Semester: Spring 2019 Level: B. Ed Assignment No.2 … · 2019. 7. 8. · Emory Bogardus, an eminent sociologist of the University of Southern California in 1942 developed a scale

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Course: Teacher Education in Pakistan (8602)

Semester: Spring 2019

Level: B. Ed

Assignment No.2

Q 1: Elaborate the difference among sociograms, social distance scale and guess who

questionnaire in terms of their use.

Answer:

A sociogram is a visual representation or map of the relationships between individuals. Learn

more about sociograms from examples and test your knowledge with a quiz.

Definition of Sociogram

Suppose you are a seventh grade teacher. There are ten students in your classroom: Mike, Olivia,

Connor, Tracy, Lena, Darren, James, Tiona, Lisa, and Taylor. You notice that your male and female

students have not been getting along well in recent weeks. You are interested in looking at the

relationships between your students to help you understand what is going on in your classroom.

One method that can help you examine relationships is creating a sociogram.

A sociogram is a visual depiction of the relationships among a specific group. The purpose of a

sociogram is to uncover the underlying relationships between people. A sociogram can be used

to increase your understanding of group behaviors.

How Do You Create a Sociogram?

Before you begin to create a sociogram of the students in your classroom, you must first come up

with a criterion, which is what you want to measure. The criterion that you use is usually some

question about a specific type of social interaction. A criterion can be either positive or negative.

Positive criterions are those that ask the students to choose something that they either enjoy or

would like to participate in with others. Negative criterions ask students to choose something

that they would not enjoy. Negative criterions are used to discover resistance or rejection in

interpersonal relationships.

Examples of positive criterions that can be used to create a sociogram are:

• Which three classmates would you most like to go on a vacation with?

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• Which three classmates are your best friends?

• Which three classmates do you like the most?

Examples of negative criterions that can be used to create a sociogram are:

• Which three classmates would you least enjoy going on a vacation with?

• Which three classmates do you like to be around the least?

• Which three classmates would you least like to be stranded on an island with?

Once your students have all answered the question, you tabulate the results and use them to

create a sociogram.

Sociologist R.E. Park (1923) coined the term social distance for the first time while describing the

observed fact that the kinds of situations in which contact occurs between a dominant group and

subordinates vary in their degree of intimacy like, from Kinship by marriage, residence in the same

neighbourhood, work in the same occupation to absolutely no contact.

Emory Bogardus, an eminent sociologist of the University of Southern California in 1942

developed a scale for measuring the social distances among various groups in the United States.

It was further given prominence by Katz and Allport under the able guidance of Gallet and

Bogardus.

Bogardus was interested in measuring racial attitudes, attitudes of people towards different races,

towards different nationalities and comparing them through his social distance scale.

The procedure of the construction of the scale is as follows:

The investigator first formulates various statements indicating different degrees of acceptance or

rejection of the group.

The subject has to indicate how close or how far away he is from the members of the other group.

A distance is measured by these statements which are basically psychological. A favourable

attitude is indicated by the closeness and an unfavourable attitude is indicated by distance. The

greater the distance the greater is the unfavourable attitude and less the distance the greater is

the favourable attitude.



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The psychological distance is progressively increased in the scale as one proceeds from the first to

the last statement starting from close kinship by marriage to exclusion from the country.

Bogardus thus asked the respondents to indicate to which of the following steps they would

admit members of the various groups in the United States of America.

Guess who questionnaire in terms of their use

This worksheet includes prompt questions to help students play the game 'guess who?'. It is for

beginner level. The worksheet includes short questions and descriptions of people. It is to help

students to complete a meaningful speaking activity where they have to guess the identity of

their partner's character based on questions about their appearance. The game can be played

with 2 or more players..

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Q 2: Describe the terms of stress and anxiety for test. As a teacher what measures you

suggest to reduce the test anxiety of the students.

Answer:

Many people experience stress or anxiety before an exam. In fact, a little nervousness can actually

help you perform your best. However, when this distress becomes so excessive that it actually

interferes with performance on an exam, it is known as test anxiety.

What does it feel like to experience test anxiety? You paid attention in class, took detailed notes,

read every chapter, and even attended extra study sessions after class, so you should do great on

that big exam, right? When the test is presented, however, you find yourself so nervous that you

blank out the answers to even the easiest questions. If this experience sounds familiar, then you

might be suffering from test anxiety.

What Is Text Anxiety?

Test anxiety is a psychological condition in which people experience extreme distress and anxiety

in testing situations. While many people experience some degree of stress and anxiety before and

during exams, test anxiety can actually impair learning and hurt test performance.

Test anxiety is a type of performance anxiety. In situations where the pressure is on and a good

performance counts, people can become so anxious that they are actually unable to do their best.



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Other examples of performance anxiety:

• A high school basketball player becomes very anxious before a big game. During the

game, he is so overwhelmed by this stress that he starts missing even easy shots.

• A violin student becomes extremely nervous before a recital. During the performance, she

messes up on several key passages and flubs her solo.

• During a work presentation, a businessman freezes up and forgets the information he was

going to present to his co-workers and manager.

While people have the skills and knowledge to do very well in these situations, their excessive

anxiety impairs their performance.

The severity of test anxiety can vary considerably from one person to another. Some people might

feel like they have "butterflies" in their stomach and while others might find it difficult to

concentrate on the exam.

A little bit of nervousness can actually be helpful, making you feel mentally alert and ready to

tackle the challenges presented in an exam. The Yerkes-Dodson law suggests that there is a link

between arousal levels and performance. Essentially, increased arousal levels can help you do

better on exams, but only up to a certain point. Once these stress levels cross that line, the

excessive anxiety you might be experiencing can actually interfere with test performance.

Excessive fear can make it difficult to concentrate and you might struggle to recall things that you

have studied. You might feel like all the information you spent some much time reviewing

suddenly seems inaccessible in your mind. You blank out the answers to questions to which

you know you know the answers. This inability to concentrate and recall information then

contributes to even more anxiety and stress, which only makes it that much harder to focus

your attention on the test.

Overcoming Test Anxiety

So what exactly can you do to prevent or minimize test anxiety? Here are some strategies to help:

• Make sure you're prepared. That means studying for the test early until you feel

comfortable with the material. Don't wait until the night before. If you aren't sure how to



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study, ask your teacher or parent for help. Being prepared will boost your confidence,

which will lessen your test anxiety.

• Banish the negative thoughts. If you start to have anxious or defeated thoughts, such as

"I'm not good enough," "I didn't study hard enough," or "I can't do this," push those

thoughts away and replace them with positive thoughts. "I can do this," "I know the

material," and "I studied hard," can go far in helping to manage your stress level when

taking a test.

• Get enough sleep. A good night's sleep will help your concentration and memory.

• Take deep breaths. If you start to feel anxious while you're taking your test, breathe

deeply in through your nose and out through your mouth. Work through each question or

problem one at a time, taking a deep breath in between each one as needed. Making sure

you are giving your lungs plenty of oxygen can help your focus and sense of calm.

• Avoid the perfectionist trap. Don't expect to be perfect. We all make mistakes and that's

okay. Knowing you've done your best and worked hard is really all that matters, not

perfection.

Therapy and Medications Can Also Help

• If you need extra support, make an appointment with your school counselor or primary

care physician.

• Depending on the severity of your symptoms, your physician may also

recommend cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), anti-anxiety medications, or a combination

of both. CBT focuses on helping people change both the behaviors and underlying

thoughts that contribute to the unwanted behaviors or feelings.

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Q 3: Write down learning outcomes for any unit of English for 10th class and develop an

easy type test item with rubric, 5 multiple choice questions and 5 short questions for

the written learning outcomes.

Answer:



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English is a main subject of our curriculum and is being taught in our schools and colleges. It is a

language basically and study of English language, composition, grammar and the literature.

SSC part II, 10th class English paper consists of 20% of objective and multiple choice questions are

main part of it. It has provided the excellent opportunity for the student of 9th class to prepare

their English paper online. On this page, 9th class students can easily judge their eligibility of

passing examination in notable grades.

9th class students can prepare their subject online here which will be beneficial for them in

passing English subject with exceptional marks. This online English test contains large number of

multiple choice questions and by attempting these online papers; students can judge their English

preparation in a better way. This is a free platform for students to prepare English exams to get

best accomplishments in annual exams.

9th class Students can analyze their self by attempting this online test system as many time as

they want until unless they find their self fully prepared. 9th class students are advised to attempt

this online test for English subject.

Humans are linguistic animals. Language is the most fundamental and pervasive tool we have for

interpreting our world and communicating with others as we act in and attempt to transform that

world. Whether they pursue an emphasis in literature or writing, English majors gain a deeper

understanding of the resources of the written word. Both literature and writing courses help

students explore how writers use the creative resources of language-in fiction, poetry, nonfiction

prose, and drama-to explore the entire range of human experience. English courses help students

build skills of analytical and interpretive argument; become careful and critical readers; practice

writing-in a variety of genres-as a process of intellectual inquiry and creative expression; and

ultimately to become more effective thinkers and communicators who are well-equipped for a

variety of careers in our information-intensive society.

Specific learning outcomes for English courses include the following:

1. Reading: Students will become accomplished, active readers who appreciate ambiguity and

complexity, and who can articulate their own interpretations with an awareness and curiosity for

other perspectives.



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2. Writing skills and process: Students will be able to write effectively for a variety of professional

and social settings. They will practice writing as a process of motivated inquiry, engaging other

writers’ ideas as they explore and develop their own. They will demonstrate an ability to revise for

content and edit for grammatical and stylistic clarity. And they will develop an awareness of and

confidence in their own voice as a writer.

3. Sense of Genre: Students will develop an appreciation of how the formal elements of language

and genre shape meaning. They will recognize how writers can transgress or subvert generic

expectations, as well as fulfill them. And they will develop a facility at writing in appropriate

genres for a variety of purposes and audiences.

4. Culture and History: Students will gain a knowledge of the major traditions of literatures written

in English, and an appreciation for the diversity of literary and social voices within–and sometimes

marginalized by–those traditions. They will develop an ability to read texts in relation to their

historical and cultural contexts, in order to gain a richer understanding of both text and context,

and to become more aware of themselves as situated historically and culturally.

5. Critical Approaches: Students will develop the ability to read works of literary, rhetorical, and

cultural criticism, and deploy ideas from these texts in their own reading and writing. They will

express their own ideas as informed opinions that are in dialogue with a larger community of

interpreters, and understand how their own approach compares to the variety of critical and

theoretical approaches.

6. Research Skills: Students will be able to identify topics and formulate questions for productive

inquiry; they will identify appropriate methods and sources for research and evaluate critically the

sources they find; and they will use their chosen sources effectively in their own writing, citing all

sources appropriately.

7. Oral communication skills: Students will demonstrate the skills needed to participate in a

conversation that builds knowledge collaboratively: listening carefully and respectfully to others’

viewpoints; articulating their own ideas and questions clearly; and situating their own ideas in

relation to other voices and ideas. Students will be able to prepare, organize, and deliver an

engaging oral presentation.



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8. Valuing literature, language, and imagination: Students will develop a passion for literature and

language. They will appreciate literature’s ability to elicit feeling, cultivate the imagination, and

call us to account as humans. They will cultivate their capacity to judge the aesthetic and ethical

value of literary texts–and be able to articulate the standards behind their judgments. They will

appreciate the expressive use of language as a fundamental and sustaining human activity,

preparing for a life of learning as readers and writers.

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Q 4: a) Suggest measures to reduce cultural bias in the test?

Answer:

What is Cultural Bias?

Cultural bias in testing refers to a situation in which a given test is inappropriate for a certain

audience as it does not test the student's actual knowledge of a taught subject or includes details

tied to a culture that the student is unfamiliar with. As the test is not about the topic of culture,

the test should not include cultural tidbits that would throw off certain students. Try as we might

to make tests fair, it still happens today.

Gender Bias

Sometimes tests — for example, tests for gifted and talented programs — include questions or

probing for leadership from the testing student. What these types of tests do not take into

consideration is that there are various cultures in which girls are still trained to be followers and

boys the natural leaders. Therefore, due to no fault of their own, girls may not score well on this

topic and then not qualify for the program. Likewise on vocabulary tests, gender roles and

exposure to certain types of language may also contribute to whether or not a girl or boy gets the

vocabulary term right.

Unbalanced Special Education Referrals

In recent years, the process of referring a child for special education services has become more

and more complex. Educators and others began to notice the unbalanced number of ethnic

minorities being referred to and assigned special education services. Many of the oversights

being made were due to other disadvantages such as a low socio-economic level or less exposure



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to academic materials in early childhood. Second language learners were also regularly referred

when their deficiencies were due to learning to pronounce a new language correctly or needing

more time to learn the language

Yet these factors were contributing to many students receiving a label early on that cannot be

escaped from until their school career was over. They were labeled for life. For this reason, many

districts are now implementing policies in which teachers must first show what interventions they

have used with these students in order to try to catch them up with the class. By documenting

these interventions and monitoring the results, it was easier to see who just needed a leg up and

who might actually need special education services. Today, it is more likely that students receiving

these services, along with being integrated into classroom strategies and using small group

interventions, are students who truly do require these services.

Language Discrimination

The United States today has a changing population. There are more and more languages other

than English spoken in homes across the country. When it comes to testing, this can pose

potential problems, not because students should not be expected to achieve a high level of

English as the mainstream language but because sometimes cultural factors to find their way into

what vocabulary a student is exposed to. For example, one test that I gave to early childhood

students asked the children to identify which picture was a casserole. Casserole is not a dish that

all households make. To be frank, a casserole can be composed of so many combinations of

things, it doesn't seem fair to have to identify one by sight regardless of cultural background;

however, this was one of the questions. Children in Iowa where the test was developed may or

may not be more culturally aware of what a casserole is, but in inner city schools in Texas, most of

us have never really had a casserole in our lives. I would think it safe to assume that many adults

here could not identify a casserole by sight.

Fair and Equitable Testing

For gifted and talented programs, some teachers have begun implementing or requesting non-

verbal testing, especially for early childhood students, so that language and speech development

do not block children who are gifted in other ways from entering the program. Ask your campus



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gifted and talented teacher what the process is to enter the program and what type of entrance

exam the students will be given. Sometimes other forms of evidence can be submitted in the

student's favor as well. You can also suggest or research tests that demonstrate student ability

through multiple intelligences instead of standard forms of testing. In the classroom, you can give

open-ended tests which allow for student expression and interpretation of knowledge instead of

rote memorization and allow for students to justify their ideas and answers. Using these

techniques will help to avoid and eliminate cultural bias in testing.

Finally, when standardized testing comes around, be an advocate by noticing questions or topics

which reveal obvious cultural bias and report them to your school official or testing agency. Test

writers may not be as aware of these intricacies as the teachers who interact with students every

day. If enough people speak up, changes might be made.

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Q 4: b) Elaborate the importance of entrance tests in the universities?

Answer:

While exploring undergraduate or graduate level education, applicants are bound to come across

some form of required examination or an aptitude test as being a requirement for admission.

Some universities even go to the extent of indicating the sum of scores needed to make the

cutoff point. So what are these exams and what do they normally measure?

In general, we can classify these exams into three broad categories. One would be the general

English language proficiency tests that are required of non-native English language speakers, in

this case being the TOEFL and IELTS. Second would be the general aptitude tests like the PSAT,

ACT, SAT (for undergraduate) and the GMAT and GRE (for graduate level studies) mostly for the

universities in the US and Canada. Third would be the field specific exams for Law school and

Medical school like the MCAT, UKCAT, PCAT, and LSAT, etc that would be focused for admission

to a singular program.

In most cases these tests are administered by an independent testing center or a professional

association. The main objective is to provide a common yard stick to measure the potentials of all

applicants that might come from different backgrounds and curricular against a standardized set



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of skills that would be required by a specific program. It provides university and college admission

counselors with a clear cut measure that is somewhat effective, in trying to assess a candidate’s

ability to join their program. There are schools that don’t make these exams a requirement. But

more and more schools are becoming inclined towards making them mandatory as these tests do

give some indication about the applicant and therefore it is advisable to in most cases to consider

taking these exams.

The exam results are important and students should be well prepared. There are many ways to

prepare for these exams and I would not look down on coaching centers and tutors as they can

provide a lot of insight and tips that help students. The world is very competitive and professional

coaching can only help. What is also worth knowing is that the exams are only one part of the

entire admissions criteria. American Universities, especially the more competitive college take a

holistic view of the student and non academic criteria can be critical in getting or denying

admission. Your academic scores, essays, recommendation letters, community service and

extracurricular activities are equally important. Apart from professional coaching educational

consultancy is a must for pursuing undergraduate or postgraduate degrees abroad..

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Q 5: Give the characteristics of normal curve, also discuss its uses in educational

assessment?

Answer:

Known characteristics of the normal curve make it possible to estimate the probability of

occurrence of any value of a normally distributed variable. Suppose that the total area under the

curve is defined to be 1. You can multiply that number by 100 and say there is a 100 percent

chance that any value you can name will be somewhere in the distribution. ( Remember : The

distribution extends to infinity in both directions.) Similarly, because half the area of the curve is

below the mean and half is above it, you can say that there is a 50 percent chance that a

randomly chosen value will be above the mean and the same chance that it will be below it.

It makes sense that the area under the normal curve is equivalent to the probability of randomly

drawing a value in that range. The area is greatest in the middle, where the “hump” is, and thins



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out toward the tails. That is consistent with the fact that there are more values close to the mean

in a normal distribution than far from it.

When the area of the standard normal curve is divided into sections by standard deviations above

and below the mean, the area in each section is a known quantity (see Figure 1). As explained

earlier, the area in each section is the same as the probability of randomly drawing a value in that

range.

Figure 1.The normal curve and the area under the curve between σ units.

For example, 0.3413 of the curve falls between the mean and one standard deviation above the

mean, which means that about 34 percent of all the values of a normally distributed variable are

between the mean and one standard deviation above it. It also means that there is a 0.3413

chance that a value drawn at random from the distribution will lie between these two points.

Sections of the curve above and below the mean may be added together to find the probability

of obtaining a value within (plus or minus) a given number of standard deviations of the mean

(see Figure 2). For example, the amount of curve area between one standard deviation above the

mean and one standard deviation below is 0.3413 + 0.3413 = 0.6826, which means that

approximately 68.26 percent of the values lie in that range. Similarly, about 95 percent of the

values lie within two standard deviations of the mean, and 99.7 percent of the values lie within

three standard deviations.

Figure 2.The normal curve and the area under the curve between σ units.



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In order to use the area of the normal curve to determine the probability of occurrence of a given

value, the value must first be standardized, or converted to a z‐score . To convert a value to

a z‐score is to express it in terms of how many standard deviations it is above or below the mean.

After the z‐score is obtained, you can look up its corresponding probability in a table. The formula

to compute a z‐score is

where x is the value to be converted, μ is the population mean, and σ is the population standard

deviation.

Example 1

A normal distribution of retail‐store purchases has a mean of $14.31 and a standard deviation of

6.40. What percentage of purchases were under $10? First, compute the z‐score:

The next step is to look up the z‐score in the table of standard normal probabilities (see Table 2 in

"Statistics Tables"). The standard normal table lists the probabilities (curve areas) associated with

given z‐scores.

Table 2 in "Statistics Tables" gives the area of the curve below z—in other words, the probability

of obtaining a value of z or lower. Not all standard normal tables use the same format, however.

Some list only positive z‐scores and give the area of the curve between the mean and z. Such a

table is slightly more difficult to use, but the fact that the normal curve is symmetric makes it

possible to use it to determine the probability associated with any z‐score, and vice versa.



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To use Table 2 (the table of standard normal probabilities) in "Statistics Tables," first look up

the z‐score in the left column, which lists zto the first decimal place. Then look along the top row

for the second decimal place. The intersection of the row and column is the probability. In the

example, you first find –0.6 in the left column and then 0.07 in the top row. Their intersection is

0.2514. The answer, then, is that about 25 percent of the purchases were under $10 (see Figure 3).

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Documents

Semester: Spring 2019 Level: B. Ed Assignment No.2 … · 2019. 7. 8. · Emory Bogardus, an eminent sociologist of the University of Southern California in 1942 developed a scale