ON Y SIU S o f H a l l i c a r n a s s u s s ay s T ~:

A n d i n o r d e r t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f t h e s e h u s b a n d m e n m i g h t . . , b e k n o w n a t o n ce ,

E Tu lliu s~ o r d e r e d t h e m t o e r e c t a l t a r s t o t h e g o d s w h o p r e s i d e d o v e r a n d w e r e g u a r d i a n so f t h e d i s t r ic t , a n d d i r e c t e d t h e m t o a s s e m b l e e v e r y y e a r a n d h o n o u r t h e s e g o d s w i t hp u b l i c sa c r if ic e s . T h i s o c c a s i o n al s o h e m a d e o n e o f t h e m o s t s o l e m n f e s t i v a ls , c a l l in g

i t t h e P a g a n a l i a ; a n d h e d r e w u p l a w s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e s a c r if i c e s w h i c h t h e R o m a n ss t i l l o b s e r v e . T o w a r d s t h e e x p e n s e o f t h i s s a c ri f ic e a n d o f t h i s a s s e m b l a g e h e o r d e r e da l l o f t h o s e o f th e s a m e d i s t r i c t t o c o n t r i b u t e e a c h o f t h e m a c e r t a i n p i e c e o f m o n e y ,t h e m e n p a y i n g o n e, a n d t h e w o m e n a n o t h e r a n d t h e c h i l d re n a t h i rd . W h e n t h e s ep i e c e s o f m o n e y w e r e c o u n t e d b y t h o s e w h o p r e s i d e d o v e r t h e s a c r if i ce s , t h e n u m b e r

o f p e o p le , d i s t i n g u is h e d b y t h e i r s e x a n d a g e, b e c a m e k n o w n . . .

T h e p e o p l e , t h e n , w e r e n o t c o u n t e d , b u t p i e c e s o f m o n e y w e r e. O n e m a y

a s k , W h a t d i f fe r e n c e d o e s i t m a k e ? T h e r e i s a d i f f e re n c e : w e s e e i t , b u t a r e

p r o n e t o d i s m i s s i t a s i n s i g n i f i c a n t ; t h e R o m a n s w e r e n o t - - i t a p p e a r s t o h a v e

b e e n a w a y o f f i nd i n g h o w m a n y p e o p l e t h e r e w e r e, a t t h e s a m e t i m e t a k i n g i n t o

a c c o u n t a t a b u a g a i n s t n u m b e r i n g t h e m . T h e s a m e c a n b e s a id f o r t h e H e b r e w s ,

w i t h w h o m t h e id e a a p p e a r s w i t h g r e a t e r e x p l i c i tn e s s E x o d u s X X X : I t - - 1 6 ) :

1 1 . A n d t h e L o r d s p a k e u n t o M o s e s , s a y i n g ,

12. W h e n t h o u t a k e s t t h e s u m o f t h e c h i l d r e n o f I s r a e l a f t e r th e i r n u m b e r , t h e n

s h a l l t h e y g i v e e v e r y m a n a r a n s o m f o r h is s o u l u n t o t h e L o r d , w h e n t h o u n u m b e r e s t

t h e m .

71 M r . L O E B t o l d u s t h i s .72 F .F .A BB OT T & A. C . JOHNSON, M u n i c i p a l A d m i n i st r a ti o n i n th e R o m a n E m p i r e ,

p . t 3 8 , c i t e d i n H O C A R T , Kings and Council lors, p . 203 .73 HOCART, Kings and Council lors, C h a p t e r s X V , X V I .~4 Ro ma n Ant iqui t ies , B o o k I V , 1 5 .

2*



2 0 A . S E I D E N B E R G :

13 . T h i s t h e y s h a l l g iv e , e v e r y o n e t h a t p a s s e t h a m o n g t h e m t h a t a r e n u m b e r e d ,h a l f a s h e k e l a f t e r a s h e k e l o f th e s a n c t u a r y : ( a s h e k e l is t w e n t y g e r a h s : ) a n h a l f s h e k e ls h a l l b e t h e o f f e r i n g o f t h e L o r d .

1 4. E v e r y o n e t h a t p a s s e t h a m o n g t h e m t h a t a r e n u m b e r e d , f r o m t w e n t y y e a r so l d a n d a b o v e , s h a l l g i v e a n o f f e r i n g u n t o t h e L o r d .1 5. T h e r i c h s h a l l n o t g i v e m o r e , a n d t h e p o o r s h a l l n o t g i v e l e ss t h a n h a l f a s h e k el ,

w h e n t h e y g i v e a n o f f e ri n g u n t o t h e L o r d , t o m a k e a n a t o n e m e n t f o r y o u r so u ls .1 6. A n d t h o u s h a l t t a k e t h e a t o n e m e n t m o n e y o f t h e c h i l d re n o f Is r ae l , a n d s h a l l

a p p o i n t i t f o r th e s e rv i c e o f t h e t a b e r n a c l e o f t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n ; t h a t i t m a y b e a m e m o -r i al u n t o t h e c h i l d r e n o f I s ra e l be f o re t h e L o r d , t o m a k e a n a t o n e m e n t f o r y o u r s ou ls .

I n s h o r t , b e i n g c o u n t e d i s n e c e s s a r y , b u t i t is al so d a n g e r o u s : o n c e y o u a r e

c o u n t e d , y o u r s o u l b e c o m e s t h e L o r d ' s b u t c a l l b e r e d e e m e d u p o n p a y m e n t o f

h a l f a s h e k e l . ( S e e a l s o Numbers I n : 3 9 - - 5 t . )

T h e r i tu a l r e q u i r e m e n t t o c o u n t a n d t h e t a b u a g a i n s t c o u n t i n g c o n t i n u e t o

i n t e r p e n e t r a t e t o t h e p r e s en t d a y . I n t h e S y n a g o g u e , a m i n i m u m o f t e n m e n i sr e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o n d u c t o f s e rv i c es . B u t o n e is n o t p e r m i t t e d t o c o u n t ; i n s t e a d

o n e u s e s a s e n t e n c e o f S c r i p t u r e , Psalm 2 8 : 9 , w h i c h i n H e b r e w c o n t a i n s t e n w o r d s ,

t o e s ta b l i s h a o n e - t o - o n e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h t h e i n t e g e r s f r o m t t o t 07 5. I n c i -

d e n t a ll y , t h e H e b r e w w o r d f o r t h e r e q u ir e d q u o r u m , Minyan, m e a n s c o u n t .

P e o p l e s o f l o w e r c u l t u r e h a v e t h e s a m e d e v i c e . A d o d g e s o m e t i m e s a d o p t e d ,

e s p e c i a l ly b y t h e K e n y a h [ of B o r n e o ] , f o r c o u n t i n g t h e p e r s o n s p r e s e n t , i s t o

t a k e a fe r n l e af w i t h m a n y f r o n d s , t e a r o f f a h a l f o f e a c h f r o n d , h a n d i n g e a c h

p i e c e t o o n e o f t h e m e n , u n t i l e v e r y m a n p r e s e n t a f f ir m s t h a t h e h a s a p ie c e ,

a n d t h e n t o c o u n t t h e n u m b e r o f t o r n f r o n d s r e m a i n i n g o n t h e stalkT n. ' '

I n F l o r i d a I s l a n d a t a fe a s t, a m a n w i ll g o a r o u n d w i t h a b a s k e t , a n d e v e r y o n e

p r e s e n t w i ll p u t s o m e s m a l l t h i n g i n t o it , t h a t s o t h e n u m b e r e n t e r t a i n e d m a y

b e k no w n 77 . ' ' H e r e a g a i n a p p e a r s t h e i d e a t h a t p e o p l e a r e t o b e c o u n t e d o n l y

i n d i r e c t l y . I t t a k e s a f o r m w e w o u l d c a l l a t a x .

10 Money

T h e R o s s e l I s la n d e r s , a p e c u l i a r ly i s o l a te d p e o p l e o c c u p y i n g t h e e a s t e r n m o s t

i s la n d o f t h e L o u i s i a d e g r ou p , P a p u a , h a v e a m o s t c o m p l i c a t ed m o n e t a r y s y s t e m ,

w h i c h e n t e r s m o s t v i t a l l y i n t o t h e i r ri t u al s . T h e m o n e y is o f 2 2 d e n o m i n a t i o n s

( t h e r e a r e t w o k i n d s , t h e ndap, m a l e , a n d t h e nkr, f e m a l e , m o n e y ; w e w i ll s p e a ko n l y o f t h e ndap m o n e y ) . T h e d i f fe r e n t d e n o m i n a t i o n s h a v e n a m e s , n o t n u m b e r s ;

b u t f o r c o n v e n i e n c e m a y b e r e f e rr e d t o b y n u m b e r , f r o m t h e l o w e s t, 1 , t o t h e

h i g h e s t , 2 2 . T h e c o i n s ( t h a t i s, s t o n e s ) o f t y p e s 1 2 t o 2 2 , o f w h i c h t h e r e a r e

a b o u t 1 50 , e v e n h a v e i n d i v i d u a l n a m e s ( t h e re a r e o n l y 7 c o i n s o f t y p e 2 2 ). T h e

c o i ns o f t y p e s t 8 t o 2 2 a r e s a c r e d : t h o s e f rQ m 1 9 to 2 2 n e v e r s e e t h e l i g h t o f d a y ,

a n d w h e n t y p e 1 8 c h a n g e s h a n d s , i t i s h a n d l e d w i t h g r e a t r e v e r e n c e a n d a c r o u c h i n g

a t t i t u d e i s m a i n t a i n e d .

A f e a s t c o n s i s t s o f o n e g r o u p o f p e r so n s b u y i n g a p i g ( o r a m a n , o r p o s s i b l y

s o m e o b j e c t , s u c h a s a c a n o e) f r o m a n o t h e r g r o u p . O n e g r o u p s u p p l ie s t h e p i g , t h e

7~ S. G A N Z F R I E D Code of Jewish Law, vo l . I , p . 48 . I Samuel X V , 4 i s c i t e d a st h e re a s o n . T h e p a s s a g e, i n c i d e n t a l l y , h a s b e e n m i s t r a n s l a t e d a n d s h o u l d r e a d : A n dS a ul g a t he r e d t h e p e o p le t o g e th e r a n d n u m b e r e d t h e m w i t h I a m b s . . .

76 C.H OSE • W.McDouG LL,The Pagan Tribes o/Borneo, voh 2 , p . 210 .77 R.H.C oDglN GT ON , Melanesians, p. 353.




o t h e r g r o u p th e m o n e y . T h e b o d y i s c u t u p i n t o p r e c i s e l y t e n ( s t a n d a r d ) p a r t s

( t he m i d d l e o f t h e b a c k , t h e h e a d , et cetera) ; a n d t h e s e v a r i o u s p a r t s a r e p a i d f o r

b y a s e q u e n c e o f t e n s t o n e s o f s u c c e s s iv e v al u e . F o r a p ig , th e s e a r e t y p e s 9 t o t 8 ;

f o r a m a n , t y p e s 11 to 2 0. T h e p a r t i e s a r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y d i v i d e d i n t o t e n

p a r t s . ( A ls o i n t h e b u y i n g o f a c a n o e, t h e t r a n s a c t i o n p a r a l l e l s t h a t o f t h e f e a s t ,

t h o u g h t h e c a n o e is n o t a c t u a l l y d i s m e m b e r e d . )

O f t h e s e f a c t s W . E . A R M S T R O N G s a ys T S :

T h e a b o v e m i g h t b e r e g a r d e d a s n o th i n g m o r e t h a n a m e t h o d b y w h i c h a n u m b e ro f p e r s o n s c o l l e c t i v e l y b u y s a p i g f o r p u r p o s e s o f c o n s u m p t i o n f r o m a c o l l e c t i v eo w n e r o f t h a t p i g . I t i s, h o w e v e r , r a t h e r d i f f i c u lt t o s u p p o s e t h a t n u m b e r s o f v a l u a b l en d a p a n d f a t h o m s o f c l o s e ly s t r u n g n k 6 a re , i n a n y r e a l s e ns e , t h e p r i c e o f a p i g,e s p e c i a ll y w h e n w e r e m e m b e r t h a t s o m e o f t h e ndap a n d nk6 t h a t e n t e r i n to t h e p r i c e

i m p l y l o a n s f o r l o n g p e r i o d s , a n d p a y m e n t s o f i n t e r e s t o n t h e s e l o a n s . . . I t i s, I t h i n k ,

c l e a r t h a t t h e p i g s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s a p i v o t f o r t h e c e r e m o n i a l . . . w h i c h i s u n -i n t e l l i g i b l e i f w e i m a g i n e i t t o b e p r i m a r i l y a n e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y .

S i m i l a r i d e a s h a v e b e e n e x p r e s s e d r e g a r d i n g t r a d e i n I n d o n e s i a 79 a n d i n t e r -

c h a n g e s i n F i j i , S a m o a , a n d T o n g a , w h e r e , h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s n o t r a d e , n o t e v e n

b a r t e r S ° .

T h e K w a k i u t l , o f t h e A m e r i c a n N o r t h P a c i f i c c o a s t , a ls o h a v e a c o m p l i c a t e d

m o n e t a r y s y s t e m , a n d m a n y o f t h e i r c u s to m s r e m i n d o n e o f t h e R o s s e l I s la n d e r s .

T h e K w a k i u t l h a v e a u n i t o f e x c h a n g e , t h e b l a n k e t ; b u t t h e y a ls o h a v e c e r t a in

c u r io u s l y s h a p e d c o p p e r p l a t e s t h a t a r e a n a lo g o u s t o t h e n d a p s t o n e s o f h i g h e r

d e n o m i n a t io n , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e c o p p e r s h a v e i n d i v i d u a l n a m e s ( a s d i d t h e m a t s

o f t h e S a m o a n s a n d T o g a n s , w h o u s e d t h e m a s g i f ts on g r e a t o cc a s io n s S ') . T h e

v a l u e o f a c o p p e r i s n o t f ix e d , b u t d e p e n d s o n i t s ca r e er . M a x t s o l e m , a l l o t h e r

c o p p e r s a r e a s h a m e d t o l o o k a t i t ' , w a s w o r t h 7 5 00 b l a n k e t s i n t 8 9 3 s~.

B OA S w r it es S S: M a r r i a g e a m o n g t h e K w a k i u t l m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d a p u r c h a s e ,

w h i c h is c o n d u c t e d o n t h e s a m e p r i n c i p le s a s t h e p u r c h a s e o f a c o p p e r . T h e

w o r d p u r c h a s e h a s a d i s t i n c t l y s e c u l a r c o n n o t a t io n . I t w o u l d b e a t l e a s t

a s c o r r e c t t o s a y t h a t t h e e x c h a n g e o f a c o p p e r i s a s m u c h o f a r i t e a s a

m a r r i a g e i s .

W e s a y a t l e a s t a s c o r r e c t : b u t a c t u a l l y , t h e t w o w a y s o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e

f a c t s c o r r e s p o n d t o t w o o p p o s e d w a y s o f l o o k i n g a t t h e f a c ts . O n e c o n s i d e r s

s u c h c a t e g o r i e s a s b u y i n g , s e ll in g , t r a d e a s o b v i o u s , s e c u l a r c o n c e p t s t h a t

i n s e r t t h e m s e l v e s i n t o r i tu a l . T h e o t h e r r e g a r d s t h e s e c o n c e p t s a s o b v i o u s o n l y

b e c a u s e w e a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e m ; a n d e x p l a i n s t h e m a s a ri s in g b y secular i za t ion

f r o m r i t u a l 84.

~s W .E . ARMSTRONG, Rossel Is land, p. 81 f .~9 J.1V[.VAN E R K R O E F O r i g i n o f T r a d e i ll I n d o n e s i a , The Sc ient i / i c Monthly ,

v o l . 7 6 ( t 9 5 3 ) , p p . 2 8 4 - - 2 8 9 .s0 HOCART, The L i /e - G i v ing M y t h , p . 101.

sl Ibid. , p. 99.sa F .B O A S , T h e P o t l a t c h o f t h e K w a k i u t l I n d i a n s , i n t h e Source Book, p. 335.

sa Ibid. , p. 337.s4 S e c u l a r i z a t i o n i s m e r e l y a fo r m o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ; i t i n v o l v e s a n a r r o w i n g

d o w n o f a t t e n t i o n a n d i n t e r e s t . . . (Caste, p . t 5 3). H O C AR T g i v e s s e v e r a l e x a m p l e s .

W e m a y a d d o n e fr o m t h e h i s t o r y o f c o u n t i n g : o n c e t h e s a m e m a n t o o k c a r e o f o u rm o r a l s a n d c o u n t e d u s ; n o w h e h a s s p e c i a l iz e d i n t o t w o - - t h e c e n s o r , w h o t a k e s c a r e

o f o u r m o r a l s , a n d t h e c e n s u s t a k e r , w h o c o u n t s u s .



2 2 i . S E I D E N B E R G :

T h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f m o d e r n m o n e y t a k e s t h e f o l lo wi n g f o r m : m o n e y a ri s es

by a secu la r iza t ion of the r i tua l in te r chan ge of ob jec t s such as s tones (o r wh a les '

t ee th [F ij i ], m a ts [Tonga] , cowr ie she l ls IAf r ica ] , cacao beans ECent ra l Ame r ica ] )

for ob jec t s o f use -va lue , such as p igs , canoes , et alia. I n t h i s s e n s e we c a n s a y

t h a t m o n e y h a d a r i t u a l or ig i n. B u t t h e n e x t q u e s t i o n i s: W h y we r e o b j e c t s o f

u s e - v a l u e e x c h a n g e d f o r s t o n es w i t h i n t h e r i t u a l ? W h a t wa s t h e r i t u a l o ri g in

o f m o n e y ?

T r a d e m i g h t c o n c e i v a b l y b e c o n s i d e re d a s o b v io u s , b u t m o n e y c e r t a i n l y i s

n o t : wh y s h o u l d a n y o n e g i v e a wa y a p i g fo r a s to n e ? Gr a n t e d h e r e a l iz e s t h a t

n e x t we e k o r n e x t m o n t h h e c a n g i v e t h e s t o n e b a c k f o r a c a n o e : s t i l l , h o w d i d

the w hole th ing s ta r t ? Once s tones a r e used in r i tua l th ey acqui r e a use wi th in

t h e r i t u a l : t h e n t h e r e i s n o m o r e a p u z z le . T h e c r u x o f t h e p r o b l e m i s t o u n d e r s t a n d

wh y , o r h ow, s t o n e s a n d o t h e r o b j e c t s c l ea r l y d e v o i d o f u s e - v a l u e m a d e t h e i r

wa y i n t o r i tu a l .

11 . Sac r i f i ce

Accord ing to RAGLAN t i s poss ib le , f r om ex is t ing myths and r i t e s , to r econ-

s t ruc t , a t l eas t in ou t l ine , an anc ien t and ve ry in f luen t ia l r itua l , a p ro min ent

f ea ture o f which was sac r i f i ce , o r ig ina l ly , human sac r i f i ce : i t was be l ieved tha t

t h e c o m m u n i t y wo u l d b e n e f i t f r o m t h e p e r i o d ic k il li n g o f a h u m a n v i c t i m . I t i s

c lea r f rom the ev idence tha t the v ic t im was no t necessa r i ly unwi l l ing , and i t i s

pe rh aps no t too d i f f i cu l t to unde r s tan d th i s in a genera l wa y ( as e f fec t , i f no t

as cause ), a s people wi ll do an yth ing once in the gr ip o f an idea . W ha t i s d i f f icu l tt o u n d e r s t a n d i s t h e s p e c ia l f o r m t h e i d e a to o k , n a m e l y , t h a t t h e wo r l d m u s t b e

p e r i o d i c a ll y d e s t r o y e d a n d c r e a t e d a g a i n f r o m t h e b o d y o f t h e v i c t i m ; o r v ic t i m s ,

r a t h e r , f o r t h e r e is r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t a m a n a n d a wo m a n , t h e d i v i n e K i n g

and Quee n , were bo th sac ri f iced . Thes e were ac tua l ly k i ll ed , and the r es t o f

t h e c o m m u n i t y f e ig n e d d e a t h . T h e n ew K i n g a n d Q u e e n t h e r e u p o n a p p e a r e d

on the scene and bec am e the ances tor s o f the r esur r ec te d r ace sS.

T o p l a y t h e c e n t r a l r o l e i n t h i s r i t u a l m e a n t , t h e n , t o e n d u p s h o r t l y a s a

corpse . The re is ev idence to show, however , th a t th eor ies were dev ised to avo id

th i s d r as t i c conc lus ion , a t l eas t in genera l , whi le r e ta in in g the benef i t s . For

e x a m p l e , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p le o f t h e I n d i a n a s o f t h e S e m i t i c s a cr if ic e[was tha t th rou gh r i tua l ac t ion] t he sac r i fi ce r beco mes th e sac ri f ice sv ' , thus

ge t t ing the benef i t o f be ing the sac r if i ce - - bu t , o f cour se , he r e m a i n e d a l i v e , a n

a n i m a l r e p l a ci n g h i m a s t h e a c t u a l v i c t i m . T h e s a m e i d e a wa s h e l d b y t h e I n c a s :

a t t h e s u m m e r f e s ti v a l e a c h p a r t i c i p a t i n g y o u t h p r e s e n t e d a l l a m a f o r s a cr if ic e .

T h e s a c ri fi c ia l l l a m a s b o r e t h e n a m e s o f t h e y o u t h s wh o p r e s e n t e d t h e m . He n c e

t h e S p a n i s h wr i t e r s , w i t h l i t t l e o r n o k n o wl e d g e o f t h e l a n g u a g e , a s s u m e d t h a t

the you ths them se lve s were the v ictimsST. ' ' Bu t th ese w ere c lea r ly f e igned to

b e t h e v i ct i m s . T h e c a n d i d a t e s in t h e Ne w Gu i n e a i n i t ia t i o n c e re m o n i e s a r e

o f t e n s a id t o b e r e s t o r e d b y t h e m o n s t e r wh i c h h a s s wa l l o we d t h e m , o n c o n s id e r a -

85 Fo r th e ideas u nderlyin g these s tate me nts , see RAGLAN',The Origins o/Religion,Chap. IX, and Jocasta s Crime, C h a p . XXI I I .

se HOCART, Kingship, p. 199.87 MARKHAM The Inca Civilization in Peru, Ch ap I V. Vo l. I in J.WlNSOR (ed.),

Narrative and Critical History o/America, p. 239n.




tion of some pigs being supplied by the parents as ransom. .. In some tribes,

in which the ceremonies become reduced to a simplified form, the final investiture

of the candidate with the emblems of initiation takes place while he stands on

the carcass of the dead pig which he has provided as his ent rance fee , and

before being decorated he is steamed as if he and not the pig were about to be

eat en. Similar ideas obta ined amongst the Celts and Germans 8s.

The central feature of ritual was sacrifice. Sacrifice itself remains somewhat

of a puzzle, but a large part of archaic thought can be understood in relation

to it. Thus many rituals, for example, the pubert y rituals just mentioned, are

death and rebi rth ceremonies. Wh y this is so becomes intelligible if the rites are

viewed as derivative of a rite in which the principal is actually killed.

To be called forth onto the ritual scene was to be placed in jeopardy: one wax

out was to associate some object with each participant, and call this object ontothe ri tual scene. The objec t might be an animal, or a stone, or a piece of money.

Keeping these points in mind, we see that there is a relation between counting

or census-taking and taxation, but it would appear that the taxation arose out

of the counting and not vice versa.

Now we have all the pieces in hand for the explanation of the ta bu on counting :

Counting is a way of calling participan ts in ritual on to the ritual scene. The

ritual is a creation ritual, which involves the death of the principals ( the divine

King and Queen ). The other participants are replicas of the principals, and th ey

would die, too, unless there was some device for getting them onto the scene

without calling the m on. The device consists in associating with each partici pantsome object, and then calling this object onto the scene, the participant carrying

i t there. This counting of objects in one-to-one correspondence with the partici-

pants, with the associated avoidance of counting the participants themselves,

is the tabu on counting.

1 2 C o u n t i n g a t C r e a ti on a n d e l s e w h e r e

With the examples above of ritual censuses, we Call be fairly sure t ha t wherever

a population figure is given in sacred writings or in myth we have evidence of

a ritual counting. The Todas of southern India, a pastoral people, have ve ryelaborate rituals involving their herds, including ritual processions. Ev er y adult

female buffalo has an individual name, which is usually given when her first

calf is born. The numbe r of buffalo names is limited, so tha t many buffaloes

bear the same nam e. We are not informed of a ritual counting of the herds,

but in their account of the Creation we are told89:

One day (3n went with his wife Pinarkurs to Medrpem (the top of the Kundahs).There he put up an iron bar which stretched from one end of the peru to the other.On stood at one end of the bar and brought forth buffaloes from the earth 1600 innumber. Then Pinarkurs tried to produce buffaloes and she stood at the other endof the bar and produced 1800 buffaloes.

ss BRIFFAULT The Mothers vol. 2, p. 690i. Initiate-swallowing monsters are alsofound on the nor thwest coast of America and in Africa. (Ad. E. JENSEN Beschneidungund Reifezeremonien bei NaturvSlkern Map VII ; see also Map VI). See also RAGLAN

Death and Rebirth pp. 53--55.s9 W. H. R. RIVERS The Tod~s p. t 84.



24 A SEIDENBERG:

Behind C)n's buffaloes there came out of the earth a man, holding the tail of thelast buffalo, and this was the first Toda. 0n took one of the man's ribs from the rightside of his body and made a woman, who was the first Toda woman. The Todas

then increased in number very rapidly so that at the end of the first week there wereabout a imndred.

Most of this sounds like a direct account of a ritual ~°. The t600 and t800

buffaloes might be t 6 and 18 par ticipants dressed up to represent buffaloes.

In one version of the Babylonian account of the Creation, written for Thou,

king, priest-ruler, Shepherd, or whoever thou a rt , we are told: Seve n kings,

brethren, appeared and begat children. Six thous and in number were their

people91. ' '

Such explicit numbers may have something to do with the widespread belief

in the existence of a fixed number of members to a community -- deaths and

births tak ing place simultaneously. Such belief in itself does not depend on thecounting process, but when some specific number is given, as for example do

the Moslem peasants of Transjordan, who say that the number of Samaritans

at Nablus had always been the same, namely, sixty-six, then we ma y have the

residue of a counti ng ritual ~2.

Usually we cannot expect a precise number, bu t a population will be described

as a mul tit ude -- that is, where once there was given a precise number, later

this would be given only vaguely. A similar phenomenon with respect to names

has been remarked on by A.H. SAYCE, who says93: I n ancient hymns, the

phrase, 'mankind , wha tsoever be their na me', is of frequent occurrence, and

seems to signify tha t as the special favor of the gods could be showered only onthose whose names were recited, a vague and general expression of the kind

would avoid t~le difficulty of enumerati ng b y its own na me each division of the

human race. Halfway between multi tude and an explicit number would be

the phrase whate ver be their numb er as showing some concern for what the

numbe r might be. This phrase we also find in a hymn to the Babylonian god

Merodach ( = Marduk) 94:

The living creatures as many as pronounce a name and exist in the earth,The four zones, all that there are,The angels of the hosts of heaven and earth, whatever be the ir num ber ,

All worship thee and lend to thee their ears.Thus SAYCE'$ rema rk would also app ly to census specifications.

In the short version of Chapter LXIV of T h e B o o k o ] t h e D e a d , a chapter

which is believed to date from the First Dynasty, and which was considered

to have a value equal to all other cha pt er s combined, we read, Nu speaking:

(I) work for (you), 0 ye Spirits, who are in number (four) millions, (six) hundred

and one thousand, and two hundred, and they are (in height) twelve cubits.

(Ye) travel on joining the hands, each to each, but the sixth (hour), which belon-

geth at the head of the Tuat (underworld), is the hour of the overthrow of the

9o But not necessarily a ritual of the Todas.91 SAYCE,Orig in , p. 373.9 , Jocas ta ' s Cr ime , p. t39f. In the ancient Licchavi state of Northern India there

were always 7,707 reigning kings (Caste, p. t23).93 Orig in, p. 304.94 Ibid. , p. 502.




fiend. Presu mabl y Nu, or some other god, coun ted the Spirits, called Khus :

he certainly had the opportunity, as everyone had to go up for judgment upon

reaching the underworld.

13. The ordinal name

Not only at ritual birth, but also at actual birth, the participants are numbered

as the y make their way onto the scene. In Australia, amongst people who on

their own initiative never count beyond seven, one nonetheless finds a fixed

sequence of nine names that are assigned to their children in order of age, one

set for boys, and the same set modified in termina tions for girls. A similar pheno-

menon has been observed in Malaya, in Madagascar, in North America, and in

Africa; it also occurred in ancient Rome (and the names Primo, Secondo,

Quinto, Sisto, Settimio, Ot tavio are still current) 95.

1 4 G e m a t r i a

In gematria, a numerical value is assigned each letter of the alphabet, and the

value of a word is the sum of the values of its letters. Two words are then count ed

as equivalent if t hey have t he same value 96 (and there are many elaborations of

this basic idea). The Cabalists of the Middle Ages assigned to each planet a

spirit, demon, magic square, et cetera, and to each name (of spirit or demon)

a number in accord with the rules of gematria g~. The anti quit y of gemat ria is not

known; the word occurs in the literature of the second cen tury A.D. A most

difficult passage in SUETOI~IUS (Nero , 39) has been explained by the discovery

that Nero is there resolved into matricid e. Examples of gematria have

been found in the graffiti of Pompeii : I love her whose numb er is 545. Amerim-

nus thought upon his lady for good. The n umber of her honorable name is 459s.,,

SARGOI~ II (eighth century B. C.) says he made the wall of Sargonsburg 16280

ells long because the n umb er 16280 corresponds to his own name 99. Wh at app ear

to be traces of gematria occur in the Bible. The numbe r 3t8 in Genes i s XIV:~4

is the number of persons born in the childless Abram's house, and it is also the

value of the steward of my house, this Eliezer of whom Abr am complains in

the next chap ter ~°°. And there exist oth er examples of like nature.

(In the B o o k o / N u m b e r s , the phrase num ber of the names occurs, but

does not appear to refer to gematria. On the other hand, in R e v e l a t i o n X I I I :

17--18, the phrase n u m b e r of his name occurs and definitely refers to gematria,

giving the nu mber of the Beast as 666. It is there given, incidentally, as a part

of a parable, or riddle, with this number as clue. The Catholics' interp retatio n

of the Beast was the Antichrist. One of their theologians, Peter Bungns, who

95 The examples, except for Rome, are given by E.B.TYLOR, Primit ive Culture,vol. t, p. 254. The one from Australia is from tile Eyre district : CONA~T,op. cig., p. 108,reports a count to s i x from this district. For Rome, see 1DAULY-WISSOWA Real -Encyc lo-pdd ie der Classischen A lgertumswissenschaft, article Namenwesen , vol. 16, col. t 669.

98 Gematria, in a way, has come into its own in modern logic. GdDEL assigns to

each logical statement an integer, much in the way that gematria would do; butdifferent logical statements have different GODEL numbers.

o7 E.A.WALLIS BUDGE Amule ts and Supers t i t ions , p. 393.9s M. H. FARBRIDG~,Studies in Bib l ica l and Semi t ic Symbol i sm, p . 95 .9g B.MEISNER, Baby lon i en und Assy r i en , vol. 2, p. 278~100 C. LEvIAS Gematria , in The Jewi sh Encyc loped ia , vol. 5, P. 589.




l i v e d i n t h e d a y s o f L u t h e r , w r o t e a b o o k o n n u m e r o l o g y c o n s is t in g o f n e a r l y

7 00 p a g e s . A g r e a t p a r t o f t h i s w o r k w a s d e v o t e d t o t h e m y s t i c a l 6 66 , w h i c h h e

h a d f o u n d e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e n a m e o f L u t h e r ; t h i s h e t o o k a s c o n c lu s i ve p r o o f t h a t

L u t h e r w a s t h e A n t i c h r is t . I n r e p l y , L u t h e r i n t e r p r e t e d 6 6 6 a s t h e f o r e c a s t o f

t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e P a p a l r e g i m e a n d r e j o ic e d in t h e f a c t t h a t i t w a s n e a r i n g

i ts end1°1. ' )

A p a r t i c i p a n t i n r i tu a l c o u l d e a s il y b e a s s i g n e d a n u m b e r , a n d w a s ( a c c o rd i n g

t o o u r h y p o t h e s i s ) a s s i g n e d o n e i n d i c a t in g t h e o r d e r o f h i s a p p e a r a n c e u p o n

t h e r i tu a l s c e n e : i t w o u l d t h e r e fo r e b e i m p o r t a n t f o r e v e r y o n e , a n d e v e r y t h i n g ,

t o h a v e a n a m e a n d a n u m b e r . G e m a t r i a m a y h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d a s a d e v i c e

f o r g i v i n g e v e r y o b j e c t o n e o f i t s n e c e s s a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , n a m e l y , i t s n u m b e r .

A n c i e n t r i tu a l , t h r o u g h r i t u a l a c t i o n , e s t a b l i s h e d a n d w a s o b l ig e d to e s t a b l i s h

v a r i o u s e q u i v a l e n c e s . G e m a t r i a is a s o p h i s t i c a t e d w a y o f d o i n g th i s , b y a s s i g n i n g

t o e a c h o b j e c t a n u m b e r : b u t i t c o u ld s c a r c e ly h a v e d e v e l o p e d e x c e p t f r o m a

s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h o b j e c t s w e r e r i t u a l l y a s s i g n e d n u m b e r s i n m o r e n a i v e f a s h i o n .

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n r i t u a l t h r o u g h n u m b e r is n o t a c o n j e c t u r e ( t h o u g h i t w a s

o n c e ), b u t c a n b e f o u n d e x p l i c i t l y i n t h e s a c r e d w o r k s o f t h e H i n d u s . T h u s i n

t h e U p a n i s h a d s w e re ad 1 °2 : " T h e s e v e r s e s , b y r e p e a t i n g t h e f i r st t h r e e t i m e s ,

b e c o m e 2 5. T h e t r u n k i s t h e t w e n t y - f i f t h a n d P r a j a p a t i i s t h e t w e n t y - f i ft h .

T h e r e a r e t e n f i n g e r s o n h i s h a n d s , t e n t o e s o n h i s f e e t , t w o l e g s , t w o a r m s , t h e

t r u n k i s t h e t w e n t y - f i f t h . H e a d o r n s t h a t t r u n k a s t h e t w e n t y - f i f th . N o w t h i s

d a y c o n s is t s o f 25 , a n d t h e S t o m a h y m n o f t h a t d a y c o n s is t s o f 25 ; i t b e c o m e s

t h e s a m e th r o u g h t h e s a m e , t h e r e fo r e th e t w o , t h e d a y a n d t h e h y m n a r e 2 5 . " I n t h e

S a t a p at h a B r a h m a n a , e q u i v a l e n c e ( a n d i ll p a r t i c u l a r , e q u i v a l e n c e t h r o u g h n u m b e r )

i s o f fr e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e : f o r e x a m p l e , v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e a l t a r a r e b r o u g h t i n t o

a s s o c i a t io n w i t h p a r t s o f t h e b o d y , w i t h d e i t ie s , w i t h m e t r e s h a v i n g a d e f i n it e

n u m b e r o f s y l l a b l e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e , b e g i n n i n g w i t h X , 3 , 1, 9 i s t y p ic a l1 ° 8 :

9 . No w the se s even m e t r e s wh ich i nc r ea se by fou r ( sy l l ab l e s ) succes s ive ly , and a r ef i rm ly e s t ab l i shed i n one ano the r , a r e t hose s even v i t a l a i r s i n man , f i rm ly e s t ab l i shedi n o n e a n o t h e r : . . . X , 3 , 2 , t . A s t o th i s t h e y s a y , " W h a t m e t r e a n d w h a t d e i t y a r et h e h e a d o f t h e f i r e a l t a r ? " T h e m e t r e G a y a t r i a n d t h e d e i t y A g n i a r e it s h e a d .2 . " W h a t m e t r e a n d w h a t d e i t y a r e it s n e c k ? " T h e m e t r e U s h n ih a n d t h e d e i t ySav i t r i a r e i t s neck . 3. Et cetera.

T h e a b o v e p a s s a g e is d e f i n it e e n o u g h , b u t p e r h a p s H OC AR T h a d s o m e t h i n g

e v e n m o r e e x p li c it i n m i n d w h e n t i e r e m a r k e d t h a t " e a c h g o d [ h a d ] a n u m b e r

w h i c h d e t e r m i n e d t h e n u m b e r o f sy l l ab l e s o f w h i c h t h e v e r s e s t o h i m m u s t b e

c o m po s ed 1 °4 . ' N o t e h o w n u m b e r e n t e r s i n t o v e r s e a n d r u l e s it .

A l t h o u g h u n a c c o m p a n i e d b y r i t u a l, t h e s e s a m e i d e a s a p p e a r c l e a r ly w i t h t h e

G r e e k s. F o r t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s , th i n g s w e r e n u m b e r s a n d e v e r y t h i n g h a d a

n u m b e r . E U R Y TU S h a d a m e t h o d f o r d e c i d in g " w h a t w a s t h e n u m b e r o f w h a t

( fo r e x a m p l e ,_ . on e o f m a n a n d a n o t h e r o f h o rs e ) , v iz , b y i m i t a t i n g t h e f i g u re s o f

l iv i n g th i n g s w i t h p e b b l e s , a s s o m e p e o p l e b r i n g n u m b e r s i n t o t h e f o r m o f t r ia n g l e

101 T. D AN TZIG ,Number , the Language o] Sc ience , p. 39f .lo~ Sacred Books o] the East , vol. 1, p. 182.lo3 Sacred Boobs o[ the East , vol . 43, p. 329.lo4 Ki ng sh ip , p . 240. I n ou r pap e r R i tu a l Or ig in o ] Ge o me t r y , t h i s Arch ive , vol .

( 19 62 ), p p . 4 8 8 - - 5 2 7 , w e s h o w t h a t t h e I n d i a n a l t a r r i t u a l i n v o l v e d a k i n d o f g e o -m e t r i c a l g e m a t r i a .



R i t u a l o r i g in o f c o u n t i n g 2 7

a n d s qu a re 1 °5 . ' ' A RIST OT LE t h o u g h t t h a t s u c h v i e w s m u s t l e a d t o a c o n t r a -

d i c t i o n : I f a l l t h i n g s m u s t s h a r e in n u m b e r , i t m u s t f o l lo w t h a t m a n y t h i n g s a r e

t h e s am e , a n d t h e s a m e n u m b e r m u s t b e l o n g t o o ne th i n g a n d t o a n o t h e r . . .

T h e r e f o r e if t h e s a m e n u m b e r h a d b e l o n g e d t o c e r t a i n th i n g s , t h e s e w o u l d h a v e

b e e n t h e s a m e a s on e a n o t h e r , s i nc e t h e y w o u l d h a v e h a d t h e s a m e f o r m o f n u m b e r ;

f o r e x a m p l e , s u n a n d m o o n w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e s a m e I °6 . ' ' A RIST OT LE g e t s h i s

c o n t r a d ic t i o n b y c o n f o u n d in g e q u i v a l e n c e w i t h e q u a l i ty , s o m e t h i n g h i s o p p o n e n t s

d i d \ n o t d o 10~.

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s t h i n g s r e a l l y w e r e n u m b e r s , w h e r e a s f o r

PLA TO t h e y m e r e l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n n u m b e r l°s .

T h e r e a s o n A RISTO TL E d i s c u s s e s t h e P y t h a g o r e a n n u m b e r m y s t i c i s m i s t h a t

h e i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e n a t u r e o f e x i s t e n c e a n d w i s h e s t o c o n s i d e r t h e v i ew s of

o t h e rs . F r o m t h i s w e o u g h t t o re a l iz e ( in v i e w o f w h a t h a s b e e n s a i d) t h a t t h e

P y t h a g o r e a n n u m b e r m y s t i c i s m is a d e r i v a t i v e o f e a r l i e r c r e a t i o n m y t h s . A R I -

ST OT LE h i m s e l f r e c o g n i z e s t h a t m y t h o l o g y w a s a p r e c u r s o r o f t h e o r i e s o f e x i s t e n c e ,

b u t a p p e a r s t o c o n s i d e r i t a s a k i n d o f m a l f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c s p i r i t l°'J.

H e c a n n o t r e a l l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e m y t h s b e c a u s e h e t h i n k s t h e y r e f er t o a c t u a l

c r e a t i o n , w h e r e a s , i f w e a r e r i g h t , t h e y r e f e r t o r i t u a l c r e a t i o n .

N o w a d a y s i t i s a l so r e a l iz e d , p e r h a p s m o r e c l e a r l y , t h a t m y t h o l o g y w a s a

s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y , b u t g e n e r a l l y t h i s m y t h o l o g y i s c o n s i d e r e d

t o b e p h i l o s o p h y f o r m e d b y a m y t h o p o e i c m e n t a l i t y . N o o n e , so f a r a s w e k n o w , h a s

d i s c u s s e d G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y in t h e l i g h t o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m y t h a n d r i t u a l n °.

W e s p o k e b e fo r e o f t h e E g y p t i a n s p i r i t s ( kh u s) . T h e E g y p t i a n s , b y t h e w a y ,h a d n o t o n l y b o d y a n d s o ul , as w e d o , b u t b o d y ( k h a t ) , d o u b l e ( ka ) , so u l ( b a) ,

h e a r t ( or c o n s c i e n c e) ( a b) , s h a d o w ( k h a i b i t ) , s p i r i t ( k h u ), p o w e r ( s e k h e m ) , a n d

n a m e ( re n) m . W e a r e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t o n c e e v e r y m a n , o r a t l e a s t e v e r y p a r t i c i p a n t

i n r i tu a l , a l s o h a d a n u m b e r . A n d , in d e e d , w i t h s o m e G r e e k s t h e s o u l w a s a n u m -

b e r : a c c o r d i n g to XENOCRATES t h e s o u l i s a n u m b e r t h a t m o v e s i t s e l f n ~.

lo s Metaphys ica , N 5, 1092b 10.lo6 Ibi d., t 0 9 3 a t .107 A t l e a s t i f w e c a n j u d g e b y t h e V e d i c r i t u a l i s t s . T h e y m a k e d i s t i n c t t h i n g s

e q u i v a l e n t t h r o u g h r i t u a l a c t io n . S e e H O CA R T, K i n g s h i p , p . 198f .10s AR ISTO TLE , M e ta p h y s io a , 9 87 b . A c t u a l l y , A R IS TO T LE s a y s t w o t h i n g s t h a t s e e m

t o c o n t r a d i c t e ac h o t h e r : c[. 987 b t2 an d 987 b 28 .109 See , f o r example , M e t a p h y s i e a , 982 b 17, 1000 a 17, t071 b 28.no F .M.CoRNI~ORD ( F r o m R e l ig io n t o P h i lo s o p h y ) , f o l lo w i n g l i n e s l a i d d o w n b y

D U RK H EIM , h a s c o n s i d e r e d G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y , o r r a t h e r t h e p r e c e d i n g m y t h o l o g y , i nr e l a t i o n t o s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h i s i s a g o o d i d e a , a n d t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n , b u t i t i sn e v e r m a d e c l e a r h o w t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p e s t a b l i s h e s i ts e l f. C o m p a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , w h a th e s a y s a b o u t t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f s k y a n d e a r t h o n p p . 6 6 - - 6 9 w i t h w h a t w e s a y i n o u r

p a p e r S e p a r a t i o n of S k y a n d E a r t h a t C r e a t io n , Folk lore , v o l . 7 0, p p . 4 7 7 - - 4 8 2 .(C oR ~F OR D c a n n o t m a k e t h e r e l a t i o n c l e a r b e c a u s e h e s u p p o s e s t h e m y t h s t o b e ac o n s e q u e n c 6 o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , w h i c h i n t u r n i s a n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n , o f t h e

s a m e o r d e r a s d i a m o n d s a r e h a r d o r g r a s s i s g r e e n . H e is l e d t o t h is v i e w b e c a u s eh e s u p p o s e s t h a t w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d a r e a s s ho w i n g m i n u t e i d e n t i t i e s i n m y t h o l o g y a r e

n o n e t h e l e s s i n d e p e n d e n t . B u t t h e s e a r e a s a l s o s h o w m i n u t e i d e n t i t i e s i n t h e i r t e c h n o -l o g y , w h i c h C OR NFO RD c a n s c a r c e l y s u p p o s e t o r e s u l t f r o m a t y p e o f s o c i a l o r g a n i -z a t i o n . T h e s e r e m a r k s h o l d , o f c o u r se , fo r o t h e r , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r m o r e r e c e n t ,

w r i t e r s . )111 Bo ok o/ the D ead , p . l i x , f .112 ARISTOTLE D e A n i m a , p. 4085 34.



28 A. SEIDENBERG

W e d o n o t h a v e m a n y c o m m u n i t i e s in w h i c h e a c h m e m b e r i s a s si g n ed a n u m b e r ,

bu t we do ha v e one. W i t h t h e P a l a u I s l a nde r s, in t he C a r ol ine s, e v e r y ' P e l u '

~ vi ll age] inc l ude s a nu m b e r o f ' R u pa k s ' , t h e r u le r s, a nd a num be r o f 'Ka l d e be ke l s ' ,

the fo lk , bo th pa r t s o rde red in a descending numer ica l o rde r t , 2 , 3 , et cetera

a n d t h e n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e w a s t h a t i n t w o s e p a r a t e c o m m u n i t i e s t h e R u p a k s

o f e qua l num be r , a s a ls o t he c o r r e spond i ng K a l de be ke l s , c ons i de r e d t he m s e l v e s

equa l , the r e fore in pr inc ip le a s f r i ends or a s s tanding nea r to each o the r , and th i s

c ons i de r a b l y f a c i l i t a t e d t he i n t e r c ou r s e be t we e n t he c om m un i f i e s m . '

I t i s n i c e to ha ve s uc h e xa m pl e s . F r o m t h e po i n t o f v i e w of t he ge ne r a l t he si s

t ha t m y t h , r i t ual , a nd s oc i a l o r ga n i z a t ion a r e to be s e e n i n re l a t i on t o e a c h o t he r ,

i t is even necessa ry . Bu t on ce th a t thes i s i s e s tab l i shed , i t t e l l s us on the bas i s

o f pa r t o f t he e v i de nc e wha t o t he r e v i de nc e t o e xpe c t . I f we d i d no t ha ve c om -

m un i t i e s in wh i c h e a c h m e m b e r i s a s s igne d a num be r , we wou l d pos i t t h e m a ny -

way; and th i s , in f ac t , i s wha t we or ig ina l ly d id .

15 The Heavenly Shepherd

P r e v i ous l y we m e n t i one d t he W a l l a c h i a ns , who on S t . Ge o r ge ' s Da y , a s we ll

a s t he d a y be f o r e a nd t he da y a f t e r , c oun t t he i r s he e p . Our e xp l a na t i on f o r t h i s

i s a s f ol lows . W e s t a r t f r om t he hom ol ogy :

( l) T h e L o r d : H i s p e o p l e = t h e s h e p h e r d : h i s sh e ep .

Ac c o r d i ng to ou r hypo t he s i s , t he L o r d c ou n t s H i s peop l e , a nd he nc e t he

s he ph e r d c oun t s h i s she e p .

I t i s i n t e r e s t ing t o t r a c e t h e a bov e hom ol ogy ba c k t o i ts o ri g in s . I t wa sc e r t a i n l y f a m i l i a r t o t he E gyp t i a ns , who u s e d t he ( s he phe r d ' s ) c r ook a s s ym bo l

o f a u t ho r i t y : one c a n s ee t he c r ook in t he ha nds o f t he gods i n m a n y v i gne t t e s

in The Book ol the Dead. I n h i s d i sc us si on o f t he god T a m m u z , s howi ng t h a t

T a m m uz wa s a m oon god , o r de r i ve d f r om a m oon god , BRIFFAULT r e m a r k s t h a t

t h e t w o m o s t c o m m o n a p p e l la t i v es o f T a m m u z a re T h e S h e p h e r d a n d T h e

W a nde r e r , t h e l a t t e r de f i n i t e ly g i v i ng T a m m uz a m o ony c ha r a c t e r . He a s s oc i a t es

t h i s l a t t e r c ha r a c t e r a ls o w i t h t he f o r m e r , s a y i ng : T h e f loc ks wh i c h t he H e a v e n l y

S he phe r d o r ig i na ll y t e nd e d we r e no t e a r t h l y s he e p , bu t t he f loc ks o f t he s t a r s .

As f o r t he a n t i q u i t y o f T a m m u z , he s a ys : T h e dy i ng a nd re s u r r e c t ing god

T a m m u z , t he D i v i ne S on , i s one o f t he o l de s t e l e m e n t s i n B a by l on i a n r el ig ion ,and f igures in i t a s f a r back as our r ecords r each ; h i s cu l t was es tab l i shed f rom

t i m e i m m e m or i a l in t he c i ti e s o f S um e r be f o r e t he B a b y l on i a n e m p i r e e x i s te d ,

as ear ly as 3000, or according to oth er a utho r i t ies , 4000 B. C. As Profe ssor LANGDON

obs e r ve s, we do no t know a m ong h i s t o r ic a l pe op l e s poss e s si ng wr i t t e n r e c o rds o f a

mo re anc ien t god: :4 . ' ' I n shor t , our h om olog y (1) i s a s o ld as we can ever hope to

e s t a b l is h i t t o be . And a t t he s a m e t im e , we ha v e ob t a i ne d a no t he r hom ol og y :

(2) Th e she phe rd : h i s sheep = the mo on: the s ta r s.

I t s o f r e q u e n t l y t u r n s o u t w h e n w e h a v e t w o h o m o lo g i es A = B a n d B = C ,

s uc h a s ( t ) a nd (2), t ha t we c a n a l s o p r oduc e e v i de nc e f o r t he hom o l ogy A = C ,

I:: j KUBARY,EthnographSsche BeStrdge zur Ken ntnSs der Karolinischen Inselgrup peund Nachbarscha[t Heft 1, p. 113. VAN DER KROEF, op. Cir. p. 286, tells ho w tw ogroups , when they agree to meet for t rade, a lso agree on an equal number of par t i -cipants for each side.

:x4 BRIFFAULT,op. cir. VO1. 3, pp. 95, 93, 92.




that in any case we would tentatively make this conclusion (it is for this reason

that we write the suggestive equality signnS). In the present case we would write :

(3) The Lord: His people = the moon: the stars.Actually it would be quite easy to bring forward direct evidence for this

homology. Assuming it for the moment, if our argument above as to why shep-

herds count sheep is correct, then we ought to conclude tha t t h e m o o n c o u n t s

t h e s t a r s . And now the question is: Do we have any direct evidence for such

conclusion ? Yes The god Thoth , whose headdress carries a crescent, counts

the stars n6. The Babyloni an god Ea, of antiquity' equal to th at of Tammuz,

was, like Thoth, the god of wisdom, the instructo r of his worshippers in arts and

science, in particular, in geometry and numbers. He taugh t his son Merodach,

or Marduk (= Tammuz), ev erything he knew:

Oh my son, what dost thou not know ?What shall I tell you more ?What I know, thou too knowest n~.

There is thus good reason to suppose that Tammuz counted his sheep just as

THOTH counted the stars.

[Elsewhere in Egypt, the sun counts the stars (thereby slaying them)118; and

of God Psalm t47, line 4, says: H e telleth the number of the stars; he calleth

them all by their name." In the first case, the moon is exchanged for the sun;

in the second, it is displaced by God. 1

1 6 T h e S a n d R e c k o n e r

It may be objected that the argument is being founded on mere metaphors,

on images which spring quite arbitrarily to a writer's mind. "F or example",

it may be objected, "in G e n e s i s XXlII:17 wherein the Lord and Abraham

make a covenant, the Lord says:

... in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplyingI will multiply thy seed as the stars of the heaven,and as the sand which is upon the sea...

According to this verse, you would write:

The Lor d's people = the stars of the heaven,

and conclude tha t if one of these sets is counted, then so is the other. In fact,

you would prove it citing Psalm t47, 4. But it is clear tha t we have in the above

verse a mere metaphor, for according to it we could also conclude:

The Lor d's people = the sand upon the seashore.

Do you propose that once sand was counted ritually ?"

The problem is:

The Lor d: His people ---- X: sand.

To solve for X.

116 Following HOCART K i n g s a n d C o u n c i l l o r s .

11s BUDGE G o ds o [ t h e E g y p t i a n s , vol. t, p. 400.xlT For the equality Marduk=Tammuz, see S. LANGDON T a m m u z a n d I s h t a r ,

p. 30. For the quotation, see SAYCE O r i g i n , p. 472. On Ea, see R.W, RoGERS,C u n e i / o r m P a r a l l e l s t o t he O l d T e s t a m e n t , p. 63, where he appears under the name ofOannes.

11s BUDGE,E g y p t i a n I d e a s o f th e F u t u r e L i [ e , pp. 33--35.



30 A. S E I D E N B E R G

Buddha, in order to win the maiden he loved, had to pass an examination

in arithmetic. One of the questions was to name large numbers. Ano the r was

to compute the number of pri mar y atoms which when placed one against the

other, would form a line one mile in length. Bud dha found the required answer

in this way : 7 prima ry atoms make a very minute grain of dust, 7 of these make

a minut e grain of dust, 7 of these, etc. ng'' In short,

Buddha counts sand,

and hence

X = Buddha

is a solution.

Nor is it the sole known solution: the epithet Counter of the Sands must

once have been common. HORACE, n writing of the dea th (by shipwreck) of the

Pythago rea n philosopher and math emat icia n ARCHYTAS, con tem pora ry o f PLATO,says 1~o:

The scanty present of a little dustNear the Mantinian shore confines thee, O Archytas,Measurer of the sea, the earth, and the innumerable sand.

Of course, HORACE ma y ha ve poetically deta ched an inc ident from the life of

ARCHIMEDES, who ac tua lly did count , or compute rathe r, a number gre ate r th an

the nu mbe r of grains of sand in the universe. He does this in a work called The

Sand Reckoner , which is also of great value because it incidentally mentions

that ARISTARCHOSOF SAMOS had put forward the heliocentric hypothesis : this

is done in the course of ARCHIMEDES' making assumptions on the size of the

universe. Alth ough there was a definite scientific proble m involved and the sand

enters in only incidentally as far as the scientific value of the work is concerned,

nonetheless it is clea r from ARCHIMEDES' preface tha t sand -counting was to

some extent on people's minds. He wrotel~l:

There are some, King Gelon, who think that the number of sands is infinite inmultitude; and I mean by sand not only that which exists about Syracuse and therest of Sicily but also that which is found in every region whether inhabited or un-inhabited. Again there are some who, without regarding it as infinite, yet thinkthat no number has been named which is great enough to exceed its multitude.

He then goes on to make assumptions about the size of the universe and a

grain of sand, an d imagines the whole universe filled with sand. He assumes

10000 grains of sand fill a poppy seed; and takes 100000000 as the base of his

system of numerat ion. The number he writes down would require 64 digits in

our system of nume rat ion of base t0. (This solves the problem, but he also names

numbers that in our notation would require 80000 million million digitslZ2.)

The love of large numb ers reach ed Japa n. COXANTsays: Take n altogether,

the Japanese number system is the most remarkable I have ever examined,

in the extent and variety of the higher numerals with well-defined descriptive

name s. The y have words for t04, t0 s, and so on up to t043. There are also

119 D. E. SMITH • L.C. KARPINSKI The H ind u 4rab ic Numera l s p. 15 ; F. CAJORI,A His tory o] Mathem at ics p. 90.

1,o D.E. SMITH, His to ry o ] Ma thema t i c s vol. t, p. 85.1~ See T.L. HEATH, The Works o[ 4rchimedes p. 22t.1~2 HEATH,Greek M athemat ics vol. 2, p. 81.



R i t u a l o r i g i n o f c o u n t i n g 31

w o r d s f o r ( d e fi n it e ) s m a l l n u m b e r s , s a n d g r a i n b e i n g o n e , a n d d u s t , a n o t h e r 1~3.

B u d d h a i n h is m a t c h w i t h t h e g r e a t a r i t h m e t i c i a n A r j u n a , g a v e w e l l -d e f in e d

n u m b e r n a m e s a s h i g h a s t0 53 , a n d c l a i m e d h e c o u l d g o f u r t h e r 124.

I f w e b r i n g t o g e t h e r t h e v a r i o u s h o m o l o g i e s g i v e n , a n o t h e r s u g g e s t s it s e lf .

W e w r i t e :

T h e L o r d : H i s p e o p l e = t h e s h e p h e r d : h i s s h e e p -- -- th e m o o n : t i le s ta r s ---

B u d d h a : s a n d = t h e c o u n t e r : t h e t h i n g s c o u n t e d .

N o w w e h a v e s e e n re a s o n t o w r it e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e h o m o l o g i e s :

T h e L o r d ~ t h e s h e p h e r d = t h e m o o n ----e t ce te r a

a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r :

T h e L o r d = T h e C o u n t e r .

I n s h o r t , i f w e r e g a r d t h e a b o v e s e r ie s o f h o m o l o g i e s , w e s h a l l n o t b e s u r p r i s e di f a n c i e n t t h o u g h t a s c r i b e d a g o d l y c h a r a c t e r t o c o u n t i n g .

W e h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h e h e r e d i t a r y o f f i ce s o f C o u n t e r a n d o f T a l l y e r

o f t h e K w a k i u t l . Y u p a n q u i , n a m e o f t i l e f a v o r i t e h e r o in I n c a h i s t o r y a n d

f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r r i n g a s a n a m e f o r t i l e Inca i s t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n o f t h e f u t u r e

t e n s e o f a v e r b , a n d s i g n i f i e s y o u w i l l c ou nt1 25 . ' ' T h e n a t i v e s o f P u k a p u k a i n

P o l y n e s i a c a n c o u n t t o v e r y h i g h n u m b e r s , a n d e v e n h a v e i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n a

w o r d f o r i n f i n i t y : t h e B E A G L E H O L E S , w h o r e p o r t t h i s , f i n d i t p u z z l i n g :

T h e n u m b e r o f te r m s t h a t t h e P u k a p u k a n u s es t o i n d i c a t e h i g h n u m b e r s is i n t e r -e s t in g , t h o u g h i t is a l it t l e h a r d t o s e e t h e f u n c t i o n o f h ig h n u m e r a l c o n c e p t s i l l a n

a t o l l c u l tu r e . I t w a s a f a v o r i te j e s t a m o n g i n f o r m a n t s t h a t t h e P u k a p u k a n c o u l dc o u n t t o a h i g h e r p o w e r t h a n w e c o u l d ; p r o o f o f t h is t h e y a r g u e d w a s n o t o n l y t h e

p r e s e n c e o f w o r d s i n d i c a t i n g p r o g r e s s i o n t o i n f i n i ty , b u t a l so t h e a b i l i t y o f t i l e c u l t u r eh e r o M a u l t o f i n d P u k a p u k a n w o r d s w h i c h e n a b l e d h i m t o e n u m e r a t e t h e s t a r s i n

t h e s k y , t h e f i s h in t h e s e a , t h e s a n d s o n t h e b e a c h , a n d s o f o r t h 128.

O n e o f t i l e n i n e ty - n i n e b e a u t i f u l n a m e s o f A l l a h w a s T h e C o u n t e r ; a n o t t i e r

w a s T h e R e ck o ne r1 27 . ' ' N o r d o e s t h e Q u ' r a n l e a v e u s in t i l e d a r k a s t o t h e

c h a r a c t e r o f t h e r i t e s t o w h i c h , w e h a v e r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e , t h e s e t i t l e s r e fe r . I n

C h a p t e r X V , i n G o d ' s o w n w o r d s , w e a re t o l d :

A n d t h e r e i s n o t a t h i n g b u t t h e s t o re h o u s e s t h e re o f a r e w i t h U s a n d W e s e n d i t

n o t d o w n s a v e i ll d e t e r m i n e d q u a n t i t i e s .I n C h a p t e r X I X w e fi n d :

T h e r e i s n o n e o f a l l t h a t a r e in t h e h e a v e n s a n d t h e e a r t h b u t h e s h a l l c o m e u n t ot h e C o m p a s s i o n a t e a s a s e r v a n t . H e h a t h k n o w n t h e m a n d n u m b e r e d t h e m w i t h a n

e x a c t n u m b e r i n g .

A n d e a c h o f t h e m s h a l l c o m e u n t o H i m o n t h e d a y o f r e s u rr e c ti o n , a l o n e.

T h e J e w s r e g a r d e d e v e r y l e t t e r o f t h e T o r a h a s a l i v i n g b e i n g , a n d a s p e c i a l

c l as s o f s c h o l a r s d e v o t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e c a r e fu l c o u n t i n g o f t i l e n u m b e r o f

l e t t e r s i n i t. T h e r e a r e, i n c i d e n t a l l y , i n r o u n d n u m b e r s , 3 0 0 0 0 0 l e t t e r s in

12s CONANT, op. cir . , p. 94.124 SMITH & KARPINSKI, op. cir . , p. 1 5.li~ MARKHAM I n c a C i v i l i z a t i o n , p . 2 31 n . G A R CIL A SS O n t e r p r e t s i t a s o n e w h o

w i l l c o u n t a s w i s e, v i r t u o u s , p o w e r f u l .

l i s BEAGLEHOLE, op. cir . , p . 354 .137 T . P . H u G H E S , D i c t i o n a r y o / I s l a m , p. 143.



32 A . S E I D E N B E R G :

t h e T o r a h o u t o f t 1 0 0 0 0 0 in t h e B i b l e. S i m i l a r r e p o r t s a r e m a d e o f t h e

V ed a l~s .

I n A k k a d i a n t h e w o r d f o r w o r k i n g o u t a s u m is t h e s a m e as t h a t f o r p e r -

f o r m i n g a r i t u a l a c tl ~9 . ' '

P r e v io u s l y w e m e n t i o n e d t h e P o m o , w h o h a d e q u i p m e n t f o r c o u n t in g u p t o

4 0 0 00 . W i t h i t l a rg e q u an t i t i e s o f b e a d s w e r e c o u n t e d . I n a P o m o m y t h , t h e

f ir s t B e a r S h a m a n o f fe rs f o r t y t h o u s a n d b e a d s in p r e t e n d e d s y m p a t h y f o r t h e

v i c t i m w h o s e d e a t h h e h a s c a us e d. O n e is a p t t o b e im p r e s s e d b y t h e w e a l t h

i n v o l v e d in s o m a n y b e a d s a n d t o o v e r l oo k t h a t t h e c o u n t i n g o u t o f t h e s e b e a d s

m u s t h a v e b e e n ipso ]acto a s ig n i f ic a n t t h i n g a n d a s ig n o f s y m p a t h y .

E v e r y t h i n g , s a i d T H A L E S , i s f ul l o f g o d s . P e r h a p s t h e P o m o b e a d s ar e

g o d s - i f s o, t h e c o u n t i n g c e r e m o n y b e c o m e s a n i m a g e o f t h e p r o c e s s io n o f t h e

g o d s a t C r ea t io n . W h a t i s h e r e s u g g e s t e d is e l s ew h e r e e x p l i c i t; t h e B u d d h i s t

r o s a r y i n J a p a n , w h e r e i t re c e i v es i ts m o s t e l a b o r a t e f o r m , is c l e a r l y b u t a m o d e l

o f t h e p a n t h e o n ; i n t h e M a r q u e s a s , l ik e w i se , k n o t t e d s t r i n g s a r e u s e d a s m n e m o n i c

d e v i c e s f o r m e m o r i z i n g t h e C r e a t i o n g e n e a lo g i e s p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d ; a n d t h e

q u i p u , a s t r i n g d e v i c e f o r r e c o r d i n g n u m b e r s , w a s u s e d s i m i l a r ly b y t h e I n c a s

f o r l i t u r g i c a l p u r p o s e s 18°.

1 7 . T h e r i t u a l ch llenge

T h e a b o v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s c a n b e a p p l i e d t o t h e f o ll o w i ng , w h i c h i s t a k e n

f r o m a m y t h g i v e n b y t h e K a c h a N a g a s , a h i ll t r i b e o f A s s a m , i n t h e ir e x p l a n a t i o n

o f t h e d i v e r s i t y o f la n g n ag e s 13 1 :

T h e k i n g o f t h e m e n t h e n on e a r t h h a d a d a u g h t e r n a m e d S i t o y le . S h e w a s w o n -d r o u s f l e e t o f fo o t a n d l o v e d t o r o a m t h e j u n g l e t h e l iv e l o n g d a y , fa r fr o m h o m e , t h e r e b yc a u s i n g m u c h a n x i e t y t o h e r p a r en t s , w h o f e a re d l e s t sh e s h ou l d b e d e v o u r e d b y w i l db e a st s . O n e d a y h e r f a t h e r c o n ce i v e d a p la n f o r k e e p i n g h e r a t h om e . H e s e n t f o ra b a s k e t o f l i ns e e d , a n d u p s e t t i n g i t o n t h e g r o u n d h e o r d e r e d h i s d a u g h t e r t o p u t t h es e e d s b a c k , o n e b y o n e , i n t o t h e b a s k e t , c o u n t i n g t h e m a s s h e d i d s o . T h e n t h i n k i n gt h a t t h e t a s k h e h a d s e t h e r w o u l d o c c u p y th e m a i d e n t h e w h o l e d a y , h e w i t h dr e w .B u t b y s u n s e t h i s d a u g h t e r h a d c o u n t e d a l l t h e s e ed s a n d p u t t h e m b a c k i n t h e b a s k e t,a n d n o s o o n e r h a d s h e d o n e so t h a n a w a y s h e h u rr i e d t o t h e j u n g le . S o w h e n h e rp a r e n t s r e t u r n e d , et cetera.

I n s h o r t , i t ' s m i r a c u l o u s t o b e a b l e t o c o u n t q u i c k l y .

T h e s a m e t h e m e , c o u n t i n g a s a t a s k , is f o u n d i n E u r o p e a n f o lk l or e . A l s o s o m ea m u l e t s i n E u r o p e a p p e a r t o d e p e n d o n t h e s a m e i d e a : t h e y c o n t a i n a g r e a t

n u m b e r o f s m a l l t h i n g s t h a t t h e d e v il m u s t c o u n t b e f or e h e m a y p r o c e e d w i t h

h i s n e f a r i o u s w o r k ~3~. W h i l e t h e i d e a i s o n l y i m p l i c i t i n t h e a m u l e t , i t is e l s ew h e r e

e x p l i ci t in t h e f o lk t a le . I n t h e M e n t a w e i I s l a n d s , w e s t o f S u m a t r a , t h e f e t i sh

l~a Je wi sh En c. , a r t i c l e T o r a h , v o l . 1 2, p p . 19 7 a n d 1 9 6 ; M .M O L LE R, c i t e d i nW . R . L E T HA B Y ,Archi tec ture, M ys t ic i sm , and M yth , p . 2 4 t .

1,9 G. Cm LD E: W h a t H a p p e n e d i n H i s to r y , p. 129.la9 Enc yclop aed ia o[ Religion and E thics, a r t i c l e R o s a r i e s , v o l . 1 0; p . 8 5 t ; H A N D Y ,

op. cir., p . 3 4 2 ; W .C . BEN N E T T, i n Handbook o the South Am erica n India ns , vol. 5,p . 6 t3 . I n t h e T o r r e s S t r a i t s , a c o l l e c t io n o f s t i c k s t i e d t o a s t r i n g i s c a l l e d a kupe

o r kopei; o n e p r i n c i p a l u s e o f t h e kupe i s a s a f o r n i c a t i o n t a l l y (Camb. Anth . Exp . toTortes Sts . , v o l . 4 , p . 2 3 4 f .) . T h e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e w o r d kupe w i t h t h e Q u e c h u a nw o r d qu ipu f o r a s i m i l ar d e v i c e h a s n o t , s o f a r as w e k n o w , b e e n c o m m e n t e d u p o n .

1 3 1 F R A Z E R Folklore p . 1 5 1 .

182 W .L .H I LD BIJ RG I~ , I n d e t e r m in a b i l i t y a n d Co n f u s io n a s A p o t r o p a i c E l e m e n t si n I t a l y a n d i n S p a i n , Folklore, vol. 58 (1944), p. 135.



R i t u a l o r i g in o f c o u n t i n g 3 3

p o l e s f o i l g h o s t s b y r e q u i r i n g t h e m t o c o u n t l e a v e s 1Ha. A n l o n g s t t h e E k o i ,

i n A f r ic a , th e g h o s t s c a n n o t c o u n t t o s e v e n : t h i s f a c t i sm u s e d i n e l u d i n g

t h e m TM.

I n a f o l k t a l e o f t h e C o p p e r E s k i m o s , t w o h u n t e r s r e t u r n , o n e w i t h a w o lf ,

t h e o t h e r w i t h a c a r i b o u . T h e y b e g i n a r g u i n g a s t o w h i c h h i d e h a s t h e m o s t

h a i r s , a n d i n o r d e r t o s e t t l e t h e a r g u m e n t , d e c i d e t o h a v e a c o n t e s t , e a c h p u l l i n g

t h e h a i r s o u t o n e a t a t i m e . T h e y c o u n t a n d c o u n t a n d b e c o m e so e n g r o s s e d in

w h a t t h e y a r e d o in g t h a t d a y s p a s s a n d t h e y d i e o f h u n g e r . " T h a t i s w h a t

h a p p e n s " , t h e E s k i m o s t o r y t e l l e r ad d s , " w h e n o n e s t a r ts t o d o u s e l e ss a n d i d le

t h i n g s t h a t c a n n e v e r l e a d t o a n yt hi ng ~ a~ . ' ' C o u n t i n g a s a c o n t e s t i s n o t o n l y

w i d e s p r e a d b u t a l s o v e r y a n c i e n t : i n th e S a t a p a t h a B r a h m a n a ( I , 5 , 4 , 6 ) , t h e g o d s

a n d t h e A s u r a s ( b o t h d e s c e n d e d f r o m P r a j a p a t i ) a r e a t f i rs t c o n t e n d i n g f o r

s u p e r i o r i t y w i t h s t a v e s a n d b o w s , b u t u n a b l e t h u s t o c o m e t o a d e c is i o n , t h e

A s u r a s p r o p o s e t h a t t h e y " t r y t o o v e r c o m e o n e a n o t h e r b y s p e e c h , b y s a c r e d

w r i t ( b r a h m a n ) H e w h o c a n n o t f o ll ow u p o u r u t t e r e d s p e e c h b y ( m a k i n g u p )

a p a i r s h a l l b e d e f e a t e d , a n d l o s e e v e r y t h i n g . " T h e g o d s a g r e e, a n d I n d r a s t a r t s

f o r t h e g o d s s a y i n g : ' O n e ( e k a, m . , u n u s ) f o r m e ' T h e o t h e r s t h e n s a i d , ' O n e

(ekgt, f ., u n a ) f o r u s ' a n d t h u s f o u n d t h a t d e s i r e d p a i r . " T h u s t h e y c o n t i n u e ,

w h e r e a n p o n I n d r a w i ns b y s a y i n g " F i v e " , b e c a u s e " t h e n t h e o t h e r s f o u n d n o

p a i r , fo r t h e n b o t h ( m a s c u l i n e a n d f e m i n i n e ) a r e p a n k a 1 3 t ' '

I n S i a m , b e f o r e a w i t n e s s i s a l l o w e d t o t e s t i f y , h e i s r e q u i r e d t o c o u n t t o

t e n . T h i s h a s b e e n r e p r e s e n t e d a s a t e s t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , b u t i t i s f a i r ly c le a r

t h a t i t i s n o t a r e a l , b u t m e r e l y a r i tu a l , c h a l le n g e , q u i t e h o m o l o g o u s t o B u d d h a ' se f f o r ts ~37. S i m i l a r l y , t h e a n c i e n t S h r e w s b u r y c u s t o m o f d e e m i n g a p e r s o n t o b e

o f a g e w h e n h e k n e w h o w t o c o u n t u p t o t w e l v e p e n c e w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e

t h e r e s i d u e o f a p u b e r t y c e r e m o n y 1as. In E n g l a n d t h e y a l so s a y : " H e k n o w s

138 E. M . Lo~ B, M e n ta we i R e l i g io u s Cu l t s , p. 224.

la4 P.A.TALBOT I n t h e S h a d o w o / t h e B u s h , pp. 9 , 240, 337.xa5 K . R A SM U S SE N , " I n t e l l e c t u a l C u l t u r e o f t h e C o p p e r E s k i m o s " , F i / t h T h u l e

E x p e d i t i o n , vo l . 9 , p . t 22 .18~ Sa tap a tha Bra hm ana , I , 5 , 4 , 6 , Sacred Boo ks o / the Eas t , vol . 12 , p . 153.137 TY LO R, 0p . cir., VO1. 1, p . 242 .

~Z8 Ib id . I t i s a m u s i n g t o s e e t h e n o t i o n t h a t a p e r s o n c a n b e h u m a n l i k e o n l y ifh e c a n c o u n t m a k i n g i t s a p p e a r a n c e i n r e c e n t s c i e n ti f ic l i t e r a t u r e . T h u s H . F RE UD EN -T H A L i n h i s b o o k L i n c o s i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f d e s i g n i n g a la n g u a g e (viz,L i n c o s) f o r c o s m i c in t e r c o u r s e . H e s u p p o s e s (p . a 4) t h a t " t h e p e r s o n w h o i s t o r e c e i v e

m y m e s s a g e s is h u m a n o r a t le a s t h u m a n l i k e a s t o h is m e n t a l s t a t e a n d e x p e r i e n c e s "a n d h e p r o p o s e s " t o e x c l u d e o r a t l e a s t r e s t r i c t e x c e s s i v e l y t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f s h o w -

i n g . " " L i n c o s " , h e c o n t i n u e s ( p. 2 1) , " h a s t o b e t a u g h t t o t h e r e c e iv e r . T h e r e f o r e o u rp r o g r a m t o b e b r o a d c a s t c a n n o t h a v e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a n e w sr e el . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i nt h e b e g i n n i n g w e s h a l l c o m m u n i c a t e f a c ts w h i c h m a y b e s u p p o s e d to b e k n o w n t o t h e

r e c e i v e r . . . A s o u r m e a n s o f s h o w i n g a re h e a v i l y re s t r ic t e d , w e c a n n o t s t a r t w i t h c o n -c r e te s u b j e e t m a t e r i a l . M a t h e m a t i c s i s t h e m o s t a b s t r a c t s u b j e c t w e k n o w a n d a t t h e s a m et i m e a s u b j e c t t h a t m a y b e s u p p o s e d t o b e u n i v e r s a l ly k n o w n t o h u m a n l i k e i n t e ll i g e n t

b e i ng s . S o w e h a v e d e c i d e d t o s t a r t o u r p r o g r a m w i t h m a t h e m a t i c s . N a t u r a l n u m b e r sa r e i n t r o d u c e d . . . " I t i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t t h e v i e w o n w h i c h F RE U DE NT rIA L b a s e s h isp r o g r a m i s f a ls e , a s b a b i e s a r e h u m a n l i k e i n t e l l i g e n t b e i n g s l o n g b e fo r e t h e y c a n

c o u n t ; a n d n o t l o n g a g o , a l l h u m a n s s p e n t t h e i r w h o l e l iv e s w i t h o u t c o u n t in g . P e r h a p s( t h o u g h t h i s i s b y n o m e a n s c l e ar ) F RE UD EN TH A L o n l y m e a n t t o a s s u m e t h a t t h eb e i n g s a r e i n t e l l i g e n t e n o u g h t o l e a r n c o u n t i n g ; m a y b e h e w i l l m a k e t h i s p o i n t m o r e

c l e a r i n t h e p r o m i s e d s e c o n d p a r t o f h i s w o r k . T h e r e is , b y t h e w a y , a n o t h e r w i d e s p r e a d

Arch. Hist. Ex act S ei., Vol.2 3



34 A. SEIDENBERG :

h o w m a n y b e a n s m a k e five139. ' ' K n o w i n g a n s w e r s i s f r e q u e n t l y e q u a t e d w i t h

i n t e l l i g e n c e .

T h e v i e w o n e t a k e s o f s u ch f a c t s w i ll d e p e n d u p o n o n e ' s v ie w s o n r i t u a l in

g e n e r a l. T h e e v o l u t i o n a r y th e o r y o f r i t u a l s e e s i n t h e m a d r a m a t i c h e i g h t e n i n g

o f m u n d a n e a c t i v i t i e s : c o u n t i n g i s s o m e t h i n g o n e n e e d s i n d a i l y l if e , s o i t b e c o m e s

e l a b o r a t e d i n r i tu a l . O r to t a k e a n e x a m p l e o f w i d e r s c o p e, t h e c o r o n a t i o n o f

t h e k i n g is c o n s i d e re d ~o b e b u t a m o r e e l a b o r a t e c o p y o f a n i n i t i a t io n c e r e m o n y .

A c c o r d i n g t o H OC AR T'S t h e o r y o f t h e k i n g s h i p , h o w e v e r , i t i s j u s t t h e o t h e r w a y

a r o u n d : t h e i d e a s a n d d e t a i l s of t h e r i t u a l a r e f i rs t w o r k e d o u t w i t h r e s p e c t t o

t h e k i n g s h i p , a n d a f t e r w a r d s a p p l i e d t o o t h e r th i n g s . A p e r s o n is a s s i m i l a t e d

t o t h e k i n g ( o r g o d ) a n d i n t h e p r o c e s s is r e q u i r e d t o d o a k i n g l y ( o r g o d l y ) t h i n g 14°.

S o m e t i m e s , a s in t h e c a s e o f t h e T i b e t w i t n e s s , t h i s g o d l y t h i n g i s c o u n ti n g .

1 8. T h e c r e a t i v e n u m b e r

W e r e c a l l o n c e m o r e t h e C r e a t i o n m y t h f o u n d i n t h e M a r q u e s a s : i t is s i m p l y

a g e n e a lo g y , c o n s i s t in g of t w o l i s t s o f a b o u t t 4 0 n a m e s e a c h . T h e m y t h i s c h a n t e d

o n c e r e m o n i a l o c c a s io n s . T h e c h a n t i n g , w h a t e v e r t h e o c c a s io n , w a s a l w a y s

d o n e b y w o m e n . A t f o r m a l f e s t iv a l s t w o o l d w o m e n s k i l l e d i n t h e a r t w e r e c h o se n

t h e s e t w o s t o o d u p t o g e t h e r a n d r e c i t e d a l te r n a t e l y , o n e t h e m e n ' s n a m e s ,

t h e o t h e r t h e w o m e n ' s . I n o th e r w o rd s , t a k i n g th e m y t h a s d e s c r i p t i v e o f a

r i t e , t h e m e n a n d w o m e n e n t e r e d a l t e r n a t e l y o n t o t h e r i t u a l s c en e . T h e P a w n e e

i n o n e s t o r y s a y t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n b o r n o f t h e f i r s t p a r e n t s w e r e a l t e r n a t e l y b o y s

a n d g i r ls , w h o m a r r i e d e a c h o t h e r w h e n t h e y a r r i v e d a t m a t u r i t y m .

I t o c c u r s t o u s, j u s t n o w a n d w i t h s o m e s u r p r is e , t h a t t h e r e w e r e t w o c e n s o r s

a t R o m e ( it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t o u s t h a t t h e r e w e r e t w o s o t h a t e a c h c o u l d

k e e p a n e y e o n t h e o t h e r ) . G o i n g o v e r o u r e v id e n c e , w e f i n d t h a t i n s e v e r a l

c a s e s t h e r e a r e t w o c o u n t e r s . T h u s w i t h t h e K w a k i u t l t h e r e w e r e two c o u n t i n g

o f f i c e s , T h e C o u n t e r a n d T h e T a l l y e r . I n t h e c e n s u s o f t h e C h i c h i m e c s w e s p o k e

a b o u t , t h e r e w e r e t w o h e a p s . S i m i l a r l y w i t h t h e N o o t k a , in p o t l a t c h i n v i t a t i o n s

t h e s p e a k e r h a d t w o b u n d l e s o f s m a l l s p l in t s , o n e f or th e c h i ef s a n d o n e f o r p e r s o n s

o f l o w e r r a n k , a n d a s h e c a l l e d e a c h n a m e i n o r d e r of r a n k , h e o r a n a s s i s t a n t

t h r e w d o w n t h e s t ic k f r o m t h e p r o p e r bu nd le ~a ~. ' O n F l o r i d a I s l a n d , W h e n

y a m s a r e c o u n t e d t w o m e n c o u n t o u t e a c h f i ve , m a k i n g t e n , a n d a s e a c h t e n i s

m a d e t h e y c a l l o u t o n e , t w o , a n d s o on143. ' ' A n d w e n o t e t h a t t w o o f t h e

n i n e t y - n i n e b e a u t i f u l n a m e s o f A l l a h r e f e r t o c o u n t i n g .

I n a l i st c o l l e c t e d b y B RU GSC H o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e E g y p t i a n g o d w e f i n d

t h a t G o d is f a t h e r o f f a th e r s a n d m o t h e r o f m o t h e r s . . . H i s n a m e s a r e i n n u m e r -

a b l e . . . H e m u l t i p l i e t h h i m s e l f m i l l i o n s o f t im e s1 44 . ' T h i s i s t o b e c o m p a r e d

c o n f u s io n t h a t b e d e v i l s t h e d i s c u s s io n o n o r i g in s : th i s is t h e c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n b e i n ga b l e to l e a r n th e u s e o f a t h i n g a n d b e i n g a b l e to i n v e n t it . W e h a v e s e e n a m o n k e y

r i d e a b i c y c l e , b u t n o o n e e x p e c t s a m o n k e y e v e r t o i n v e n t o n e .139 TYLOR, loc . c i r .

1~0 T h i s i s t h e m a i n p o i n t , b u t f o r a m o r e e x a c t s t a t e m e n t see HOCART K i n g s h i p ,

C h a p . X I [ , e s p e c i a l l y p p . 1 5 4 - - t 5 9 .a4t G .A . 1)OlaS~.:~-, T r a d i t i o n s o / t h e S k i d i P a w n e e , p p . 2 0 - - 2 2 .142 I ' . I)R U C KE R , T h e N o r t h e r n a n d C e n t r a l N o o t k a n T r i b e s , S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t .

Bur. . - truer. Eth~z. , Bull . 144 (1951) , p . 117.143 C )I)RINGTON, o p . c i r . p. 353-

m B ~ J mi: ., E g y p t i a n I d e a s o / t h e F u tu r e L i / e , p . 2 0 f .



t{itual origin of counting 3 5

with the Pyth agorea n notion that the One is both even and odd. Both notions

appear to be the result of an ancient movement to eliminate, or severely restrict,

the role of women in religion 145.

Explicit serializing with numbers of lists of names are to be found in the

ancient Babylonian and Sumerian documents. The Seve nth Tablet of the Baby-

lonian Creation Series contains the ceremonial proclamation by the assembly

of the gods of the grea t Fi fty Names of the god Marduk. In the Tablet we find

that . . . Z i k u (or Zi-azag) was the third name they gave him -- holder (that is,

possessor) of holiness, God of the favorable wind, e t ce tera , e t ce tera . . . . (he is)

the god Aga-ku (or Aga-azag) in the f ourth place - - let m en exult .., the god

Mu-ku (or Mu-a zag )in the fifth pl ac e, .. Then he is the god Shazu, but here

the tablet from lines 39 to t06 is badly broken, and whether the numbers seventh,

eighth, ninth, et cetera, occur, we do not know 146. In the Sixth Tablet Anu

names the names of the bow thus : The first is Long Bow, the seco nd.. , its

third is Bow-Star in he av en .. . In a Sumerian legend from the sixteenth Tablet

of the Evil Demon Spirit, seven evil demons are enumerated: O f these seven,

the first is the south wind, the second is a dragon whose mouth is opened.., that

none can measure. The third is, et cetera...~47.,,

In the Bible, amongst numerous genealogies, we read, for example, that

Eleazar begat Phinehas, Phinehas begat Abashua, and Abashua begat

Bukki, and Bukki begat Uzzi et celera, e t cetera. In a Baby]onian incantation for

tootha che we find: Afte r Anu (had created the heavens), the Heavens created

(the Earth), the Earth created the Rivers, the Rivers created the Canals, etc348. '

The incantation, by incorporating a genealogy, refers itself to the Creation ritual.

The Besisi of Malaya have the following incantation149:

One, two, three, four, five, six, seven,Be cool, O Fever, cool and frigid...

Here the Creation myth is abbreviated to a count to seven.

In the Tao-Te-King, LAO-TSE gives a Chinese version of the Creation thus15°:

Tao produced unity; unity produced duality; duality produced trinity; and trinityproduced the innumerable objects; the innumerable objects, carrying the feminine

or shadow principle on one side, and the masculine or sunshine principle on the other,created a just harmony by their respective clashes of primitive impulse or ether.

The Pythagoreans, as we have seen, held ten to be perfect. PHILOLAUS

called the decad g r e a t , all-powerful and all-producing, the beginning and

the guide of the divine as of the terrestial life~51. ' This ten, conceived as

14~ See RAGLAN,Origins, Chap. xII I SEIDENBERG,S e p a r a t i o n o / S k y a n d E a r th ,

p. 480.146 The Ba by lo n ian Legend s o / Crea t ion , British Museum, p. 70f. For the variant

reading, see A. UGNAD,R e l ig i o n d e r B a b y l o n i e r u n d A s s y r e r , p. 49.147 ROGERS,op. cit., p. 63.

14s Ib id ., p. 52.149 W. S. SKEAT & C.O. BLAGDElX , Pa ga n R aces of the ~/Talay Pe~¢insula , vol. 2,

p. 309.~5o Enc yc lopa ed ia o f R e l ig ion and E th ics , article Cosmogony and Cosmology ,

vol. 4, p. 140.Jsl E. ZELLER, 4 H i s t o r y o / G r e e k P h i l o s o p h y , vol. ~ (4th ed.), p. 427.

3*



36 A SEIDENBERG :

t h e s u m o f t h e f i rs t f o u r n u m b e r s , w a s c a ll e d t h e T e t r a c t y s . A n o a t h o f t h e i r s

r u n s 15Z

Y e s I s w e a r b y h i m w h o h a s g i v e n o u r s o u l t h e T e t r a c t y s s o u r c e o f e v e r - f l o w i n g

n a t u r e .

C . L E V IA S s u m s u p t h e t h e o r e t i c b a s i s o f J e w i s h g e m a t r i a t hu s lY 3 :

A l l c r e a t io n h a s e m a n a t e d f r o m t h e E n S o t. T h e f i rs t d e g re e o f t h a t e v o l u t io na r e t h e t e n S e f ir o t, f r o m t h e l a s t o f w h i c h , K i n g d o m , d e v e l o p e d t h e 2 2 l e t t e r s o f t h eH e b r e w a l p h a b e t . T h r o u g h t h e l a t t e r t h e w h o l e f in i te w o r l d h a s c o m e in t o e x is t en c e .T h e s e le t t e r s a r e d y n a m i c p o w e r s. S i n c e t h e s e p o w e r s a r e n u m b e r s , e v e r y t h i n g t h a th a s s p r u n g f r o m t h e m i s n u m b e r . N u m b e r i s t h e e s se n c e o f t h in g s , w h o s e l oc a l a n dt e m p o r a l r e la t io n s u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n d o n n u m e r i c a l pr o p o r ti o n s . E v e r y t h i n g h a s i tsp r o t o t y p e i n t h e w o r l d o f s p ir it , t h a t s p i ri t u al p r o t o t y p e b e i n g t h e g e r m f r o m w h i c ht h e t h i n g h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d . A s t h e e s s e n c e o f t h i n g s is n u m b e r , t h e i d e n t i t y o ft h i n g s i n n u m b e r d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e i r i d e n t i t y i n e s s e n c e .

T h e i m a g e w e o r i g i n a ll y p r o j e c t e d a s a h y p o t h e s i s i s g i v e n e x p l i c i tl y i n I s a i a h

X L : 2 6 : L i f t u p y o u r ey e s O h i g h a n d b e h o l d w h o h a t h c r e a t e d th e s e t h i n g s ,

t h a t b r i n g e t h o u t t h e i r h o s t b y n u m b e r : h e c a l le t h t h e m a ll b y n a m e s b y t h e

g r ea tr ~ es s o f h i s m i g h t , f o r t h a t h e i s s t r o n g i n p o w e r ; n o t o n e f a i l e t h .

I n t h e S a l a p a t h a B r a h m a ~ c a ( V I I I , 4, 3 , t f t. ), P r a j a p a t i p r o d u c e s c r e a t u r e s

b y c o u n t i n g t h e o d d n u m b e r s f r o m 'l t o 33 . A n d w e r ec a ll t h a t t h e E g y p t i a n

C r e a t o r o f t h e g o d s , K h e p e r a , c r e a t e s h i m s e l f b y u t t e r i n g t h e n u m b e r O n e .

T h e C r e a t iv e W o r d h a s b e c o m e t h e C r e a ti v e N u m b e r .

1 9 S u m m a r y a n d c o n c l u s i o nV a r i o u s p e c u l i a r f e a t u r e s o f c o u n t i n g p r a c t i c e s le d u s to t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t

t h e y w e r e n o t s p o n t a n e o u s l y g e n e r a t e d , b u t w e r e d i f fu s e d f r o m c i v i li z e d c e n t e rs .

T h e a r c h a i c b a s i s o f s o c i e t y w a s r i t u a l , s o o n c e a c i v il i z e d o r ig i n f o r c o u n t i n g w a s

i n d i c a t e d , t h e p o s s i b i li t y , o n e m i g h t e v e n s a y t h e p r o b a b i l i t y , a r o s e t h a t i t h a d

a r i t u a l o ri g in . T h i s b y n o m e a n s m e a n t t h a t w e c o u l d s a y w h a t t h e o r i g i n w a s ,

b e c a u s e f o r o n e t h i n g t h e e v i d e n c e m i g h t h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r o y e d o r

h a v e p r o v e d t o b e s o d i ff u s e a n d i n c o h e r e n t a s n o t t o a l l o w f o r a r e c o n s t r u c t io n .

S t a r t in g f r o m s u c h m y s t i c s a y in g s a s O d d n u m b e r s a r e m a l e , e v en n u m b e r s

f e m a l e a n d N u m b e r ru le s t h e u n i v er s e , s u p p o r te d b y t h e t h e o r y t h a t a m y t h

h a s n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h s p e c u la t io n s o r e x p la n a t io n s , a n y m o r e t h a n i t h a s t od o w i t h h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s . . , b u t [ is I t h e f o r m o f w o r d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r i t e 1 5v ',

w e l o o k e d fo r c o u n t i n g r i t u al s a n d f o u n d , a m o n g s t o t h e r t h in g s , t h a t c o u n t i n g

w a s f r e q u e n t l y t h e c e n t r a l f e a t u r e o f a r it e , a n d t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s i n r i t u a l w e r e

n u m b e r e d . T h i s s u g g e s t e d t o u s t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t c o u n t i n g w a s in v e n t e d a s

a m e a n s o f c a l li n g p a r t i c i p a n t s i n r i t u a l o n t o t h e r i t u a l s ce n e . W i t h t h i s h y p o -

t he si s, w e e x a m i n e d a n c i e n t t h o u g h t f 6 r s u p p o r t , f o u n d i t, a n d t h e h y p o t h e s i s

in, t u r n i l l u m i n a t e d s o m e o b s c u r e a n c i e n t i d e a s .

~5~ T h e o a th i s V e r s e 4 7 o f t h e G o ld e n V e r s e s ( s ee A.I ELATTE,F_,tude su r la l i t td-r a t u r e p y t h a g o r i c i e n n e , p . 2 53 ). A tr i a n g u l a r n u m b e r i .e . , a n u m b e r o f t h e f o r m

I + . + n ) o c c u r s i n a m y t h f o u n d o n B o w d i c h I s la n d , in t h e U n i o n G r o u p ( J. J .LISTER N o t e s o n t h e N a t i v e s o f F a k a o f u , J o u r n a l o f t h e R o y a l A n t h r o p o l o g i c a lI n s t i t u t e , v o l . 2 1, p . 6 0) : T h e r e w e r e t e n b r o t h e r s w h o s e n a m e s w e r e s i m p l y t h e n u m b e r sf r o m o n e to te n . T h e i r p a r e n t s d i s t r i b u t e a x e s t o t h e m , t 0 t o t 0 , 9 t o 9 , e t c.

15s o p . c ir ., T h e J e w i s h E n c y c l o p e d i a , vol. 5, p. 90.154 RAGLAN T h e H e r o , p. 130.




M o s t o f t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s , i t m a y b e n o t e d , a r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a p r a c t i c a l

o r ig i n o f c o u n t i n g , t h a t i s, t h e y d e p e n d s o l e ly o n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n ( or h y p o t h e s i s )

t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s i n r i t u a l w e r e c a l l e d f o r th b y n u m b e r . T h e i d e a s e n c o u n t e r e d

h e r e , h o w e v e r , a l so e x p l a i n p u r e 2 - c o u n t in g , w h i c h i s t h e o l d e s t s t r a t u m o f c o u n t -

i n g w e c a n d e t e c t . T h u s t h e s e i d e a s a p p e a r t o b e c o e v a l w i t h t h e o r i g i n o f c o u n t i n g .

O u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p o i n t t o t h e f o ll o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n :

Cou n t ing w as i nven t ed i n a c iv i l i z ed cen te r i n e labora tion o / t h e Crea t ion r it ua l

a s a means o / ca ll i ng par t i c ipan t s i n r i t ua l on to t he r i t ua l s cene once and on l y once

and thence d i / / u sed .

Acknowledgment : T h a n k s a r e d u e E DW IN M .L O E B fo r r e a d i n g a n e a r l i e r v e r s i o no f t h e t e x t a n d g i v i n g h e l p f u l s u g g e s ti o n s . T h e a u t h o r a l s o t h a n k s P r o f e s s o r VAN D ERW A ER D EN f o r c o m m e n t s l e a d i n g t o g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n o f s t a t e m e n t .

B i b l i o g r a p h y

A BB OT T, J . , T h e K e y s o f P o w e r . L o n d o n 1 93 2.A RIS TO TL E, M e t a p h y s i c a , t r a n s l , b y W . D . R o s s i n T h e W o r k s o f A r i s t o t le , v o l. 8 .

O x f o r d , t 9 2 8 .- - , D e A n i m a , t r a n s l , b y J . A . S MIT ~I n T h e W o r k s o f A r i s t o t l e , v o l . 3 : 2 . O x f o r d , 1 93 1.- - , P r o b l e m a t a , t r a n s l , b y E . S . F O RS TE R i n T h e " W o rk s o f A r i s t o t l e , v o l . 7 . O x f o r d ,

1927.A R NS TR O NG , W . E . , I R o s s e l I s l a n d . C a m b r i d g e , t 9 2 8 .BANCROFT H.H. T h e N a t i v e R a c e s o f t h e P a c i f i c S t a t e s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , 5 v o l s.

N e w Y o r k , t 8 7 5 - - 7 6 .B E AO L E~ OL E , E . & P . , E t h n o l o g y o f t h e P u k a p u k a , B . P . B i s h o p M u s e u m B u l l . , N o . 15 0.

H o n o l u l u , t 9 34 .B E l. l., E . T . , T h e M a g i c o f N u m b e r s . N e w Y o r k , t 94 6.B EN ED IC T, L . W . , " A S t u d y o f B a g o b o C e r e m o n i a l , M a g i c , a n d M y t h " , A n n . N . Y .

A ea d . Sc i . , vo l . 28 (1916) .B EN NE TT , W . C . , " L o r e a n d L e a r n i n g , N u m b e r s , M e a s u r e s , W e i g h t s a n d C a l e n d a r s " ,

i n C o m p . E t h n . o f t h e S . A . I n d i a n s , v o l . 5 o f t h e H a n d b o o k o f S . A . I n d i a n s ,S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t . B u r . o f A m e r . E t h n . B u l l . 1 43 . W a s h i n g t o n , 1 94 9.

B o a s , E . , " T h e P o t l a t c h o f t h e K w a k i u t l I n d i a n s " i n A . L . K RO EB ER & T .T ." W A T E R -

M A N, S o u r c e B o o k i n A n t h r o p o l o g y ( N e w Y o r k , t 9 3 1) .- - , " C o n t r i b u t i o n t o th e E t h n o l o g y o f t h e K w a k i u t l " , C o l u m b i a U n i v. C o n t r . A n t h r o . ,

vol . 3 (1925) .B R EA ST ED , J . H . , A n c i e n t R e c o r d s o f E g y p t , 5 v o l s . C h i c a g o , 1 9 06 .B R IF rA tJ LT , R . , T h e M o t h e r s , 3 v o l s . N e w Y o r k , t 9 2 7 .B R IN T ON , D . G . , M y t h s o f t h e N e w W o r l d . N e w Y o r k , t 8 6 8 .

B U D GE , E . A . W A L l , S , T h e G o d s o f t h e E g y p t i a n s , 2 v o l s . C h i c a g o , 1 9 04 .- - , E g y p t i a n I d e a s of t h e F u t u r e L i f e. L o n d o n , t 90 8 .

- - , A m u l e t s a n d S u p e r s t i t i o n s . L o n d o n , t 9 3 0 .- - - - , T r a n s l . o f T h e B o o k o f t h e D e a d , 3 v o l s . C h i c a g o , 1 90 1.

- - , ( E d .) , T h e B a b y l o n i a n L e g e n d s o f t h e C r e a t io n , B r i t i s h M u s e u m , 1 9 3 t.C A JO R I, F . , A H i s t o r y o f M a t h e m a t i c s . N e w Y o r t / , t 9 2 9 .C m l . D E , V . G O RD O N, T h e A r y a n s . N e w Y o r k , t 9 2 8 .

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F ET T W EIS , E . , D a s R e c h n e n d e r N a t u r v 6 1 k e r , 3 5 p a g e s . L e i p z i g , 1 9 27 .F RA Z ER , J . G . , T h e M a g i c A r t a n d t h e E v o l u t i o n o f K i n g s ( 2 v o l s. ), i n T h e G o l d e n

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H O s E , C , & W . M c Do U GA L L, T h e P a g a n T r i b e s o f B o r n e o , 2 v o ls . L o n d o n , t 9 1 2 .

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Received Ju ly 7, 1962)

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