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A project ofJ/olunteers tn Asia

by; L.an Davis

Published .,by: Oxfo,rd Polytechnic

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Paper c.opies are 4175

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Shelter after Disaster I

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,!g]:tj byrOxford”Polyttchnic.~rkas. kad&ton,*@Ffoqd OX3 OBP v.,, ’

’ rirgt pub!ishe a-.,. 1 ’ , ._ ; .*

‘..‘- Designed b; J -

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* Picture research and productior?assistance b~$%.&, Em&u& ,&son ‘Maitin an@‘Rob Poultoc p’ . . :- ., .* J,.;

,>-A- Edited by peter Dan&we@& r ” ’ L : . ._ .‘*.-f’ ’ * A’ : \

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Photo Reproduction by’,,Oxford Litho Plates Ltd. __ ‘-‘d- P , ‘, .c a * ’ es

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Part 1 A \ 1c!c~u4 y?tr:jl

tiMi, .!T.” 5. ..::‘L,’ I ‘...:‘. D!YJi[d’ I‘,‘, :‘: :I :‘! ] :“‘.,” \,!.! ‘, t iiiT:iLd! i.i's:c'\

t‘J~u.f!!.:\ .:!. : I I ', :-'I

Skopjc: I Yugosla~a- 196; ,Mariagua, N~iaragua 1971 Hurrxane Fitl, Honduras 1974 Llie; Turkev 1975

Guatemala -i 976 6) Frluli,.Italy 1976 .-lppt~nili.r B Ilaps

1) The incidence of djsaste~r and the world’s earthquake be1 ts 1910-76

2) Map to show vulrterability to disasters

lridr~v

70 70 7 ;‘I I

71 ‘il. :- 7.J .;

77 I-T-3 3 83 84 86 88

91 93 98 99

100 102 104 106 108 ’ 110

113

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STRATIdNS ’ . - l

1 I Palait Of MlIlu5 3[ II;Ili)xdb. t’l-tlr

12 KurJ~sh nui clalmlng L~‘ic tz3rth- c+ihc’ \L;L~ tilt‘ \v11l OI All.111

~1.3 Katsura Imperlal C’rlla in K>,oto. Japan

I4 The ruined tov~n 01. Lt<e 15 Bad11 ionstru<ted housmg tr;

Guatemala Lit! 16 Rdvine housing In Guatemala duty 17 Houses wtth thick adobe walls in

Tccpan, Guatemala \ 18 Two-storey squatter houses in

Ankarg Suburbs \ 19 Squgt$r housing in KC de Jan 1 70 Constructton ot‘ temporary h ,il;l

in Trasaghis, Frtuli. Italy

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Ll i e 1 7 30 Bay?r pol>,urethanc tgloos tn

\lasa)-a. Niiaragua 18 ‘i\l 2’ .EFICOR house III Bangladish. r’

based on mdtger!ous housmg ’ I8 T 28 L.K~ fertile valley charactertstii ot’ 7 _’ earthqL$ake fault locatlons 19 1

“1 Central-area 3t‘Skopje thirteen ; !‘ears After the earthquake .- 21

30 Centre of‘ Winagua three years ’ .’ at‘rt’~ Its earrhqkake 77

5 : I New squatter housing on”sa%nd

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‘s; r III Guatemala ., (i 32ckf?nt &lift% the ruins Qf?z=..fi~-

33 Village crushed UI Friull earthqua 31 A family sorting through ruined’

6 7

7

8

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9

10

I1 13

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1 3 13

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home in San Martin - 35 Panicking crowds attempting t.o

escape from San Francisco 36 Family af‘ter 1965 earthquake in

Greece

17

3”: Emergency shelter in Managua . 38 In flatable grain warehouse 39 Reconstruction in Guatemala four

’ days aftersarthquake 40 Oxfam Emergency House-Making,

Unit in Lice

29 SC, 29

4l’Safe building techniques shown in Turkish wall chart

-37 Model house built by Oxfam and” World Neighbours

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43 New lightweight roof to rep1ac.e collapsed tile roof ,

44 Rural housing in eastern Turkey, built of adobe with heavy roofs

45 Family survey their home after Turkish earthquake of 1976 \

46 Transport plane unloading at ‘/ Guatemala airport

47 Air photograph showing effects of the Guatemala earthquake

48 Night-time home in Gyatemala

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32 b I

36

37 .

37

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2 1 Nueva Jutosa, Honduras, b\ aitec Hurricane Fiii 15

72 New and old wnstructiur. a h In Skople,Yugoslavia 16

73 Tent in use one year afTc1 ;~1ce earthquake 16

24 Prefabricated housing tn Lice 17 25 Modified prefabricated housmg in

39

41

ix _

bf&g dlsrrlantl~? jc! that truck can collapssd tile 5oofwith iron- b2 UXJ 17 - sl122t1ng ‘ ’ i-i.

4Y C‘arJboard drii :arpLiulln homes in 73 Historic t‘asades in Geiona. Italy. Guarsmala 1-3 shore d\ up prior to reconstruction

50 T2nlpLj,:ar\. uje,tJl ;onvc’nt at‘ter 74 Family in Patzicia. Guaremala. rltiocilng 111 Trlni&d< Btilii,la 4-i rzionstrucri*3lg.th2ir house

, 5 I L~~JII:~ O\~;~III ruppl:<s st RAF ‘5. X shored-up arch in G2mona Brlr2 NOrtOil Ij ._ 43 -t, Hom212ss ait2r ths Great Fir2 of

q J l<rnzr~ell;J jtl~l~~: J?LiSZci tJ> London’ Sir. Ferris .-I- : TT Wre;l’s plan t‘0r tie reionstruition

q: Flr\ta cd! <tLlJ?!li ;7’t\\c’it Jt Ostt‘ord ~11. the C‘lt\, ot London’. ., . PI]!) tiChI ii

di: 47 ;S The destruction of Lisbon “-

5-l Floating ei?lergen<I bh2lt2r t’or _ 79 Lisbon-rebuilt after 1’55 earth-

6;

67 67

72 .

73 75

75

78

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51 in San Francisco * 1 79 !S FurrherV\xnlpl~~ <)I rnodll’ied .‘r. 83 Improvised horlft7s in GoiAn Gate 1

80 f

01 Compl2ted ‘A’ Fram2 ~lousmg at D2nYr;l. Bangladesh P . 53 88 Huts ib Park Presidio‘Drive

0’ ?;,jnY~~d t2nIs in eastern Turkey 51 89 Tempdrary h&use being’moved to ’ b.? Tents in us2 in Lli2 cl$t weeks 83,

after the earthquahke 3

. uctecj after ,the 6-I J apanisehve poly t b5 R2gimenred la>,< ut:k)f

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earthquake of 1908 43, -* 91 Improvised shacks in *wrok&a.ma _ f . . ‘J:

Pedrcj. Sx;lt;ipeqt cerqetery , &>“8& B L 66 Sears High Wall Ch ~ 2 2 Impro$sed homes in Tokyo,, 1923 r 3856 ’

jn Masaya V 6’7 Layout of tents at Masa;

,~~~~e~~~~e~~n~~~,“Yboomb- ) ,? 85

Nicaragua, designed by Fred Cuny 68 Emergency camp in ChimaI&enango 69 Emeigency camp in Buia, Friuli,

l,---<-ioui morTths after the:earthquake 70 Evacuation of Darwin following

Cyclone Tracy 71 Rebuilding a home in Guatemala

city s

72 Man in Guatemala replacing his

damaged Berlin * 86 57 95 Temporary homes en rdute to * .i-

their destination ; -88 57 96 C’tesiphon huts built in vast . ,I’ ‘.

quantities prior to DDay 88 $1 97 Squatter’homes in-Dacca,

Bangladesh _, ’ : 90 63 9.8 House imprdvised after Chimbote

earthquake of 1970 ’ I 92

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ct\tcri&d f;rrtrilres. and in a

” ,. I~!.l<l.W~ !? -1 :‘l’CC’ \[I,1

tcllts ’ \1.1;, .‘I 1 ‘I! hc*\ ll!~11~.11IIl~

i ,~ilic’:.\i\l!ii\ Ir! c’JTlhlll;lkL’S .;;; a

131Li~r:illl IF Ilap 06

-9s -.

uthe&-t Command, Panama: 54, Building wlth the~t’~ult that .I large nurnher of es%#; 63: JonCavanagh; 64, Fujimori photographs wiihrn thtt’book c‘ame t‘rom this Kog?o-f’u Ltd., Japqn; 65, SIPA Press; ”

70, John Fairfax Sr. Sons (Australia) Ltd,; -r

ot‘ photogrllphs to &tarn t‘ull reproduction Guildhall Library, City of London; 78, Prints nghts, but rn rh? ver)’ f2w rnstanies where Division; New York Public Library (Astor’, -?- ’ .;, thrs process has‘farled to find the ori@ral _ Lenos a&I Tilden Foundations); 80,86,87, ’ ” agency or photographer, t offer my apoltip 88, 89. California Historical Society; 81,83, ,

other acknowledgements: Frontispiece, . Bear Photographic,Services, San .Francisco; ‘Brat fur die Welt’, Stuttgart, 2, 3, 4,

13, 37..C’amera Pr

1, Ministry of , Aichives: 96, Sport and General Press Agency; - tlement, Ankara, 98, Barchild Construction UK Ltd. and ^

ey; 45. Keystone Press Agency Ltd-

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At?KbiOWLED-GEMETdTS * ‘. I

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own. but &erc 1 tl3ve fGiej~t0 do so, F+ 0t‘tLer IIll; apol’Gg1es. c

I rnust ttl~nk, too. the SW-t;, and studklt8 ~,

oi Oxford Bulytcchnic. The Department df ?4ritllttlcfilre gcnt?rously s’plird me for B year

tc) par-su2 thctsP studit’s with undhidgd ’ -

aJteritlon.~~d .they have p&wed to br: 2. p *’

ionsla-tt sthkilus arili,c,IIc:uurllgeineIIt. Mure * rec~rltl>~ I must rhnk the staff and st’udents 011 Jil? Pubtidling Court 31 rhe ‘P;,lytect~nic’,’ AblLi Mrs. P11.yll1s tlulnb~ltol~. vdll~,. typ&t Ihe

inaliuhcrlpr. 1‘or tolerating rtq” haphazard V,U,L s i)f’ yoik~rlg. TIIC 6ina.l f‘orh ot‘ thus book IS :I tribute to ttlelr &iIl rtgci cntt~ikxtsm.

Lastby, rn>’ gratitude to my family, who have i‘ume to see haters in 3 rather persond tight; without their patience and love. my mvGlver~enr m this project would Itavt: c2used lung ago. ’ . .

Ian Dqll

O\f’ord

-7. January t 977 ’ -2._

,

it Is rhe tipt rria]or dlsasrer of the last five , J’ears where winte r,CI hn&“altitude exposure problems have &come ihe d?minant concerns of thdie invrilved in the 1 rellet: operation. And since this topic ilas . always been one of the crucial questions in such research.-it is particularly frustrating to pur the cap on my pen, when many of my , sthrrments wl1.l be challenged in the light of these events. 9

Thus. however, 1s the nature of the problcrn. c’vents wll tC;1~lh us lessons and tltese lessons will overturn our tidy iort~lusions. and, I hope. lead to betier solutions. 1

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~INTRODU~TION ’ .; a ‘- . c 4F ‘\ . . r

. .AIIJ’ c’cJ!jidrrutlon ()I ernergenc shelter recogmsmg that the prune focus is that of pro~islon r‘ollok~~lng, disasL,erS prompts the ’ shelter needs. immediately after dI”saster’i. tmrnedlate obseT\;lt!on thar rherr must be I have not restricted myself to ‘natural:

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few sublei”ts In the ~+(ole~ field oi building-. disasters. but my experieae has direcM the on LVI~IC~ so much el‘fort has b?en expended. study away from the ‘man-made’ disasters L so much mtine) spent. and ,~t, paradoxically. such as wars .or refugeestuations, which Lvhere so little is really, known. a. have certain u~iYu~~~~~L;t-istiCs.

This modesr studs- is an attempt to redress this sltuatton. It ~omes at ;1 rime when.there

Having established immelli& shelter As - 9.

ii& been the most ion;entrated snalysis of - my central concern, I Iiave deliberatiiy o brought into t&&picture the pre-disaster., -

this problem eker ~rrempteci. The Office of v context! Withis Par , I h&e attempted to the L’nlted SatIons Dls&rer ReIlet‘%-o-

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‘urdlnA[or (L:YDRC)) 111 C;erleva leas recentlv‘ ” fs- CtXFtb+iti -1 f-i ritir to the 6 -q/p: , ’ - ’

ptie is a *rilclA factor and m’ay tstt been mahrrg tl;C first .;,nternaJl&al-study’ & ~ ,th$,actuaI t;rau e & the disasrer..tfi P’art g, 1 /

- ~_~

this probkrp. ,arid by the time that this book 1s publlshcJ I hope thairhtS yarlous questions

havk %uf%n diagrammatic form thi , - ; ’ .; -

1 pose 1vd1 have been answered ;1s various widespread myths which exist aboutdisas‘ter 3

1Rrns ot‘essential evidence are protiu4. shelter, together ‘with the facts which’, I h’obe, ” will dispel these false beliefs. Then, in Part - - ’ b

Despite ;i sraliual ilarlficArlon*uf these ’ III, 1 !iave commentean the diverse - ’ _ Issues our Collective knowledge is still ,’ im~lt&L and the% are slgnlticant gaps iri ofir ~

strategies that are likely to be pursued ifi tliq

understarrding. FQr example, we stall kno ’ immediate aftermaih. Once again, I have ‘

4

I” little abovt the precise wags in which l~+aI avoided berqg ‘boxed in’ to a time phase : ’ . called th.e ‘rdief period’. Any study 6y these / .- .-

csmmunitles function. when they tackle’ their relief or reConst+ction. We kn& little

topics rapidly SHOWS that relief, rehabilitation

about the usefulriess 6il%ong-term effects of- aRd reconstruct-ion, though defiii& phases,

‘- -

/ constantly overlap, and the immediate +.. c ’ our aid, whether it be tents or shelters. And c&cisi&s made within days of a disaster haie there are geographicrtl/ar~-~s,.sl)ch as Russia ,a habit of influencing loAg-term events. and China. where the approaches to relief or Finally (an&peMp perversely) I have * # n reconstructio!! are-virtuallyel-lknuw~ to us. left the historical section io,Part IV at the

:? .OveraIi, thisstudy will .reGl.eLt the bias of . being @ed largely on docments i;l En’glish,

erid of the bodk. En this way I havkbeen

and also the:bias of, being written in England,~ able tc rook--back_and reflect whether the patter‘ns of events I have attempted to define

at a safe, perhaps TOO safe, PistaGe from the \sulneiable conditions I have-destiribed. It is

are purely mid-twentieth-cer&i-y+z@%&, or are more deeply rooted.

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*I) ah iimited by&e extent of my own first- \ I wti valui the patience af readers. in this- :SY---::-- Ihand experience, which is of just eight , disaster situations, most of which were

first veti&re into p&t. I hope that this &ok . m ,- ’ 2 earthquakes.

will produce corrpborative evidence, aflcl

Since this is probably the first g:ok where an ignor&it dogmatism has crept into

as I will be grateful Qo hear cgunier- witten specifically on this theme; I h:ve deliberately painted a broad canvas, while

erits. Both iie‘necesay-fo’r ~the-. .~ ~~ development of our knowledge.

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This-is tb~;&xceUentfgp~per)-‘of the.worId.. . _ 1 _, -. .L . . we make guilty of, our-disayte’rs the sun; the c : o - ,-.u . - i ’ a

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,mobti, &d @Ce @us:, as if xi‘e were @lairq by nepessity ; fools by3eavCnly gompdsion; knaves,

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thieves, and treafhers <*:sphericSl predomi~~~ce:‘druis, I&s, &l adulterers by,an : ,? 1

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& enforced’ obedience of planetary, . 4. -’ ^ ,

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2: From~marr’s .&rlrest &rs. hi: very survive ” ’ .a+ “.. ’

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rne~&al sum..ti#X2-I 1 million js ,beings+n t on the T&&es .bai‘rage &-rd.fioad p

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- . powers. water; wmd. ‘s,ur,+ fire a& %arth, ’ rotection FJ

4’ &+hi IS yital for his&isten& and each can in ’ -~~ures.,~~n~~~~~ous,~as observed that all ‘/ r

tulflt&fe-iten his p&y ,hoid 0”; r-he planet’s thatis iee$ed &a combination of th& : ia ~

I- 2-2 6 ,- -- - . o :

. s . suf race: tdctorsi high tide kvels, a high freshwxte;

_ = When &e .drizzle.-becomei a cascade.,or

Z‘fow dawn’t$e siver. and a SL urge of water up P the breeie.$ilur~.~ane.‘m~ is int;olve”d in hh

,i&e $lll”ames”caused by metiorological , I< .I . .

;d,.he Ii& - con’ditions in?he North’Sea (3j!If these 1 ‘. conditio& wereL toecome, tol

_ -

ways: ‘9, ati act..&.& -J+h f God’,=&

ames barrage’is complctecl%l9~0 then 3 L on ‘d

xI quate ‘the Wqyds linderwrit”er. -. onacould face a majo; diaste;, which in ‘1

rr-ronetar~ tern& alone has been es’tiwted at’ -- ’ \

classi$ struggle w.ith.the-elements. ar “‘viewed die process in-v&iqtis

I . 3 P bfJu@.ge,mdnt, an omen: 0,’ ‘an act,o

ge$her before the .

I , Jwheie the libel &aster% more like - refer to the coJlapse%Ps~e_rmg thati

- For smes’ne $viq within’ the ’ .’ ’ c *I c co&parative security of northern Europe-, 7

22,000 milli$r in damagej.to property.

, ” .‘.’ c,” : b -‘It -is aIsb’signifrcant.~that th;is sisk has been‘ $eadily.w,orsening be&se ( I?irst~ the fact that Lo

.bPicks and mortjar.!) it is tixtrkmely ndonD is sinking on. its

difficult to’appreciate’ihe extent o-f clay bed, as afrksult of a shght tilt.a”f the -

which many communiltie’s face:To .: “?ou th-eastern region, Seoo&Il&, tides are-‘

.~=.,* - J “k.

- understand this I will c(iscuss~ .a. 1% -. .,_: risingrin heightj an:& thir(ly,

a “vulnerable 9 progressively engulfe&th~‘trad.ition~. ‘flood :’ 3 . ., ,. . n 1 . . . . 4. - siruarion u-r M~ancP, jlnd the way it is>&ingB

. tre+-d. + . X absorptjon’ areas, such as the Kerr+ and Essex :, 3

, , a-1. -

bin ceZraI &on-don ‘- Pew realise that wit ’ marsh,es; In tech&&I Iangyage, the heard, $

J-

I the@ IS a3very se.rious risk of floobihg.‘This

or State 8f v&-rerabtii*ty, as @t sotmany psrts CI

&riIding has =_ ’ _ .\‘

‘I has bee-r? l&ow~n,for generations, and n&$.a - of&e world, is inc$e&-$

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London” is vu1 .prable ,tot+ 6ne.,i%rtt.$ , *?he*itafic npbers in parenthsses refer to the Refkences l&e 2

I, ” ‘““- :. ,$@&etical@. -- ,’ -.:j .i-

wltti tlie ‘Disaster Kcw;4rc.ll L’nit at Bradt.ord L‘rllwy~~. ha \llggestd that the hst

Jtlt‘m1t1~~ri ot’ J cilsaster 15 the interface ‘IxtivwtI J riarurat or man-made haemr4t (for etmple a11 earthquake) and ;I vulnerable ,+’ ;t)tid~tii)ri (hddly ionstruzfeci houswg 111 a Ci;lll#~~~~l1S I~~~lltlMl) (6Yj. :.i

IIIS ‘lntrrt‘;lce’ 1s shdwn in Diagram .,l. The tl~~cki protecti‘un mgasures in the - ,,

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. &T: La J. I #y- r -5 L&e, %-kg\‘. .tdI(~r$jg the w-t&rta~z ofseptember 1975. Note the vfc@erab!e site belbw 9

%xk fL)rrnatic)ns . . .e,‘* * I( -r , i. j (1 ‘j L .J

..‘-‘ 6 Fishermen’s houses bnithe banks of a n’ver in Seoul, Ko’rei I

., ‘tL, > . * *_ 5 -I % w

‘:I . 5 LI I. .C * .

. ,I .t e\ery t\Wnt4’-tivZ >-ttJrs. Thh isn’tq the onl>~

plait2 adhere the inf~o~~c”tl~~*l iit‘alien

Jraditiond ~~olisir~g unsafr . .

_’ Another exception is. ihe furm ofhouse I

that is built OI\ stilts to yithsta~d flooding. - .

Y Hall River slurp h S&l, Korea. The slum reside a.

Q fhe 1963 HatI River fl&J o w were f@rceti jkom their shanties dtiri&

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. ..O I z-i- 10 Hqtsing ‘in TrkitiaL ,Bolivia, with raiied plinths to brotect buildings from Ji’oodirig. Ii $d”. / C

irlstaucet-e flooding was so iqtensive that its level rose above the elevated fleer level. ”

.-’ , , D .I w .’ , - Y ~7 .‘< ,- 5 &+ * * D J \ -J rj +I 9 .

v I1 The-Palace ofMi&s,‘.&nossos, Crete. Nofe thg:tiooden @fbeam dn the wall behin!Jhe \,~ colu?nns J ~ * y/ a.

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’ But %lere the hazard is probaby; an annual I- \

weye often rebuilt on ‘a.n extensive

(or hi-annual) event, that coincides with a ’ plan with marked changes in buildcng l\ mon’soon season and as such becomes a techniques.such as unusual types of !

predictable ‘everyday’ occurrence within foundations, consisting of a grid of ’ everyone’s memory; and therefore it is a s wooden&ams on which.the structures design factor considered whetieach house are built, the intrp uctlon of timber- d=++@-

c goes up. bracing of houses and the abandonme3f, The final exception is the modification of of oidinary unreinforced bricktiosk. k

building techniques followisg c&stiuWional* - is often assumed that these changes are ,:’ ’ failures in disasters. Historical evidence of due to techniques bfought%to a region ; this emerged when Sir Arthu; Evans 1 by new seftlers, or by invaders.,This is excavated the Palace of Knossos in Crete, not always the case (7). . , uncovering a structure birilt about-l’650 B.C. I”

The palace was probably built shortly after * Ambrasiys proceeds to show that timber : .,_, i__j some catastrophe, perhaps a vojsanic b.r’a%ng techniques have been%ad$ted in _.., ;, .’ eruption or an earthquake. This tiay be the areas without local thbei supplies ti order reason for the existence of tht ,timb’er ring -to produce Safe structures, ??G?e areas 4 4

beams that occur throughout the palace: a include Anatolia, Crete and No$hern I.:.:!: f&n oflateral bracing to hold the structfirij Pakistan, and archteoltigical ,evidetice. goi$$.$~.,

’ together, in the event of earthquake forces. back over 2,000 years pro&s this point. (_ .. Professor Nicholas Ambradgxs of Imperial ’ The traditidnal ja$tiese house &ls oft’en

College, London, has written: been cited;, as, an example/of earth.quske’proof -- i , construction, Evidence on thi&sue isslight, After destructive earthquakes, towns bvt it is conceivable @t the lightwei$hf i(

. 8. .I’, ,,

‘,>. ,F:’ * i. ,. / b .-’

.

_1 ,, * a, b ,-‘j\;

0 ._:. .=2-i

‘x

.

14 Ruitld torvrr oj’Lice, Turkey .

1s 3.5 I,*, IOO/ir, 93,. To summarise, the obstacles that stand in. Tile 2‘i;lit populutil)n of Lice prior to the the way of house builders responding to

farrhquakz !j very un;ertain, but it is likely these risks are: the long return period of to \~e reasorlably ilose to the census figure of many forms of disaster; the resistance that z 8.300. Therefore 1 in 6.8 died. This is an .conimunities+ave to moving away to less rlxtremely hi,gh ratio. as is-the ratio of deaths vulnerable locations; a natural resistance to to houses destroyed? and it indicates the unfamiliar - and probably more expensive .-_. eutreme’vulnerability of the population in ’ building techniques; and the difficulty of““----= this region. education when disaster victims may view

But the number of hs also results these events as the will of Allah, with the frvma*cultural factor. The disaster occurred reaction ‘who are we to prevent such a _ at 12 noon on 6 September. This is the eve judgment or omen?’ of the Moslem feast of Ramadan, and each But as we have seen, socie ti& after a house was full of women and children disaster have often taken action, such as the preparing the traditional feast. Thus the wooden ring beam in the Palace of Knossos, casualties were almost exclusively female, bye-laws after the.Great Fire of Lorrdon and since the men were in the fields or’ in the the ‘JIVames barrage now under construction. mosques (23, 24) .All ff these activities are responses to known

It is clear that there are many cultural a?@, haza’i-ds and previous disasters. Clearly, these economic obstacles that prevent the \&e positive step s forward, but it is tragic instigation of sensible preventative and that the mechanism that stimulates action is mitigation measures. And in recognising that nearly always-the manifest failure of previous the target social group is’the extremely poor, methods of construction. Fo; the future.we it is necessary to refle’ct tharfit may cost ” can hope that Changes will take piace before 15% more to construct a safe house (60).

I. c, , the eve.nt.

1 I L. ‘.L m t +--__

Disaster, poverty. and urbanisation ._ ; Lf an identical natural phenomenon affected Taking, for.example, an earzquake, Ge three different geographical locations, it is can observe t-hat if it occurs in an conc,eivable that there would be three ’ . W, unpopulated area it IS clearly not a disaster ,: different results. 4 but is better described as a natural A.

: *

10 I .,

,!/‘ ‘- . - -..

.

<ity.+where hrtikdic!gs Ilave been web designe’d Fur ela*~i~~e.,l?uusi*~g in CuateA&~ity -l

% with eartilcliiake-ltl,~~~~nt i’~~nstruitlon. -WE, vulnerable bn ‘Kvo counts. ‘First, it’$?ts “I there will ;tg;lin be s~)uit’ dilrna~e b 11 t ir will ’ ’ ’

‘?I. not Jyh2 ;Idsslt‘leJ ;lj ;t disJ3te!-. ~. n made in adobe. a form of dried mud, and

“1 this material, when used in unrelnfo?ced Fm~llly. there IS the t‘amihsr P;irt~~; ,of ~1 walls. 1s lethal in earthquake zo&es. Secondly,

earthqu;tke in J rspicilh- expancllng <it> ut‘ the rnmy~Xurban squatters died on the exposed :-

developmg world. There the result is \

, steep slopes or ravines. 1nFvitably thousands C’

extensive &unage md many iasu~ltles. A L\.,d~e3 as landslides took thetr houses down the y suitable definition ~vould be ;L cilsa5ler, I ‘posshly ‘Z c’+tstrtiphe.

~3G~es ($0). This is a characteristic pattern i . N the wn poor possessing the worst land in *

,Here we r&turn apam to Di3srtim 1 and see the relatlo&lp of hazard to vulnerability.

~The~‘~ond~ti~~n of’vulneiability may relate to badly~~onstru~ted bulldiugs or it-may relate to the siting of settl$nients or most likely

16 Ravine hoi&@ in &atemala city

disasters take place. In a recent &es of - studies conducted by the staff p the I Disaster Research Unit of Bradford A University, direct relationships, are &tabIished between disasters and poverty (89, 100). 9, s

l This team has produced statistics that .‘* clearly show a significant increase in disaste;&- occurrence during tlxe past fifty years. They * point out that there js no evidence of Q 0 significant change in geological or 3 ., ? climatological,factors; and therefore reasons -fwqthe iac~re,qe must be sob&t elsewhere: ’ o

+< b . .a

If the proba’biljty is constant then .* ,logicBlly the explanation, of disasters. must be sot&t in.an exp‘lan:atic& of “’ ,“w I

the. growing vulnerability ofthe O. I population to extreme physical events . . .

. it is known that the,freguency .of natural.. 1 T$ouses ‘:--

disasters”is increasing especially in ’ ’ of thick ccuvuG L

undeveloped countri&. Indeed the “ip i zlcorded thrdr3ghout increased vulnerability of people to ’ population continue! extreme physical ‘events&u-r be seen “as resources cant intimately connected wiih the ;’ continuing process of underdevel”opment

,‘Tmiriority, the drops for mucl

_.~._ j ,. . ._ ._ ” Q

< / ,’

_-_ /’

i ‘, I

=*.. . . Ric?‘s infamouS Jkl*ClaS ctimb slope? 07 ---_. _ often c$e&ly~&$%r.e of their owh . alpine d!fficalty: hnt the poorest kbiin vulnel;ability. .Why&e would the qhP;itfc:-s 111 much ot‘ Asia live on * devahted $tlh dwellers of Guatemala !?azrlrdoL~l;..~C70C!pl,?iiiS. The poor are City Yefer to the:earthquake [of

I Y Hillside. :fhvelas : Squatter housing in Rio de Janeiro, all extremely vulnerable % a. w . .

.. earthquake oj-May I9 76 0.I I’ / ;. ’ A. l__ .a‘ :i ” ,i . * 14 i A.... ~

: ,3 .“* ! I ‘: ’ * i

February 19761 as a ‘class-quake’? (100).

The Unit&i Nat iLns have obtained verrfi;atron for thus stats ot’ af‘f,rrra. They find that 055 of all deaths Jirtxtly . attrrburable to drsssters oic’ur wrthin developing countries. llle remaining 5% of dtiaths oizur widen the well-puhli~ised disasters of ttre Je+elope’J world i 70).

There are srgnit‘icant differences in the Way developed a~td developing iountries sppru~~ch drsasters. These relate both to pre- disaster ctintrr)l measures and to their approazh td rellel‘ and re2rJnStruL‘tion. In very broAd terms the disrinctic)n can be sumarxised by saying that rn the developed

world we seek’& material solutiotzs, while in the devel0pj;lg .world the solutions are primarily soqial ~~qeechanisrns. Fred Cur& (a world auti%rity in post-disaster housing and shelter needs) observed to me that in the technological world we attempt to co~~trol & phe&meila themselves. We build dams to control floods: we ‘seed’ hurricanes with chemical bombs dropped out of aircraft to try to dissipate their fury: and we pump water into earthquake ‘fault lines to lubrjcate ..- them and prevent tremors.‘In contrast, the p ‘1 people of the developing world must take

’ individual aCtions to mitigate the results uj. ? I the p!~e~tomena. These may in&de building

,LJ

stronger houses or moving to live in a safe location. ~ L ’

I 5 de

Cultura

21 The village oj- La Nueyp~,-Hunduras, Btti &ember 1974, showing contrash’&g forms of new housing - concrete block provided by ‘??~-RKiid -._

traditional thatched homes *15 . -_ ,

/fi” , ( _ _ --- ,.. _._--- i 1 y E ,

,.. - . 4 -’ 1

_ -- -” -r..+:sT+, ,- . -. .A>;. : .m~b&>... *a, : Any s\udy-of housing or shel$r&ovisi& r ~Yf&s,t be@ with an ,analysis of *h-at goes to

:~Jti&$~, fn’o>mal housing’ in a given community; hoksing that ; relaw CL&J be the starting

-Gnvestigations and It should r&t be viewed, as has-so often’hap$e.ned, as a.. ? OW- priori t-y-concern’. 4 -

1 =‘-. -.‘“- Amos Rapaport has written!’ -* . ~- L

22 Skopje, Yugoslavia, showing the contrait betweerl the tra+ti@nal old town and the reconstruction which &ores local traditions

It&clear-thaTdEe need to understand the- %nderlying structure ot%zt&&e and its

I relation to the pky_sical forms b@forFw5 can design. ~~is_$~r,&xl@i%%~ ‘*Q +:7#. sp.e$fit-r~th&+lian general, both for c

+LhLe&~.&~~ I “z’$&i n’ and implementation,~and open’-‘* end@nessK.ay, be, an important consideration, We must study the vernacular forms since they show most clearly the relatiods between life styles, values and--phJydcal form, therelat .n of

--FT..- - social structure to dwelhngs, dwe ings p to the larger environment and so on. The traditional housing and settlement forms, and their associated social and cultural patterns, should be seen as the point of .: departure rather than being ignored (78)

Several questions must be aske.d on this issue. If housing is vulnerable t.o disaster risk, what then?% Can changes bg made in house-

. . .

23 Lice, Turkey. This photograph was taken one year after fhe disaster; the tent is still in use, which probably indicates that the house is too small for an extended family. The bullock outside the house shows that the owners’had taken their animals with them to the new location ‘ - ,‘. ,’

.: 16 e

.

. 24 Prer;?bricated hc&ses’~~~ L$>eVV Tufie+x-. 1,500 oj- these ‘were built within si.~ty

. .

~~r-;hyuak~ i/z Sepremh_rr.,l$J ‘3. fSet Ill. ‘8$r traditional’housing) &vs of: the

1 F 9>, ./ :* “* w

u.

-7j”lPrej~bn~cated housing irl Lice, Turk&, as modified b,v the occupdht; to give a prqected fio&..

.door and coverirlg fix- arlimals I 1 ’ . I ..% /

form+?har Goid disturbing the subtle I),., 9

~basic forms of response. *?. 1” ’ relationships described bl, Rapaport? Further, *Fi~t&ere are forms of housing dr

-110~ far do these cultural values apply in the shelter which either ignore this entire ‘issue ,F,qV~S.....-+ aftermath of a disaster? Are they niceties that. or deliberately atte.~~~.~o~~rnodiij~-th~~--‘-~--~- can be disregarded in the race I’or &rviv~~~~~,;~S~;- ~r;ulluzral-h$E5f?he ocyupants. An example 3

And who are the m ..;sw.i-~able.pebpTe-ho e

of this process is when officials have 3 elmeT.vr I --7 ” 1 po icies’l If outside agencies or aitempted to rehguse reluctant disaster 5 L + ._,

personnel are jnvolved. how can they avoid victims in *western-sty@ prefabricatedhouses” ,B Y”,-, transplanting whole set5 .of cultural values totally alien to traditional patterns (9, 23,;24, ,“‘:<I into” an alien situation’? (19). 1 59;‘. 841.’

I shall be cq;stantly rethrning 10 this key ’ Se~orully, there’have been attqmpts’to A.,

issue throughout this book. We shall see three produce VniJersal’ solu’tions’. These hav: ‘*s I/ ! : I

5 y-9 . ",S. . . 9 :a '

a_ _ '. 1 P.

, - . ’ - H, lnst’ i~lfdr h-1, c.FICOR, a Chrisrim rrIief‘cr)tlsorcu!!n itl-Bcltlgladesh, for a tora’l cost o~C5Zv ’ :!I f v ‘-1. 711~~ ttk~llnique 1s u Jt~~~e~loprnrt~~ of’e.risrhg I~ousing ~eclwiques in Bangladesh \ \

lh . 111. c \ ‘., ‘L ,*:pv .

ignored the cultural issue altogeth’er, or else shelter that fully’iecognise these cultural assume.$ that people’s iiving’$atlerns are issues and yet try to modify housing’ b .. rn;re(,or less identical thrpughout the wor1.d. techniques where traditisnaI, patterns have ’ -, One such product has been used in the, mountains ‘of Peru and Turkey and in the ,,

produced unsafe homes. E$amples of this process are currently in progress in . .

tiOpiCai plains_ofNicaiagus frl, 29, 41). ,%_ Gua.!emaIa and Bangladesh,f20, 33, 41.. -~-- 7?iir#y, there have been attempts’at “ “XX,, 1 . ,,lp’

1: ; ‘4 . -’ ‘_

j. * r’. (i ‘\ Y .z ‘\ *< *_ \a ,x-X ,’ . ‘\ -8 I =e

Ctisualties and damage ““‘.\ j : ‘.‘-kx, “. F L ’ ‘_>, - -\, (1 ~... - 1 t - -,,_ .I

Ir is a rather Zruel twist of fate that peopl,e ,for water for flocks of sheep,,orYherem”ay -7 ’ are so oftz~dmvn. as by a magnet, to the + very area where heir lives will be cut short,

be an abundance of fish in therivqr that is -apt to flood. The most lethal magnet is, ..

or where they will see their homes probably the city. 4n the process of ‘.\ demolished. ,

Earthquake fault lines otJ3cn produce a urbanisation people have to leave the land .A,

(as mechanisation of agriculture devours’ ..~.,, ’

-\ gushing jprings of water. and in an arid their jobs) only to live &the dangerous J. clim3te people will naturally gravitate to slopes of a Rio or Guatemala city. these locations. A good ek9mple of this is ’ So, when we look at the statistics of . * ~ Lice. the Kurdish town set on the lower death and damage, we.are left with one

-

slopes oi,the Tiiuras moklttiins, which was conclusion: they are all increasing, and this, devastated by an earthquake in September is-in direct response to urbanisation.. To put __

-- 1975 (24). I have already referred to the factors which draw people ‘to flood pl&x.

on measures ; with the .

andalso to the families iit tie 0 In recent years studies have been made of d*l,mocations for-their homes..

.Parldoxi2ally, and Tragically, the major two major cities (both of which suffered

* disasters during this century) to see tihat force that creates the ‘magnetism’ of - scale of casualties and damage would result vulnerable situations is the basic human.need if earthquakes of identical intensity were to

: of surviiral. This m&y .operate in the search ” ‘, recur in the near future. -.- -- 5

I/.“.,?. - ,; ,-. .- ‘” 1

I _ !g ’ * ,‘; : .*i’ . .

-,A - j& $actors tl&tarc”a;;s&. &~~&&&

; Toky~.t~grow,a-@ ‘many, but ‘the$&$:,“‘. : 1

,’ ’ ~clud~,fb~~ed~a~~,sur~e of”‘population \’ ,, ‘2 a’ I- The Japanese.e@hquake prediction - that’ appeir$ to’follow,dis&ters. Skopj&q.- 4 b 0, ! y centre has made 3 similas extrapolationfor &n&u& “and more r&ently,, Guatemalicityi i.

s ’ , Tokyo. Thdr-e ‘the results are far more serious? have.grown.

_ * 1 &ce the population has grown by thirty as a re@lt of .tie~s&lde‘n+rflux,~ L_ 1

following their earthquakes. ->le, re~son’s’a;e t,ties since 1923, n :., ‘obvious: re&ns&uction wori?&rd wages that , - _ __ 1 , J

* ‘I ‘4 D - A L L s ,‘p

~ /) ’ I : E&hqu&e of 1906 --we

Estimated consequences of; ‘; I., ’ .s - \ - j . > . 0 i? ,> 8. = i earthqua-ke ibnear future ,@ jj - ‘1 ” i ~ ,

t : _7 . . =, z .’ -r’J . , .- fi. .; Li .L, , 3 ‘, I ._... + - : --m ’

3 ? k _ 4 ,,/- 3 . . i Scale, of Earthquake ’ 8.3 (Richter) ’ , e ,!*3 (NC ,cte;, - I ” -0 0

I . b . 9 .= ‘i c‘” a ,>, -y

.* L‘ay-.‘;,~ \. ., B J ‘& .,* 3 . I. , “. 3 _, /!‘S J 0 .^ i? ., * d 1 * *>, 9 .h * 3

i 4oo,cko ” * - a- : Populatio+l: ’ i ?, 1 OO,OOO’avk.ra&l conurbation . .- . .- ..*. z f> ii 1 *. ,j 5 1 .

-,. > .,A_ 7 - _ , ‘* - f _ c c v I ‘- n %

_ D&As:., _r I . $ -

f 5tJO ? _ 8>7YO (27,iOO iiijfired ,’ P ,’ , , :: I

~ Lye

, $lome-less: . . , t ?

‘Damage 1 -Entire commercial and. 1 e 100,000 homes unusable . - ’ 9 ” _ . ,o., . -_ industrial centre destroyed.

1 ( ’ , I

-. . ‘ * t 55% of all housing units - _ c I > & , 0 > -‘. destroyed. _ - 0 * . .: . L ‘- ,:- ,” .? . I - 3

d a - - ( . 6s. .\ ,.; ’

,.. 4 I

n&-am 4. - tCa=alty anddamhfe projection: Sin Francisco _- , 4 ~1 ,- 1 5 D ,. : . ‘* Earthquake and Fire Estimated consequences of

d’ _I of 1923 , ” , earthquake in near futu,re - ‘i .,53 -,

.‘I - j! i . \ i ; i”@+ .- a

\’ Scale of ecarthqual$ ii.3 (Richter) ,“- II 4

’ - __, ’ . n ’ 1 x’ -

:- ‘C %, < * /’ .C,’ c ?40()00() ’ i * _ 12 million ‘&&all conurbation.

Deaths: , ” 7’. z

_ 40% of,+ll Tokyo’s,. If the epicentre is under Tokyo,, :, :’ -p’ b$il&ngs destr$yed, burning estimates suggest total destnil ’ ‘&” out 7 sq. miles of the ‘down- 1.2 mile iadius ‘ofepicentre;:

town are& Approx. $3<, t destruction,in 3.1 mile

ction. in. / jog, ,,/c :.

: radius. , billion US. ’ figures assume no fire; P

i’tli; ‘; . ‘, ) ;

‘A ’ 3 , dd”-

‘r. . ’ $1 /Y” Q:s(‘, _ > / ;_/; a?.. ,

r, 1 \ /’ ‘i ‘l ‘.‘, ,:. -/r Diagram 5. Casualty and damage phjectkwO Tokyo /’ /.’ 1. r : .’ n. .

20 . - hl . f,,,’ ,,.- ,.I’ ,i* . i I / . A’ d^ ’ .’ : w ,’ ,:’ - / .-\i - ‘i , ! ‘, ,. ‘, 7 / , - _ ._ - ie “. , - ‘::>.6 ‘I h/ ‘i_

‘\;-milli~~n. .Aii’i;i~tt’ statiSt.ic‘s for. disasters ;flre 1 * ‘the ‘west, Nurtiuimptonfto the n*orth and ‘...

‘, < ‘x$~cmel:, ditXc$t t5 obt;lin; but wk*ar,e : now iertaini~. \vii;nessing ;1 rqpid escalation ,

London to the east. If one-sixill of Britain’s ; ,. pbpulaii& were homeless: this would : :

of iahal ties. . ?‘_- - I

The;i‘n- \v~ t;lke~on& mAj,;t jisabt<r like amount to a higher total. than the entire h . --A populatfofi of Gf&ater Lolldon, %. *

the Guate&Q,+l earthquake\ of February :A

1976. ;Ib&,t h%OcSO dwelling &its were appro.ximately 9.3 million people. j ‘-

,i .!n Guatemalajone in every 332 people ‘- @t,.: destro)red, in Gua&>nala city.(+O% of the was killed. If this ratio of loss to total ‘_

&&Is housing stock),0 add&&i1 163,000 &$$>veCsS destroyed i‘ uraloar& (35% OF

population’was sustained.in Brilain, 241,000

‘1, 1&. % “\ i woul$have been killed. Finally, in crude -e /’

29 Ii’&& centraf’ areaS af Skopje, Yugo _.’

4 9 ;i \ %

er‘the earth&lake ,a<-., ., .“‘,

\ ‘\* 21 :’ :’

I

financiazl’terrns, a disasrer”.on the Guatemalan 5 scale in Britain would cause damage.% r, J equivalent to &l 1;939 million (one-eighth of our GNP), ’ .

Since it is difficult to relate figures of this magnitude to anything tangible, it is worth saying that, at 1975 prices, the total . d projected cost for building Britain’s new city,

?+ “.‘, . *,

$ilton Keynes (for 250,000 people) was

‘L__ . . . . . i--:&1 ,QO@million. Therefore, if a disaster .i- :.~\ ~\,,$fected Britain in the same ratio as that -o-f-

%

‘,, Gu,atemala‘it~would cause damage (in ‘,rllate&l terms)..equivalent to the cost of -

I... .@iQdin&weIve cities - or developing &n&de twelve times over.

‘\ This’is a-rather long-drawn-out way of ’ C‘-*:.saying that the poorest countries are least

able to affo.rd iheir heavy losses,‘whidh in * c ’ ‘V relative terms are enormous. ’ ._ *. . ‘\ ‘At present there are fifty to sixty

+Xeveloping countries which. are characterised.

world’s population. are living in .the / s developing,w&ld. It is apparent @at d$asters ’ and the damage t,heT*cause ati agreatly neglected factor which i&bits t.he:,economic growth,of vQnerable%ountrtes c?‘Q/.

_.jOne f&ther.~aspec.t of the damage caused by disasters need.s to be e&?nined...This,is, disruption and the time needed .for full 11

.I

recovery. On my visits to eight pl‘a&that ,? :’

had.been devastdted:by disasters, my over- .i---*&, riding impression, was that the recovery lags ‘/ ’ far behind the optimistic speeches that the I . politicians are wont..+mak+in which they ‘I promise a new city in five years (or-whatever ‘1 period will elapse before the next election). For example, Skopje.was l&-geIy destroyed in 1963, and it received aid on a massike international scale, and also from within ‘. Yugoslavia. Yet despite this help Skopje is : still unfinished. By the time, completion ” ’ 1omes there will be children fifteen years’ old, born after the earthquake of 1963

5

438, 91$ The reasons for such delays are not technological: i?hey are .legal,‘political and: econom&;

\ ,7 s ’

I recently Jetumed to .qanagtia, whkr~. ’ ’ three years earlier the cen&o~~~the city had...\ been destioyed, Wtihin these years &a&e ‘:..,,

- ’ ’

as m disaster prone. I have attempted to .’ show’this on Map 2 in Appendix B. Within ; these coukries the annual damage from

a disasters far exceeds in absolute terms the .a external aid -that they receive. ,, I , A:

Precise statistics must wait for the world’ survey of disaster damage at presentbeing undertaken by, IJNDRO. Already, however, we have some rewing statistics. $4~ I have already said, it is significant thaJ9$% of all disaster-related deaths occ>r,in the ~ developing countries. This percentage has to. be seen against the fast that 66% of then -I

. 22 .Y I.

. - ‘-- _.-a . ”

progress has been made in the city, but it“is ;,, &I&without a heart; the, centre is a total 1 ::‘:‘$ ghost town (71); Such,faets are unknow,n t& the layman, whose newspaper carries a’ a,,

’ ‘disas’ter’ story for-,onIy a few days,. &:, .;:. ;-,--,.-a---. ----- “W~Xti~eZeC$nm ths section that

‘. ‘,?

31 New .squatter h&sing built in Guatemala city after the’earthqtike on ‘a safe section of land - ?

vulnerability may be the result of harsh officers. Not a single exploitation of the poor by the affluent, and . disaster victim. It was study of these issues shows the extent to which man’s greed is a direct cause of death ) and injury. The exploitafion relates particularly-to land. A landowning family will resist all demands to release safe land for ‘ira the houses of low-income families. The only “‘1 solution here is land-reform and this is unlikely to happen without a revolutionary struggle (25, 42). _ ’ Within the relie and reconstruction

0 =

phases we can detect similar abuses of power: J corruption that may divt,rt relief funds and

protracted time taken for recovery can cause

impede reconstruction. local disruption, which could easily extend ,,

Sadly, these abuses occur in high and low to twenty years after a major urban disaster. Finally, the picture is incomplete without ‘_ :

places. As a contribution to the relief of Managua, the government of Colombia

reference to exploitatioii and corruption, _

.do,n&d 1‘00 houses and 12 school rooms. inevitable bedfellows of so many disasters.

This all contributes to a vicious spiral of, AfJer a careful survey of the occupants of each houspe we fo

poverty, vulnerability and underdeSklopment, at every single unit

,_

was occupied by s .or friends of the an intertwining of h’igh’exploi’tation,, high

President and his population. and high casualties.

-ranking army ,: . 0 0 .A_ I *

I -. 1’ i i

* \\ \ rP 4 ..!

* .( \ TX>

d ,. 0 1 ‘: ‘ i t

i , ,-,, *,

‘\ --se, .-~ -. _ -.

*I. - ;

.,’ \.

2 ‘I

,..f I ’ ?’

_ CG--‘,’ ‘J* ..-, -- f - . ,-’ ‘..,

‘\ \‘,

.’ .___

‘\ k; ‘._

, ‘\. \ i- * ,. 23 -_ ;:; ;;:-I:

* ‘. .,” \ :‘r,“’

\ .‘. , --Ld* y

Q ’ ( ,,J

jh; ,- ! .

\* ” * ., !~

---

.a 24 1

“\ --- .__ \ ‘-----‘i,.d .___. __

. ‘\,, ----- -..

---___ -

‘1, , k

r‘ ‘l,

‘\ >L L

f -‘.

\

. . s- -, I If .I& .*. 0 -,

?. .-2. ‘(

‘7.‘. _ 0 .

., / .a*.- --

14,AHe/bade me -observe it, and I should alwaysa&d, &if‘the calamitiesDo! life’wek shared ” .a ‘- : ,p . P ;;

, I’%, :. ._j o* .’ ‘. *3’ -. among the’upier and lo&x part of mankind; but th$ the middle station had the fewest “‘.

n . .

b a~+--.! ‘: -4 a * . - _.- ---&s@-s. ;

d .

n .Daniel Defoe: Robirrsor~ C&ye ’ , ’ ~ : .:. . .

8 * - 0 * 0 .’ a 0 3 ‘) a .

.., : . * ‘. @. t

g :;: -. . .i ; ,T. . ..> 1 ST *

j -- ., > 0 ( O_ * y I’ 3. a .;

R 4, Weiave seen that the prime, target of

s, it follows natufdlji

(@aster has ’ _ ,. - ,-.-- rribilit’y of

thkir houSir$‘- . .I s .,- c-‘ Q’ 2 ’ 2

‘4. Pr~yt~c&~i.,~r Jls3s[cr-. ’ 1. Somq metcues rnq -lx- v&y. qystly, ‘. , i, 2, 219, 32, .33,X5, 59, ? . rhitl~ggttqn m&sJires are toci _ (5.g. Ltie?‘lzarneq b+r&ee):*but ” 66, 72; 8&“‘96. a _ e$xnSive for pours 2, 1 untries?’ .~&xt sitC+ig $Yd sippie. . ‘c “‘::.,, 5 , o ;41-n ,a- . .

I

I?.._ 6. I . ‘. ‘.i,,

--...-- _.__ .___.._ III~l.IauI,b~~ rnrqe, u\,cI ,.. .a ----k . fittla@,.the ov”e%ll cost .of’ ‘~1 (I I

se;tiementS. - “p .( .“f --’ , $-

v o ^_. ‘+ ,

h .h’ % - # ’ .- . ..I

*. ,. P LTt e.

Nb&‘idcnce to stipport:this belief.- ‘*, 8, 19,22, 24, 39, 4J, ‘,y, 9 . .‘/ ‘, XI ‘, , -. _ 44; 51,.58, 60, 76, 77;

-4 * :

. ,,p ; 8.9, 90, 9% 99. I’, . : L’ ‘Y 5

The evi’deke @i&a&s the fev.srse. ‘.-@ $39. ~$1; ,& 65 ‘7&i., ., ‘6 3.’ 9 , 7;:q98; (-&1’ ,~,J, ’ ! =

. . . - a n * * I .- ‘u *p . . . b 6% ; ., So;, ~ . 9

f@aj the ieverse $5 likely to b:e - ,, true, ekcept. in drougi; aminea.

‘.+,,41,?6: 98, 99.

‘4. 8 , P> ‘? .: ” and refugee c3~p.s. ’ ,~ II ‘, . .

I .B ,.d . sl ! 1 .. ,,^’ .I ,.!. 0 -. I d I ” ,. ’ Aa \ ‘. .. .

The r&erse: {he nbrmal,reaction .‘,, ,~2,$?4,‘,$;~$$,39,

_“__ ,q

being a hiqy,rhet@afed’%elf; L e.: , :. , dJ, ??;-.F! ?& 77;

‘. -._ I(. : 1 x -b’ ,

. . . I/’ 9%:) SOtI& AT&&S ‘I ;, ’

.f : ; 1. The. public: wili”sho~ signs’o:f ’ ,, panic jr will be dazed into a,

I - c, YUte ofiin’actiyity.

’ Lo$ organisation; are likely -. to bt! ineffeceive and *

@ s ._ inadequate.

, 3. Morale is likely’id be low, pith $. -jaoting and ot’her for&of 1

viant bGhavioJlr;..a situation . I. at rapidly deteri&tes:iilto’

“, a&: . ‘&\,’ b i .I ‘, 79 *

B ‘-$.‘I%ople. in a daiGl conditio& , ’ ‘p- .” _, %%till be passive, awaitipg:aid

and as$istaqpece) . w. : .,peop1e ;LLJ IlIlC ‘”

; .-. 6 , .‘.. -5. Fllldwing the di&@er, there. f oL A: variable: sih&iog,, $ut .in n&t _

wills be acuttSahorJa&$-of ?oocl,’ cogteT& g&ods*will% .? blarike t$ a~‘il’k&xfsupplies. ~‘-&Zl&le-@yq@i~~n~ .&?y. i&i$$? x

Q r

c

-

:* ,. * 4 ,

: ._

35 Drawiflg b?! W. Russzli Fl& dff &licking cro wds’artertipting to esCapb from Sal? Fr&ciscs ii? : \’ 19116 t ’ ,, ..’ 1 , . , .‘,

/ . ,: * &Ii i f/i REALITY I

'AS~U@DSITUATI~N~~ ' ACTUALSITUATION'

c7. ,Afrer a ctisaste,r. people will The reverse: all nutritional eri,tui~tamllkf food, from a evidence.guggests that people

b

J EVIDENCE ' "'-

a’

. . 19, 21, 60. I 4

\ ,- I j&r-e to survive. behave’more conservatively than ‘1

*)i 1)

. 3. usual. a .- . ; ‘I . . . / %,I T , /J’. .There are scrjouc’rrsks of No evidence of this risk; therefore ’ 44,*60, 65. * .,

?’ ep!dernicF, from bodies iying~ no need to adopt measures such as in tile ruins. ignition of ruins’which his.rupt ~

\ r.

1;;’ ,, : reconstruction processes by ‘I l ” ‘- . . ‘J destroying building mater&is. - (I I

; I( u e .

/:. h (C) SHELTER NEEDS,

li There is a need for oYficials to The reverse: most families appear to 19, 21, 23, 24, 2.5, 36, I e

4 provide large volumes of go to official shelEe-rs only when all 37, 38, 4Q.42, 65, 89, emergent>’ a~commod~~tion for other alternatives have’failed. ~ i 98, 99. ho.meless families.

. 2. TlierJz~srL no clear patterns of . People have clear preferences, which 19, 21, 23;2$‘25,, 36; ; . pj bg!&iour relative to shelter normally follow this order: .37, 38, +@.42, 65, 89;-

provision. I) The homes of relatives o,r friends 98, 99. ‘

:. -r- -.._

2) improvised shelters - " / ' 1 , ; *’ b;<> j 3) converted buildings - scho*ols;etc. ‘. ” ’

‘ ,

I / 4) official provisi;n. 3 es ?’ 0

3. C,ompulsory evazu,atio$,is an T.he reverse. Alb evidence from 23, 36, $7,: 38, 39, 41,

. . effective policy. Y ,,;Worjd War I1 onwards indicates the $0, 76, 77, 97, 98, 99. F" *' . ” failuq .of ;uch polic?es.

i '8 L,

’ 4. TeAts are.; very effective form 57 They can be most useful, but 21, .&, si>, 31, 3#,26,-,,>' of pIovision. 1’ . 5’ evidence sugge.sts under-use, and;fFi%i 38, 39 40,241, 42,.90.

.P 7,' ‘,, . ,

. they)often arrive ‘loo late to-serve . ,a _I .I -. tbe<r function of emergency shelter.

aa, ), ’ c, 3. c In areas of high e&$uree ’ dbvidusly this is, a,critical n&d, but 38, 41,‘6>. HZ li

II- risk, shelter needs b ,, *there-is no evidence of deaths or ’ ’ il . i matte&of life and

‘\ _ I, , .‘h ilhress directly r&&cd to ex-posure -.--- . i’ ( ‘\.

_ c \ J ,- risks. ‘l&e social’$iechanism,s which ,. _ .“m- _

I - --- - .“___ \ \

‘1.. ,’ .._, ** i exist in &.so&t’ies to cope---with’ -,/

,z everyday haiards stil1.functior-r , - -..

\

after disasters. _/ r, ‘, -..

---we. __ -&-F&owing adisaster people tX% ,, Sogieties are adaptable, but a form

"? .P L will&e prepared-f~-~i~Bi_._~---- Unfamiliar forms of housing. \

20, 32,'39,,41, 65, 76, .f cultural rejection has occurred in

ma ‘zy~-&qtances- when .unfamiliar _ 77, .87, 88, 89, 90. ( !

/. shelters havebeen pro’vided. I.

I- ,,. D -‘. ,_, 0 ‘_ ~ /?&ring the emergency period; ‘The reverse: people tend to .cl;‘tch 39, 4;,,,76,;7i, 90, 98,

people will be prepared to live to the family unit, and when 99. ~. in communal shelters.

Iv

- _ ,. L facilities have’bsen rdvided they ;;,-’ -

. ‘, ,,I ’ m. ,. . -’ have!enot been popula . - r) a $ . , ‘” “I -~

.28 '. .( I . ,' L *' ,--' ,'

36; kamilJ,‘a#ier 1962 raythyuake i/l Greece . . $i

”

Emergerlcy shelter in Managua, part of a US govemmen( aid programme for 11,000 woo>en. c

huts

. .

38 Irljlatable graitz w?rehonse. Fropbsals have been made for using such structures as emergency she(ter I . . I. 6). . . *,

29

1, .

h \

5’ MYTH 0 d

,ASSUMED SITUATION ,

a REALITY _ 8 ep I, ’ ,A’ ’

---iiTiJAI, SIkJATION ., * ’ EVIDENCE ” 1 I

4 (D) RECONSTRLiCTlON i. Some form of temporary

h~~i.lSlIlg IS needed priOi to P recoflsrruc‘ttvn.

.“* 0 s = ., b .

’ Clearing lubbk 1s ;i First ’ -. ~ _ ~ Wrority onie people are

rebcu?\l. ‘. 1 l

,

I

1 \ ’ .*r

(i

.

r @ . _ .3. Crash reconstruction “j programmes by agenc:les and

8 goveinnlk!1ts are a h‘rghly

Reconstruction, in the third world, 8, '32, 33, 34, 39, 40, u usually starts immediately, and tak_es 41. 42, 72L 87, 88.

place irresp.ective 0,f government r , . . , plans for &ocatioq etc. .>

a.

Apar: from clearing’streets to 40, 42. _ provide access routes, the rubble is . best left for recycling into new 4.

homes. 4 ,:

The reverse is true?. An indigenuus 8, 22, 23, 24, 2.5, 32, SeSponse willphva~s be tlie most 37, 39, 40, 441, 42, 51, 7:

* rapid and effective form of e:t‘iect’iCP way cjf solving ’ provision, particularly of

59; 71, $3.

iiousip ileeds. temporarily unemployed people to 4 r) , 2 ” build their otin homes.

? ’ W -’ t

‘ 0. - . Y

- t-

.B

?I2 b

!

’

1. The l&d grtuatiyn (111 311 In the few instances where.’ 23, 24, 2.5, 36, 37, 39, , area of high risk) is Jo communities have,been relocated, 41, 71, 98, 99.

q relocate the community in -- _ the&sti-been unsatisfactory, F a saie area. particulqily from social, and

I ” economic standpoints.

(i I -l-l-E PI&l’S~ON OF*AID *, ’ . 1. Aid 1s given in response to the

needs of di&stlr victims. This may be the case; or it may be ’ 22,;25, 38, 39, 41,-68,

. -’ given in response ‘lo phceived needs 7jq" 88, 98, 9!& ' G of the victims. Or it may be-given to W ~ J-Y 1, . satisfy the needs ofa relief agency or

4 .I 9 donor gov&nment.

s R

2.’ A rapid recovery is Often the precise reverse.’ A large 19, 21, 22, 25, 34, ;7, I ci .i

dependent upon a rapid influx of aid may inhibit the influx of aid. recov,@y m%chanisms, the worst,

t - _ f$-68;. 77, OS’, 9&-w;--= \ !

r example being the-development of $‘dependency relationshi& where

b local initiative is swamped. ‘“A 5 *’ -f f c *

vc -. ’ 3 The major pI’oport]on of post-., No evidence. Normally donor d P ‘, disaster housing is likely to

2&3i,, 31, 3>;87,668, -' --

l come from donor sourc.es. provision frqin otit.si$e the cotim?y F$.y.

\ is unlikely, to &-qqunt to m&e than

91. ,_, *a 7

..2 ~.

,‘ I- 20% of the tot& ,a, __ ly II

s ~ ,ie _, ‘h ,I”. .I / -

(1 3 * *.- - - ,<. ll 6 , .I ‘, wj 4 ? * “& ’ P ‘C t 0 *’ #TQ I

-G & ’

--A,. . .

?..“.. ,vagv rvrrrt; trre earthquake in Lice, Turk

t

--_ --

: , ./

w 0

4 Y*PINI cinhrid ~IKINTILI YAPMA ENI BOYU nmmiNf YAYlN OLSUN YAP1 Vt PfNCflfLEiI~ fIkBlfllHf “E K,OSfltRf “AKLA$IWMA

ItMLL DUVARINI YERDEN fN A.2 50 SANIi,,, 7 GfREtiNDfN FAZLA YtiKSfK YAPkA iKi YAPI YAPILAMAZ

YAPLAR ERE. ETMEli

.i :- r<, ‘i’ ,” .i” ,& - I. II : i

, I d - .,i, . 1 ;’

, :&-.

5. , t ~ ,t .2 ^

41 Wall chart used in Turkey tq educate thd public in safe’buiiding techniques in earthqw~&&is

--Food, drugs%nd fist aid are naturally the first items needed by thk stricken homeless, but

surely architects are in the enviable position of being able’to authoritatixely advise and prod ,d’ .7

UN0 or WI-I.0 or UNRR4 (if it still exists) into providing instant housing caiable of being

parachuted into disaster areas at short notice . . . i -. r .-,. /

Right here iri the U.K. we have one of the most powerfui and respected archite,ctural

instituticms in the porld. and we have some of,the world’s more public-spirited architects. ’

---__ As members oilXTBM~~th6 duty‘of British architects to demand of their institution that ”

t it should in its century and a half of sleepy inaction perform just one so-easily-accomplished

shining dekd bFT actink positively to encourage whatever acronymically-nanied international ’ L * a c

body with material,advice to prepare NOW for future man-made or natural disasters by --. ,8 I

having to hand a supply of instant housing and the wher&ithaI for transportingit to the.,

afflicted site. ,

Perhaps the-RIBA might temporarily adopt the Donne-ish motto: Never send to know for c

r whom the e&h quakes; It quakes for thee,

d B Ttle architecr: editprial, March 1976

.’ :

R .

Three strakgies 1 6’ i

li ‘i 1 :’

not as an object. A specific )Loduci may i Having established the context of disasters ’ and the realities of the various responses to form apart of the process, but as the I them, I can now pursuk the subject of shelter preference scale on mith no. C2 intiicat i s, , and housing heed<:

It is important to emphasise it the outset ‘donor shejters are&w in priority. It is

f so

’ worth emphasising that the w&tern. $08 Id is . that shelter must be .considered-as a proce’ss, apt to view solutions in material terms, while ~

r *-. , 33: :

LI .?”

1 No&i&l ‘Housing survival housi!;g 5 ’ construction there is no gap-T% must be the.

z continues l’ ideal, to design and build’structp&s 5 tl$t survive the hazard..

If h 4 ._ .y ’ \,

2 Normal Gap Med with ResumptQn Ndrmal housing is irrterrupted.by housing temporary shelter. of normal the disaster. Thus a gap is forhed in

and temporary housing normal housing construction, and a housin’:: Y gap of living accommodation caused

‘1, by the destruction. The gap is filled / G

by Ihe provision of tempo

27 US’\ shelter and ppssibly temporary ::

2 ‘- housing. ”

;

-ST. Normal.11 .ousing sur&es .- th&’ j

3 Normal Gap filled with Resumption Normal housing is interrupted by . housiq accelerated of normal the disaster. 1~ this insfance,’ ‘_

reconstruction housing however, the gap is filled by starting

E the reconstruction very early - thus z * w preventing the need for temporary

iii accommodation.

Diagrur~~ 6. Three srruregics for shelter; &d km&g followirrg LjIJasters I)

in the developing world they are sought in fo&wing a disaster. These are shownin social rerms. Dr. Fred Krimgold,“an a.rchitect

I( worl&g on hazard reseaich at?Massachusetts Diagram 6. ’ * e

Institute of Technology, his suggestgd that While one, of these”strategies m*y&eim;:.-W.

theie are three basic approaches to sh‘e1p.c followed alone, it is more likely that all

, - * three will be operat$g simuftaneously; c 1’

, I

Strategy 1 -4 Housing &Gival \, 6

We have aJre%dy considered some bf the is being tak2n.yFry seriously. issues relating to the fi’rst of these strategies: A special min’is@y has been established in & provision of housing that withstands the * Turke$,.the Ministr$S R&onstruction and 4i~~r-d. This must become the clear. objestive Resettlem’ent, with the purpose Qf instigatiinl

: for national governments, international bodies and relief agenoies.;~~~s_-w?ys,

preventatiy? measures+ as well Bs.hgndlirig all relief ac.@fties. Tiiis measure-is a response to

rhere is a price to be paid for-such security the fat t *a-t Turkey is, highly vulnerable to and that price is often politidal dynamite. In ‘yarious’J$rms of hazed - earthquakes,‘ / simple teims it impltes land,reform, to tsunamis..(s@smic waves, oftec called tidal /

7 provide, within the price range of the poorest families, a safe, serviced p!ot of land;

waves), rock-fa.Us;floods etc. However, th#

with security. of tenmocation within major thr;eat is that of ear,thquakes-and.- ,,--

:,* -Teach-&Myment (not a-three-hour walk ” statistics obtained in 1965 shbw that.?q4%

from the’brban centre). It also implieS a of the tata‘l surface’ area,,,and 95% of tf;‘k entire .populatio’n, are in earthquake

variety of methods to moWy traditioqal building techniques, where they are clearly country into zones

- vulnerable. It is iristructitie to watch present Y

------. work in both Turkey and G@emala, where this issue of retraining in buqding techniques

34 ., \ ‘---. .

\ \. f i ‘* /’ ” ‘7

- biE!ZITEFWANEAN SEA ‘.\

\ 3

liEI 1 n deqgref %3rtrqJac? zone 2l-a degee eanrlquake zone i

4th degree earthduake z,,ne ~“cn-da-us zcie

Diagram 7. Maplof Turkey iqldiiaring vulnerability to earthquakes’ ,/’ ‘/ /’

/

crude terms this diagram indiates the z . -~J?-&3Qnis try carefully, surveys Ihe Xount+t.o determine ‘these vulnerable’ in;

* _ , spread of these housing types’ within the m?jor seismic zones Of the country. ’ settlements,. and instig& mitigation

L

Of the five types of build@g‘indicated on ,measures. Th&se may t&e the form of ‘: ’ * Diagram. 8 the frame structures B and. W ‘; *‘. relocating vulnerable cohnunities, or of’ ., ‘-

8 ,A “i . . ,, ” .A I ., . _ , : j 35’

,G . : ii ,-

. 2 Y . . = a’

Diagram 8. Map:-of Turkey $dr’cating c$Qstruction types within the risk zones B. 1 ,. killed and 7,526 buildings are destroyed 1 (built in areas with good supplies of timber) r ,’ ”

, annually f9_3/. 9

+s part of the policy of.les&ing risk, an wiil probabJy be sate structures. Ho-wev&_ 6’ . categories A,and S,.adob’e or stone m@onry

analysis was carried out to ascertain the tybs construciion, will be vulnerable. If a 4 . of vemactiiar building that exist within th’e comparison of Diigrams 7 and 8 is made, it, ‘cduntry, their distribution, and their 0, -’

’ vulnerability as to ‘ting and constructional* becomes all too clear“tiTt when category.

7 ,’

form. Diagram g-in A or S housing is found

Ecates the rough degrekearthqu&e zone, ” distribution of the various bJ,i@ing ty<es. .!n disaste;‘areas are indicated. L

strengthening existing structures (9, 92). Clearly either action presents tremendous social and economic obstacles, when it - --- _.- comes to dealing with &sting vulnerable settlements or house typss. It is far easier and cheaper to include safety measures in ‘new settlements than to introducetheii into existing ones. Methods of disseminating information on safe house construction

./ --r, --.,‘ ,,--F ,

ered’ Cuny is directing a’retraining ‘- . programme in Guatemala, which has been instigated by Oxfam and World Neighbours (33, 72, 88). ‘1 .i

It is unique in that its central purpose is ._ not directly to build .houses. It is to support local organisations, particularly co-operatives, and promote earthquake-pro&construction ’

‘techniques that use traditional materials include radio and TV programmes and comic books, which are also being used in

r.-. _L.i-&- i

Guatemala (33j (see Diagram 9). One of the most disappointing aspees of

., the massive reconstruction effort in Guatemala has been the fact that virtually

(1 : all’ the relief agencies iincluding the government reconstruction housing

. programmes). have placed their emphasis on building large. numbers of houses, Twenty- ‘two out of the twenty-four housing

----__

er

‘\\ \/ \ \.

programmes 3ppear to have i

construction (SS}. Taking the example of the clever

advertising copy of Christian Aid, ‘Buy 3 1 Oman a fish and you fc Train him how to fish

-;--lik??e can suggest: ‘Give a man a safe home . and you-h$~eelio~sedftisfamilyy~- but train ( him how to build his own safe house __ _L_- -.--- have housed his family, and very probably 0

families, and his relatives and Diagram 9. A page from a comic book In m

use in Guatemala providing . 3

----- _--

- gz&znce on the co&$t

-~- - - siting of hpuses *

----. L

. . ->

and existmg (4lough developed) construction skills. Yhe result is that the t,raditional character of‘ the houses is retained while the srrucIure i’s mSde safe. The progra’mme consists of- th2 follo~~ing ._. actlvltles:- l,

Salvage mater& from destrbyed or damaged-homes.

-’ ,~.l;;;l!_ti~e~t~~~~~~ducatio*~~ progr,amme:Thi~ has resulted in c.loth wall charts-and a servs ot‘ simple ‘how-to-do-it’

-, : I 1

manuals in a comic book format, which

44 Rural hmtsl)lg it) t&reru Turkyl*. These homes are btciltkf dried mrtd (adobe) with very ” __ hem*)* rwJk. a1ki flzr gup iienvtw~ houses is v6xn.f small a high@ vulnerable set oj’donditions

deCne safe constmtion techniques (se!? e’ Dihgram 9). .1-H. ’

Build a modelqhbuse, using tkhfliques (such as the introduction of timber and barbed wire’bracing) that will ens&safety - next tk+e, When.this model hous has been buil? in~-a given kllage, it,often fQr&s the ’ focus of further educationalactivity.

The roofing, of cqrrugated zinc (1oCaIly &Hed ‘lamina’), is su’bsidised and is ‘,

bi

. . .I .$;a /

L

*;, i. . .

e “’

vulnerable’community - such as-local I .

distributed through lo@ CO-OPS.

1-t isir_lRresting thapthese Turk,ish B 2 -

, *>Guatemrilan styategies are both putting builders, Who can be taught safe techniques “, which they.canthen pass down the: line.

3. It is necessary to quest&n.the -’ ‘: philosophy being followed$n TuiEey of

vulneiable coqnt,ries+ ‘, r@eldcating.vuln’erable communitie’s (!?Q~~ j-“~ ' or’ instigate .bye- Naturally,. the objec?ives are, praiseworthy, *"

are often unaware of the almost total’ absence of planning conrrols.in most Y- * Y

” countries of the third world, and ‘th+e by?: law concept &often unrealistic~particularly in [Ural areas with high’leyels of illiteracy. T&se countLies usually lack the money and’ manpower to enforce such.regulations (70): strengthening of houses. .,

‘Therefore. in aiming for the ideal strategy Following the earthquake in easte;!r !

1. - housing that will survive the next hazard. -

r * ~tfie follotiing points requi;e emphasis: ., @Turkey on 24NovemberS&97~~+otal of -9 ’

.,/ . G “ 8,2~&Z~families;a~most SO,()OO people;l~~ere’ -’

., ; r-T 1’: Programme; can be inst,igated by ‘.

made ho’meless. The Turkish government:~-- .--=- ,maqe%n-announcement six days after-&e * ’

-. ’ --- sapitalising ‘on the visual impact of “disaste? that %ioney $as. beingmade aya’llable = -widespread damage, 9s in Guatem+ ,i, ’ (‘, for people to ‘move to t!%?warmer:climate , \ .* i Consi$mble c;ll$&is should be, ’ -. of the Turkish Aegean coast. The,families 1~ placed 011 a.grass roots form of respo,nse,__,. -. would-+erGbe abIe~toptiQ$ase new flocks.

, ..‘.’

Key individuals shotrid be isolated .witkb a. .--V-C ,- - e: ’ -.

r ol animdls ahd”other necessities anGr,build :. ;;- -----

“7

IX unloo~‘ing‘a~ G%temda airport - y . ,, w 8 - .o’“. ’ . . .

ne~h%nes. By day’ 9, the BBC &p&ted that - ,

4,000 out of’the total .JO.OOO !ra& acqpred; - dd clear& it is the one’to ah-for, and ii;

‘\

tlr& oif~r; the remaindg 4 ?

-doggedly refused to aiining for it, it is necessary to maintain a

’ nl~h ve. Q’p ast evidsn~~rlie.likeliho~d of

‘grape shot’ mentality. That is’to say, by ‘all means try to. persuade governments to -+ ’ I -’ a

Q’+II tk ese 4,000 n~ovmg is verg’ slender. . . ’ intro.duce planni’ng controls, or bye-law a c 4. 1.~ is rrrost encuuraginy that the

’ int@rnaXiorM 2onIm’unity has now conle to i codes; this is one,part of the grape..shot (W):“.

re$rse chat it iS rhe small-U’wfHillil~g, not built But probably far more important is the huge =, educational thrust which must take-@ace at

3, I .-

by ~~on~raL‘t~rs, raot buih in accordance with -.’ .$a)- 13f~llquake-reslstant, codes, that is

a--grass roots kv&sim_ultaneoqs~v with the a*

There-fore major studieshave broad questions of national plannirig pdlici&- : -“--.

The issue presents a tremendous challenges’ e how small buildings ~ to international agencies and their ’ . i ,A

n stand tl$e various ‘*consultants, to re1ie.f agencifs and their . nl must increa9Qrgly workersand

becaIne; o!~e of t&e major concerns of I, to national governments and

: .their;officials. Ail these individuals are , see-- I, , i g engi:neer.$ Seisfllologists and .architec?s. The .

stu,*dGat & en unde?tak<n on probably tithin one elevat-ed social group. Can they understand the problems of a rural ... F

vu113 erahilrty ti 6 &rail dGIlinng have ‘, been selectively’listed in- the Referenc.eS ‘*

fam.Gly :whose house is vulnerable, a family .

@[e dacco;ding 1% subject. wh5 need answers to rwo&nple questio.ns,--

. per SQnie this chapter is in the retis-of

how and where can they build. a safe home? --WW _ Y’-

’ Sa$ly, if pait experience is anything ‘io

farrtitsy, Cynic4 readers will be pessimistid ,A ,go by,’ there his.been neithir the,.,i<%rest ’ ’ aboutdGsaSter rflitigarion measures and ~hjSta@.lly &e)l are correct when they say

b nor the w$l to-make this needed eff&!‘ta. *’ understand* And when it has been ma$ by ? ’

’ -that, W-nan natu-re, being what-it is, io is’ ’ &al CO-ops or relief groups they’have rarely ’ ‘- had the answers available to these two .d

! _ i

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_ ‘, 4 ,. , I, 2 .., $ ’ ‘I0 ‘- . - ... -

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,z _I ,-- ‘-entire first-class-iecrion of the 747 Jumbo h : ‘I.. \I ., Jet had its seats ltaken out to make way for “~.“..qmergency supplies of medical goods and

. ‘Y f&d. On our arki& in Guaiemala, the &pii’*was4 SCefJe of continuous activity: U

I^ large jet “trqnsposts supplies. re&Rtion

i agent)., militar), command posts, and so on.

‘... One of my initial memones is of th& wide ‘. variety of lpguagej beq spoken: and of the

‘iiwernati,,nal.,diversir~ o? thk relief planes on’ ‘2 thc‘xthnlac.‘. ‘r’ These evznrs serve ro underline certain tjdSi~,propc~jttlonj.‘.Firjt.~s alreaciy live in- !vkLuh~‘s ‘Global Vii&e’. in an age of -’ internationalism. with all%iz benefits and;

6 prokilems wrhich this brings. Szz’ondlyl -ours IS an age of so&l awareness. and many of

,. *. the officials and volunteers on flie tqrn%ac of Guatemala ;ir>r.rlirgorr lvere certaii+h+q- ’

> - L .beia& of ~1 g.enunrc slnhisiic 2onc&n. - .% .I irihdl)~‘, \Ve t-+ve :I uni;lue capacity. hi-’ f:isr

to co-ordinate their shelter and hou$,ng programmes; a sign that matters may b%ou t of step (40). Our technolotical capacitie%*,F’ may be highly sophisticated, the amount -$ money available may be enormous, and both, may be available as a result of a massive social concern in tdonor’ countries. But what ,is lacking is the knowledge of what is happening to the homeless flim\ilies. We very rarely know their pie&e reacti‘ops and so we oversimplify their needs. Then there is . confusiok,over tire ‘needs’, of which,,there are aqtually~three. First: the’real nee@

-of.tbe homeless families, which may be \ very dif;erent from thei,r walzts. Secondly;,, ‘there ace the+need’s as we may perceive, ‘., jhem - and these will certainly becoloured

\, ,

. dillon. anLI rills has fliq?pmxi tu us hl111ost

yn3nwes~p’rlrir wc rxke t’ur granted (3ur cilpaqty t0 send 2 jt‘k ia&k000 rnll~es 1rJ ”

halr‘3 hy. i * <

After’3 few h& ii* Ck&nal;i I $ishl

the LjS ilig<IKb for Inr2rn~r~ional ) Devei~pmenr ( AID) direzt+r to try ?a

~- ~btain‘some relrable. data on ca>ualtiesgn;ii . lilt: estcnt of the darnage. I was handed some

sheets which were the helico.pter pilot’s ” completed reports on the rural areas (40). I*< asked if there were any aerial’ photographs . yet and a few minutes later I was able ‘f”o see

--

-

b$our o.wn prejudices.‘Thirdly. there are the ” needs of th$ donor government or agency. It is fooli$ness.to pretend that these don’t r~’ ’ exist and d&‘i, exert their own subtle int;lut;rke on the aid response:‘~*‘~~ - ’ ’

.-’ ’ Diugram +O indicates the range of vptions . -tll3,k will prub;&ly ,e@X-ist- during the early. i ‘wsekgfollowing a major diaster. We have +’ , seen in rn$Eh flo. C2 that there is a clear *ord-er of,prefere’nce in the way the members I cd the attezted ~optrla%n*se.th~e availrible. D _ she1 tqA ‘,, l

Tde eigh,t.C~teg~riei a-h can be sub-di’$kl in two Wtti$S. ’ .’ ’ ” (

’ Fkst. in towcial and pltvsical-solrtt~rls. :,I&~~s a ande (estended families and -” etiGuation),,;lre socjal sglu tions, while the, ” rerndinder are form.s of physical provis@n.,-V

some of the completed air survey’material. Tilis int&getr>e had already been ‘5

Secondly; the categories, can be”split into’\~-- lixal a&b> re@mse (for example +uatter . 0

-i profess~~aHF..~~.~,~.~d-.~ery accurate . data were given on dani%gePtnd caiG2tie$-‘,‘

-0; in’7provisql ‘she1 ter) and c,@d&~&@@z, -wIle”;e-~li~~-c~lne~~o~~i\external’~urceil, ,;k.,-

and all thi,s informqtion was completed within about sixty hours of the disasref:

% These ,pay be &,thin the”;;t~;-& .--- -,- 7’;. ;..L.;

,government, or outside thecou-ntry. .‘)I This is clearly-a technological achieveprent, What unites the&e forces.is that-they are’,

‘. h*

and it suggests that we niay already be far _ ahead of ourselves in a technological sense.

all concerned with filling the ‘gkp’, even if they don’t view the process as such.. .--

LThe problem here was what to do ‘ivith the n data: how to,:crknslate the flow of stati&icQ M&W - ~~~ .- ;:a

into a tangible, logical response, in effect TEe ni$or foree i&relief ancI~re~onstr&ction ~~ bringing these facts down to a human level. is that of the families ihems&w. Becauie = A gaky of agencies are operating often in our primary source of dqta in these matters competition with eachother, few having much idea where<&o focus their energy and II

is th%Faterial put out by agencies,~“we may )’ /

resources. In Guate-m&i? was not until ,,obtain’a false impression {hat the,aiencies . are the major force at worF; after a‘disaster. I 1

’ twenty-one days ‘after the disaster that the first meeting of agencies was held to attempt

have suggested (in myth’&. E3) that .the.- involvement of etixternal a&Zw4s..ynlikely > .T :

40 9 I

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(d&a&on (duraiion a$pr;'fbx.

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s'"-E! ,weeks) ~ qpprox. & approx. -

3-4 weeks) 6 m,onths)r

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abprox. 61 months; bbilt-in

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sites and ,

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of existing xr;ll~n8ae nnrl

.:, j ~~GAG~~$ent/

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8 ,<. . C’ - 1 ‘A’U~VU CAAIU _ : fi ‘, Y-. 'S Of Sh42’anij hOusing pro’visioh

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48 A night-time ‘home’ in Guatemala b&g taker1 dowil so that-the tnt& ca?l be us& for da-v-tim mrh+ries b

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to amount to more than 20% of the total that 25’~,000 people were~homeless,.and relief and reconstrucrian, the balance being owing to government policies-of e;upelling -- an ad-hoc local response together with the .,,people at ~UIJ point from-the ruins of th+ RSpOrlSe of the national government or local homes they had no option other tllan t’o aurhc?rity. Turii IIagan-has noted that in the .‘- post-wauituari!>n in Ballgcddesh, out of a-

leavsthe cily. A cens’us taken\3 month aft-er ’

,total housing need oi‘ 115 million units, the the earthquake indictited that no,less than 90% had been absorbed by families and

combined relief agencies managed to build a friends. The cens’us figures for just four of total of 450,307 housir;g units between the’outlyin&&oM’ils irldicated that no less

r- - 1272 ;m& 1J?Z;:He then@es on to-n%te that ” c!rle /llilli(?/z houses were prob,ably rebuilr by

than 1 X6,@@ l$d moved in with frieqds or ;relations in these towns. Seven weeks after ’

owner/builders during the same period. I* I’ witlioul. any external assistanc”e (?l): !

,the earthquake a ftirthcr census re;ealed ’ ’ ’

r3ne 04. the overridmg impressio.ns of $hat 80,‘OOO were still in their a$opte,d homes (36,. 37, 67j. The graph,(Diagram l,l)

Guatemala duty dur.mg the first wgk after Coritrasts the refugees ill-ext~~~ded-f~rnil~~s ‘--- ’ the earthquake was sf the thousands of 1 . with those in a camp tire in the same town,

:, / B improvised shelters!. thyoughout the“affe!cted Masaya, wilich isfifteerr miles to ‘the south @’ ’ zones. and,huddled in the city paik+s. It 2s csrimated that 5O,r3730 of these simple :

of Managua.

’ makeshit‘r shelters were produced withih the We cannot deduce from these examples

tl1a.t a similar respon>e will take, place in other II first ttienty:t‘nur hc~urs (40). ‘_, The hfm;!gt~a disdist?r ;,i‘ DeLeniber lj972

situations. For example,: the extende,d-

cont’irms this local abilltj. IQ cope and resolve larni1.y ‘spong‘e’ c&mot funltioil iri.tl;e long- term disasters such as-the Sahel drouglit: for :1/

sheiter p;~blctms: In this <i;y it woilld appear ‘the dbvious reason that everyone is affected. 9

., I’-*’ . 1 .;>. ,

50 Existing buildings &t-m a. very v&tilble resotice fbr hous@; for h&&less families: a’ ’ ~ converted convent in Trinidad, Bolivia

I ,%(. ‘,I ,..> .’ / I I I

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* 51 L&d&g Oxfam silp$ies’at RAF@ize’Abrton * ?.

8 _ I r Y ., L B I I il : 0’ ,’

.- Another context where il wo!n’t function is : “ the’&itish or ihe A$erYcaAiovernment

. -

4, the refugee camps ofBan$ad@h, or Bengal, - do&g? The‘public expects, and often _ where people have been uprooted from their rkseives,‘a visible response*froPn’ the relief

- s

environment. Perhaps, even in rural . * situations like the major Turkish,earthquakes

agency, and-we are all’familiar with newsree ’ ’

‘1\ I*

of 19,7.5 and ,.1976, where there are self-( “. clips of 1a;ge jets being loaded in the dead of .:

sufficient villages with little outside contact, night at some re~mot@ilitary airfirld.News a / at.Terz switches to’another topic, and the t U,.

we would b,e wisenot to’ expect such alocal response to meet people’s needs; and initial

public is’sati’sfied that thisor that age,ncy is -: 2 doing its jqb, and inevitably:the donations

stu.dies confirm this (24): ,_ r , ‘flow in at a.rr&ssive rat& ’ ._ a I. ’ 3 However. in,urban areas, particularly<, _ ’

where urbanisation has b*een rapid (and, this = .__ ,,Ifiw_e-ask the quegion, .‘Is$t necessary to.

,send goods -~~~~-~dnrrd~the~Qrld~~-~~~ applies to most cities in&the developing world), ‘&swer has ‘to be in two parts. In-terms bf ’

+ there wili,exist strong rural links for most; if not all3 f$milies? and this is of great benefit

shelter piovision the answer is almost ‘* . > certainly, ‘No, it.isn’t’ & at least as far as the

c after a disaster. =. /-. - I ,: .,r-- >;‘,$ * needs’of the homeless’\families are. concern&d,

t4 I . ...*:

Dorior provisipn: Rationale * -‘.,;i! I-* But the needs of the relief agenfy or E *

I governmen~..may,result in an opposite

dz fi To understand this fully, we have to / 1

.recognise that belief agencies obtain massive . response.

ress cdverage in any major disaster and this n In addition to the:prdbleL of vested ‘-.--L.

they get free publicity. The integests thereis the prob’iem, faced-by ail ’

the. interviewer’s lips is: dgnor agenkies,‘of the ‘culture’gap’; aI too, -often they have entered a post-disaster 0 .

or CARE, or Save the ‘Ch’%$ren situation with a blythe self-c’onfidence.whiah ,\ y

doing?’ C&at a.governmtntailevel, what is ’

46. *:

may be wholly misplacedi Dr!,$chumacheii;~ .o ,’

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52 Emergemy shelter devisedby Mr. Ferris in I9 7f for. ‘Hope Structures : This unit has never , beer1 used in-a disaster

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j3First-Vvear student project by Bob Finch at Oxford ‘holytech&, 1971 . . /

c ._ * c I has written, about this pro’cess:

--a t$ h~p%or people how to use their ,’ * lab

\

Astonishingly, the aid-givers-s?mply 2 % .ur. power with vi+&ll~,no capital, j 1

P assume that they Il”ave the appropriate whe)n$he entire experience’and &

knowledge to help the poor: theythink education of’these experts derives from

‘5 they know and therefore rush straight societies where labour is secure an,d :

into ‘projects’. But what makes them capital plentiful? f82). -- ” ’

- think that-they know how to bring help to destitute villages, when they have no

TThe whole phenomenon of ‘donor’

’ such villages,in their own countries? provision of shelter is eomparativelyre-cent- --- ~_’ 1.‘; -.‘I

What makes them think that they can and,. I have found n.o evidence-of emergency housing (other than tents) being given by !

’ i 0. , 47

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on~~ountr~ to another prior to-World War 11. Tlleref -e the k<rovlsion ofsllelter can be

$? seen 3s c+icldiny wltli the Jevell,pmen-t of aid. rapid transportation. and the g&wing’ spirit of Internationalism menrioned earlier, 2nd lilso tile <:ont5inua1 incieuses m disaster c3su31~1es {SY, 31). <,

, ’ DC I/li,r’j~li)llisic;lti: IVesirrr2 solUrioi2~

* In thih siiLi;irlorl tllere hx he.eri no $iortase of idizas~ havinc~ l-~sitgci various relief

~ :lgencles‘ 11.1 Genev~1 2nd M’ltshmgton 1 fouv,d

that 3 ixnili~r parrern was f‘or the officials tc) sa> ‘k:ncr~enc~~ HousIng’. 3nd walk over to a iillIl&? ;>hinzr which vlrru’allg, overturned as it \V~S opened. The drawers \vere b_ulging .

.: . with *ST t’arleties’ of shelter types. The vas’t majc7rir). of‘tkese s0nLcpts mercifully Iiave never left the draising ho& or !>ling . ,. cabln<t. hut rll’lj stems no deterrens tO the

‘-ingcnult~* 2nd persistence oi tte+$gners (21. ‘12. 32. .j’i. 411.. The reason. t’or this is ’ ‘pefli3ps th;lt arihitecrs -and.,iric!llsrrial deslgncrs .Iia\,e seen Ilils problem t tvrongl)J 1, ‘as relatively simple. and well defined. And it uniqiGl), iombi”nE5 many of thr

. preo<supations of studentq ant Jesighrs: social awareness: advan&d technology; moblllt>, and m~per~!anen~r~>4/J .’ *

Some of.the prop&& have been+ bizarre in the extreme. Perhaps the crowning example 1s thBt of the Moss Air-drop Shelter, a project devised on the princip-k that a upit

. .

1 is:.3ertiFoned from an aircraft’ and ‘throu& ‘l ‘1,

: the differing accelerations of the air-resiitant 1. ‘\ membrane and the fast descent payload, *is opened to its stable. position in the air,

r

landing upright and ready for immediate 2 use’ (33).

A measure of tJjte bublic interest in such ideas ca&. be gauged from ihe statement about Moss in Time fnagazifie!

I ‘,( * “!&It Moss the tentma’ker will not be<‘ fully satisfied until someone buys his iavourite idea --an already tested , “” shelter that can be rushed to earthquake,

“’ q,r other disaster-stricken areas. Carried a over the site by heli lopter and rele;lsed in mid-air’. it opens 1 *e a paracjlute and ‘, ’

k

a diops softly o kartil, ready for * * cp irmilediatk 0 :cupancy (86/.’ .

l

Perhaps one issue th t Mr. Yoss has still to, ’ consid

v is hqw lu gi ‘e I~js~‘he!icayter pilo.@

J ~

a crash course ’ 9 n plann?ngf Michael MerJzies c’om!np.nts on this ’ ’ e J <. d

. preposS$ssioi westerh+ecl;nologists ci have with devising ‘c;nning teclifiilogical packaies’ labelled ‘post-disaster emergency housing’ which; far from beirig installed in any disaster situatioell,

td

reach their zenith widlin the pages .of . the ubiquifo& ’ glossy’ niontbly ,,,, ;& 4

_ mtigtiines (631, 2

59 West G‘eg;na~~ Red Cmss and Bayer polyurethane igloos ar Masayo, Nicareta -. i..-r:--r- . :

*

I--_ .____ . ..-... _. -_--. -- -- _..

---.-“_. ,_-“_.

0 .

7- 56 Field testing oj‘?the Oxfam hexagorlal units in Pa I974

50 /--- . . . ’ ,d’ _ I 0 ,_.

-.57An txample of the way fantilies modified the polyurethane domes in Nicaragua Q

”

UNESCO and the International Union of ,_ Architects chose-‘Emergency Shelter as the “subject of their student competition timed to coincide with their Twelfth Congress.held in Madrid in July 1975. In the absence of

” any guidance to competitors on sensible and realistic criteria, this inevitably produced a

_ vast array of clever but (for reasons to emerge later) largely irrelevant ideas (54).

Some fairly short-lived attempts have been madeJo provide ‘universal’ donor systems of emergency shelter. Perhaps the two that come immediately to mind are the West German Red Cross/Bayer polyurethane

’ igloos (over 1,400 have been pr.Qduced for use in Peru, Nicaragua-and Turkey) (11, 12) and the Oxfdpolyurethane hexagonal

f igl@s, first t.%ed in Lice, Turkey, where a total of 453 units were used.

I have gone into some detail elsewhere on both the origin and performance of these systems (36, 37, 39, 41). In addition, Jon* Cavanagh made a detailed study of the use” of the Oxfam units in Lice (241, Paul and

,

Charlotte Thompson recently examined those in Peru (9Q), and a team from the School of Architecture in StockhBlm has made a study<jof the domes in Gediz, Turkey (84). * _ I

There have been many criticisms of these and similar products, and,,this may be.the’ reason that both systems ha

P now been

abandoned (29). These criticisms includ;: CMhual unacceptability of alien forms Af ,I housing. (See Myths Nos. B6 and Ck;) It ” must. be said, however, that some of the , ,-- ‘:. igloos in Peru, Nicaragua, Turkey and Lice are still being lived in very happily, a:,\fact -- . that teIls us something of the adaptability of societies. ‘: , Timing. This is often wrong, sinc,e the :. shelters have tended to arrive Loo late to,- =* ’ ’ fulfil their role of filling a gap. F&example, in Peru the first units were occupied.60 days ’ * after the disaster (39), while in Managua the-,. delay went up to-‘148 days (36). The Oxfam ,‘, units took a total of 60 days to reach.Tti;key in 1915 (24).-..,_ . /_ ;..-+- - ,1’ Fire risk. A.drian Greeman has questioned, -8 .!\ ‘: ,

‘

whe subi

ief agency has any business to ter victims to high fire risk in

The foam ignites easily. burns quickly /’ /“, and gives off lethal cyanide fumes.

/

Residents are being warned not to have \

open fires near the huts . . advanced A technology brings advanced problems: should charities suspend the safety

d

standards of the advanced countries? (491 4,

II Cost. When transport costs and development - costs are added. it becomes apparent that these igloos cost as much a square metre as fully serviced permanent housing. (And in r;

&ice, permanent housing was in position .! prior,to these ‘emergency’ houses (24):) Ft’ork. The sheiters generated little or no local employment -- a vital need in any post- disaster situ?ition (8).

Doimr prwisiotr: Lbr.~~tech&gy soll~tiot~s 1, have Written at iength on these high-%

59 Carnegie-Mellon ‘A ’ Frqme housing in . construction in u Banglades+ refugee

+!I Further examples of m&jkatbn in Nicaragua -- rm

61 CornplPred ?A ’ Frame.horts&f ar Demra, Bangladesh s I

li ./

“.._ . 3 technolugy solutio!ls, .Ho$aevcr, there have I bun donor syslerns w&h I~&e,~~ot r$ied on

mofe&kely to come withip the price rr?nge of

aclvailced tzchnojogy - dkster victims, it is probably better suited

and in ge’?eeirif th&?e- ~~ -wb~cal culturd,patterns and chmqte, Cd’ it have been more effective. The reasons for will probab$ gen&*loc-al emp@ent. thus are that housing using low technolo.gy is : ma One of the mo’st signif$ant develohr%GJ~.:

, * .- - .~_

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p? 62 Nomad tents in:easterri Turkey

63 Tents provided bv R+Crescent in use in Lice, TurX;-ey,..eight weeks aft& the earthquake ,‘a,, .I’ a,: -- .

‘i in low-technology shelters is the work being ’ undertaken at Carnegie-Mellon University,

under t,he $irec tion of Volker Hartkopf and .,( Ch$les Goodspeed (201. Working with F&d Cuny, this team has developed ronosal that”relies on indigenous mater and

system, with all its qualities,.has had little impact on new construe tioi ~proaches(20, 39, 41). p . ‘0 . p --

indigenous building skills. But the expertise of advanced technology has clearly been necessary to devise their ‘A’ frame structure, which withstands cyclone force winds. (The term ‘A’ frame derives from the form of structure, as shown in‘the photograph.) >ris method, now being used in Bacgladesh, would seem to be a model$pproach. It .

c clearly results from a careful analysisOof a.rl l existing situation. The research has included

a study of local cultural, economic and climatic fa$ors. as we11 as a study of the

’ performance of local vernacular housing. However, ti ultimate test of any donor, syste &whether it is adopted (perhaps

Another donor~‘system’, if-we can call it’ that, has b.een the use of ‘1amina”or of corrugated iron or iiric sheet. In Guatemala, the bulk pur;hase ofthis material has shown~ itself tosbe a-very tffective policy. Oxfam and World Neighbours have broken all records over the amount.tJ$gy have spent on thisaroduct. By July.@76; five months after the earthquake, they had spent E854,QOO. on this metal roofmg, the largest financial ’ allocation in Oxfam’shistory (72). -

This lamina has many obvious advantages over total systems of temporary shelter in that i-t can be used initially for shelter - set over a feLw sticks or an ‘A’ frame house-- and then re-used for-a more permanent -. house. 0

, . with local modification) by the famihes

huildingtheir own homes. &id early reports ’ Donor provision: Tents ‘\A .* 1’ ‘<

\

from Bangladesh would indicate that this But the most fypical low-technology donor Product is clearly the tent, and for&&sands I *

54 I\\.\ t , 1 *, *

-- , . .-.

64Japanese disusrer tcrzts purpose-made in woven polynthene u1 p

9 b 1 p

t, r- of yexs it has probsbly been the basic form a%+ ii

of emergency shelter. Tents also constitute one ot‘ the few types oi mass shelter that are stock-piled. AID kiep stockpIles in various ‘..

key pays throughout the i+,orld. E$ope, ’ ASI>. Xfma qd Lttu? Amerlia. These

I

.i SItKkpdeS conrsm up Id 10,000 frame rents. T?IC Red Crexzn~ in Turk+ md Iran also

*A c;- -- - Ad - ->7.-*.-

“l ml:.

‘1 On> sips&i&~ ptiL!ern is the rapidly

rlsqg iost ot‘tents aI%i their weight in ’ . trsns&.\p~d for rhls reasoa it is hope’d that the plasrri. woven pol)rthene tents being developed specltizally tar post-disaster use

- bl’ 3 Japanese firm, FuJirnorl Kogy’o Co. Ltd., will be a success (4 7). Thise tents were

;r* developed to a spxlfisation lyorked out by -._

jtlrg ‘Vlttani of the League of Red Crdss ’ 4 ’ Societiq (~5). Thus,Kar they ,have been use-$’

,> “3

‘in’south East Asia -- after floods and’ - Y se+- A -. c

p 2) ‘- - A

earthquakes in the Phi@pines, as well a& - .

Vietnam. Laos a,nd Cambodia.‘how&&-as ‘.A ,y -

4 4 “- AA1 ‘, a ,-- I-._

A

I reigeee camps by l-red Cuny ;+@of .I conslderable interest since th$$ represent-the

6’ only attempt. to my knowpige. of town ‘ planners apPlying their p,di;ticular-skills’ to the problems of camp :M!outs (30j.“Qe ‘/..,, laiout that Cuny M&e6 out fir El Foyotepe camp in,,,&caragua produced a ‘hqmane environpfent in sharp contrast to the’

*r?gimented “miifiary .camps’(31). This’l resulted in f&higher occup’ancy figures; The

c & basic prinl;iples were theiuscof family ’

‘clusters, Isc;&sed cooking and sanitation - units.

.

yet no reports have been proGded’op6h&ir f perfornyhce. $

Twvarious reports on the lay#tt of _ .- - persiinnel, San Pedro, Sacatapqt% .I Gus temala ‘; .!e ‘_

c ?he obvious problems of tents are high winds and extremes of heat and coid. Another problem is that the homeless often bring scraps of furtiiture. with th&n, which can easily puncture, the fab’ric. It is also-very surprising that agencies with the e,xperience _ of, AID stockpile- &nerican ‘va.cation-style’ .tents - ‘altho.ugh they liave recently started producing a m,ore&urdy.model.‘Tkie punid~ent’ [ram climate, intense use for a,

c ‘I - 55

-i. A or, 2 4 ;+-;* y --.

w. 65Regimented Jayout of tents by milita&~

. \

-

I

period of three to nix months and furniture darn=%. r&&es many tsnt’s n&xi-unsuitable

du’ty tents. PerhaDs th tents’ are their.

for post-diG,Er&eke~-&&i.yCtie reason why igencies like Oxfam use onl&CT: A

fact -that thev A

f%

_--- ,/-

.--

-, .- t ~-.-

__* . . ’ ‘. . .

69 krner.wm:l~ c*b~q~ ill&M, Ei-irtli, Ital\*, Jkr rrzorlths after the earthquake oj’May 1976. By I titrzt’ !lrlll’ 20“; oMf’fllt? nitr ~~2s c)c*L’llpieJ

G ,.

‘rsJ L I,* ’ ,$, -. --

;CII iltiih r:~11’\17. I _/

One !.I!!!?: {tllprising :t!.ii:Lt~c~ri 1s tllat Professor Quarantelli of-the Ihister

Rese3;1rili C’enrre at Ohio Universir.y told me ti‘lltj :lIt ;roSsl! lllld~~-t1~21! .iTLrl’ .ilsaSt?.rS. In

bllirl~gtl~. [Iii’ L.S drrrl> ‘Jt‘te! ~;tlorl’*blp~rt that the great biqsing 6f te’nts is that there ;ire ai~t~a~s plenty of spares, and that is

b)tlts rmtt2rs k\xE; fnIfir~ir\ p.rec-ulun. Lkernher J_’ ~;lrrllqu~ke

~\kere the relief off’icials will be staying! There wuulct certainly, hav been plenty

L)2i~~Ill/li~r 23 300 ten[s cr?L~tecl to date 01‘ spaie for 3 convention of elief officials in SC) [cllt:, I~i~tlpIeLl ,,i the tents 0fSan Mart. . uaternala. The .-

.I.l!lil.I!\ J 2-42 ti‘nlj freitecl to Jar? mny set up 3,000 tents that the German .c . lb 1 tc’llt~ !.~ilJtlpLLJcl ~~c)vermnent had donated. Afkr two weeks 0

52 tt’blth usd l0r :idn~ln- sgerl of these were oxqchpied, and this was in 0 klr2tion purpm3 fY3!. ,<pite oC threats that tlie army would foice

. .a . & 57

rhis .

‘.

‘people ‘out of the ruins into the tents at gu.n:point 12.5). The reasons for the lack of use are not hard to find. As with so many disasters. the residents of SsnMartin needed to be near rheirbanimals and household belvngmgs and a carup site on the outskirts of town is not suitab!e for eitller.

networks. Against mounting international

At the time of writing, a massive relief aperatIon 1s in ptogress in Turkey following the earthquake of 74 November 1976. Of all the major disasters of the previous five years this poses some of tl,, la most critical shelter problems, in view c?“ winter exposure dangers, with temperatures at night descending to

y, of the tents were far too fhmsy for these iondltions,.and .the agthorities reque&?d+ol& tents wi.th internal heating systems. The US gover_nm+ responded by sending a total-of’i,TZO of these tents which arrived 111 the affected ar?a within forty-eight Ilaurs..Qs; &he tenth day it was estimated that 10,000 wil!ter duty tents had arrived at the &port in the town ot‘ Van. although a careful census of terlts 011 I7 Decembek Indicated that 6,647 ilad been delivered.

The question that was in the mind of John Jirnes, the Guardia/z reporter, on Saturday 4 December (day 10) )was what ,became of these tents - !le writes: _

In a visit to the worst-hit settlements of 1Muradiye and Caldiran - I did not see one such tent‘being occupied by a homeless

, fa@.ly. Plenty of them had been erected,

pressure. the Turkish authorities issued statements to cont$adict such reports, and two men were taken into custody on theft charges on day 13 in the town of Van. On day 14 @e TurGsh premier had to answdr opposition questions in parliament. He rejected suggestions of corruption as ‘exaggerated rumours’.

I have dwelt on this at le’ngth to show something of the problefn~tihen a highly sought-after, highly expensive relief object (in this case a polar tent costing up to $600) arrives in a disaste! situation. It may well be t+ case that the cash value on the black market oEsu& an object would be far hitier than a man’s annual wages - and aImost certainly far higher than the purchase, price of a peasant- house built out of local materials.

The situation in eastern Turkey may well yield very vital evidence as,to what is needed in conditions of extreme exposure. The technique used by armies aIf over the world ‘in cold conditions cjf digging a tent into the ground to get ground warmth and wind piotection does not appear to have been - adopted, or so the press photographs would indicate. (See Diagram 131)

There have been many proposal’s for the use of inflatable structures, br large marquee tents, which car! be subdivided igternally into small cubicles for individual f# AIt&ough thereare obvious cost benefits in

bu,t these were either unoccupied, or un’der Turkish army guard, or else

such propo$aIs, t,here emalhs the’apparent :‘dislike of families or’muiti fan& units (see

occupied by the Turkish troops: rn$&~e~rnpI~o f this can be i se.en in CaIdiran, eastern Turkey, where forty

James then visited a supply depotI twenty-person tents had%een erected by’ day 10, and ye,t they weie’ totally

B A destitute crowd was pressing around ’ unoccupied. I .’ the entrance to the dump, calling for food

and tents. Soldiers were keeping them Donor provisibn: Summary of external, 3, *

back and an officer told them to be sources c

r patient, that their demands would be I- must summarise. Of all the myth% ‘in Part met village by village. But at the other II, Erobably the tiost significant is Cl, the, ’ side of ttie dump, screened from the - . ‘popular rPlisconception that there is a-gap crowd by trucks and piles of supplies, k- waiting to be filed by external sourc&s. With

,’ ‘three coQmparatively weII dressed men the possible exception of famine, ieftigee- ._.. 2 ! were helping themselves while the camps and war, we can. confidently state that’

soldiers i,ooked on* 14 initiative is well able to fill t&&helter, *-r

Tlie thieves are cecorded for posterity oi TV pgap. ne particulargroblem of &eas of higl?

films which were broadcast over British exposure risk may well be clarified when full evidence emerges from the Turkish . c

58 _.__---

,’ .’ ” e . , ,, \ I’ , *- .,

: “’ ; , I

. c

,

Diagram 13.

,

.__,,

: ”

, 4

.i

Field drawing of erecting tents -I

’ .( .‘+ ‘. . . i *,::’ “ I

. .‘d.--59 *‘:; ,,;

If . ~1 . -” : ,; ., ,a ‘” “J 2% b

_ $&rthquake~ofNovember 1976; but it is ., ’ ~‘$&&th restating that we have not as yet .

I ’ = - 1 + 1. Designers must work with, instead of ‘.

found any evidence of deaths from exposure . ~ designing for, the people. I ’ -- - following a natural disaster.-

The fdct that a western productdis almost 2. Any designer trying to?ntroduck change must* be&n with *what the people

certainly not required (and this may even ,* already have; that means-not only the include the supply of tents) is a matter that “““shape? size etc., of the structure itself, ’

. needs to be ~ommu’nicaied to the decision---?- .P:s m.akeB of reliefagencies and governments. , ‘\

L but also the indigenous materials, skills -

It also has to be stjted to designers and to and ot.&r resources available in the

‘? .normal housing process. A I d manufac’turers<who may be tempted to get 3. The whole idea of developing housing. -5

,‘<pinoff publii’ity. , cannot be divorced from the entire ’ There are four questions that donor development approach. It makes no - .

governments or reliePagencies should ask of ’ differen& if the house is earthquake T ‘. any hous;!ng or shelter product that tfiey resistant if the per&n hasn’t made the

consider sending to a disaster. zone: . choice himself to participate and accept HOME quicklj~ will it he occupied? iIf it is what he is being presented.with, be.yond a week it will be probabli too slow.). ”

., .. * . ,:I>.

How &cl~ wok will its cotlstnlctim + getzerarr? (This is a valid question even with an emergency shelter programpe.) HOM ‘urliversal’ is ir? (Will it be rejected 2~: 4rural grounds like some of the donor ” systems in the refugee camps of Bangladesh?) How trudl does it cost.p (Add development and transit c’osts to materials and labour. and then compare it with what this currency could purchase locally.)

i

If, as we must suspect, donor products of? most kinds relate more to the needs if rqanuixturers and agertcies in donor ” countries thin to the local needs in affected zones, then officials should think very hard on those issues. And the money that used to go on goods for the long flight round the world can be used instead byFerien?ed officials to purchase badly needed mate&& in ne&by towns and neighbouring couintries to affected areas. This was how Oxfam purchased its lamina sheeting’ in Salvador, for Guatemala, and,,it is a model pattern for donor provision, an. excellent ‘gap filler’ (72).

The problem of shekter will probably continue to fascinate designers and students indefinitely; but,.for any significant ’

. development to be made, they must begin to recognise that this role i;s one of support or partnership with the peijple in question. his is impossible to achieve -withouh&ose con %l ct with the vulnerable populatign. Such contact would render o.bsolete the clever ideas worked out in the comfhrtable drawing offices of London and New York. Fred Cuny has summarised three”priorities: 1

l

60 *

Any real understanding of donor prav.ision must recognise hatboth the giver and the receiver have needs to be satisfied. And as more.evidence comes to light it becomes very clear that disaster aid is pa,!! of the international aid-market. Both relief agent. % s and donor governments liave mixed motives A rekent example of this emerged after the earthquake in the Philippines of 116 August 1976, when 8,000 died and an estimated $100 million damage was sustained. The New York Times carried a report that. the US EmbaSs)c,,in Manila had made contact ,with the government of the Philippines to * see if a rapid’agreement could be reached on * American air bases; if so there would be no obstacle to the flow of a!id to the 35,000 ’ homeless families. I’

It is this type of report and the vast ‘inappropriateness of perhaps 9% of all donor shelter provision that encourages us to speculate whether most societies would not do better to fo#low the example of Mexico, the Philippines and China. These countries have decided that donor provision islikely to create more problems.than it solves. Future studies must qorisider the success or failure of their unaided relief and rehabilitation procedures. ,, L - : ,

L!..

Donor provision: National governments . ‘We have seenfrom the section ph rny?l that we are prone to exaggerate theimportance of the donor role, and in turnfito minirnise the role p5 national governments.. ’ 1,

Clearly they,Ita;e the potential to fulftl - t

and also in the reconstmctio .- aid-may be administered by within four months’ ( * emergency cortimittees, or national

reconstruction com.mittees, as in the casi of time’s the classic evacuatio

,S&pje and Guatemala:Or administration ~ Australia. At the time of

r,$ay take plac,e at a! local level, as in F&Ii. ‘~oyulation of Darwin wa

I.Edy. In this instance every village has’ifs days of the disaster 35j,O evacuated to t‘owns

own resoirrces, a&its own’&qergency .-2 the city. The’rernaining 1 1 ,O’OO.men stayed

’ 6 ad~linistration. .. l ’ T,. . ,: behind to comme-noe reconstruction. work.

/ - L.. nz.ver$ effective procedure for ” *“g~ove~rn?-nqnts to foliow is to use esjstinf

* By 15 March, 10 weeks after the cyclone,

t%ilities. fo? shelter provision - schools. 5; ‘- the pq~&&% had risen

churches, all public buildings.‘Nr4turally, September,.9 months after

rhey can be used for only a ver$ short time, Li was 38,000 /50, 97)” ., >i

but-this tiay be all thit is needed co fill the The twin desires - to return to one’s

home, and to remain with one’s family - . gap, since. the gap is lik& tofbe only’8Pew appear to be so ‘fiowerful, particularly in c days pending the s&t of reconstruction acriviv. The reso s rce of existing buildings is

’ periods of stress, that pl6ple till tolerate- j

,, :I any degree of discomfort to achieve ‘them. ,

\ immensely valuabl/e, and for this’reason all

, pubKc buildings in vulnerable situations Once again, there is a conflitt, qd the

, should.be built edhigh factors of .s$fety. obvious benefit of’having all ngn$ssential ’

2 personnel out ofthe area has to -be set \, Another action governments ire-/ofte.n against the social upheaval vmpted to pursue is that of evacua@g all evacuation measures will ,cr people not specifiedy involved with’,se+r, In this looke rescue or relief activities. Of all groceyures,

section,4 have

theiesults of t.his$an be cdnfidenlJy i,w predicted. Studie&of wartime Eondon gave shown that at anj one time more ‘evacuated’ children were returning to London than

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Britain. Ho\ e bGldi@ time 8-9 d months:-GNP $3.6QI U$

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., Banaadesh. &use ‘building _

. time agprW”l week /GNP~$80 US I -~- ,’ /

&i$emali. )-hp~se building,

2,OOOCNP, .> ’ w . ~. ‘3,000 G GNP pei capita (World J3a$ Atlas 1-9;i5). ‘- 7 .

a ,. . . _. * , . jf construc_tion peri+ tu nlit~onal wealth ., “I , f _ _ ._,__ ‘y -.

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c

i.2 A, wz,all recorlstructing the roof of his house in Chimaltenango, Guatemala, in corrugated&on sheet. The preyious roof of heavy tiles coilap:ed and already, six days after the disaster, he is usi& a dijj-ererlr approach, either because h’e lacks the skill to h’le his roof, or in respQn!e to the obvious Jfailrlre oj. the previous technique :?I

will continue to use that h&se in its original form and incorpbrate it into the long-term struckre .which evolves. One uf my major Criticisms of the hou&g that Was introduced into Guatemala-by many of ahc relief organisatitifis was that it did 11ot take this evolutionary process into cohsideration. Many orga,nis?tions putiup only a. frarrie intending for the ‘-- pfople to put up wood or corn cane wdls. While that uos safe lo begin with,,, experience has shown that over a period of years, the w$ls will came dQm, the frame will re.mai‘n, and the W&G will be filled iti with adobe or other$eavy mar?rials. Thus, the struc&r,, which ends up teri years -frbm i&;“may be’ exactly ,,’ the same shape .or form AS the’original safe structure; .but will”bq’tisafe because of the change in material. The lesson, ~ therefore, is that the emergenqy shelter or temporary houie must’be designed for ,._

4

B

. ! its ultimate state in the evolu’tionary

process, intensive sy%er&, thus podding work for ’ .- 1

One of the overriding impressions of the first six days after the Guatemala earthquake was of feverish reconstruction activity, In any group of hou’ses, ther,e would ,b’e groups at work, straightening cofrugated ir& sheet, Rtiuilding frames and so on. And it is true to i say that unless events occur to prevent it,

the homeIess people. George Atkinson, in, e his study of redon&ction after disaster-, e comments on thy f&d ,t*o, mobilise local .‘_ s.

labour: * ’ I ’ , ,“” 4 a

.s reconstruction will take place like a reflex.

I The factors that can inhibit or prevent the

recess taking place are: the enforc&d ,, h _ evacuation of a destroyed city (as in Managua); the burning of’rubble (a vital re-’ building resource); or the acute uncertainty engendered when local politicians mak?e. 2

’ early pronounceinents about the possibility of moving thk settlement to some new and safer location. (A favourite preoccupation; part$cularly when politicians own landyin the favoured site!) ‘I 1.

In Nicaragua, a local development ~ organisation, FUNDE, and also CARIT+ built, (or donated materials for owners to, build their own houses)a veryextensive @gF number of hduses long before the ‘temporary shelters’ were.constructed. This was done by the ‘prpcess of infiltration, *

To begin with,,the o’rgan<ati& of relief ’ .

falls for sp,ecial bo’die$ and outside ’ a.,

agenciq. But soon,:very soon if possible, ,1 all who are able-bodied should particip&,

s B

incr&sipgly’ in’their normal,er&loyment. I(* Too’often it h,appenS, especia&‘in poorer ” B courrtri’es, that large numb&s; of able-. . -’ bodied’men stand iqe, living en relief n c ’ while outsiders get busy “on

.’

r reconstruction. Not only is such a” ‘* ’ B ‘happening demoralising to the able: .,+\ D ’ 5 bodied,‘,but 45 W&S m&h ne?eded ._ ,$$b;d

resources (8); f ; :. .’ .‘. .-+ N “, “, ,’

t..&-

:,:;, ‘i:,: ; . .

). It is worth em&as&rig. that &a wofd

i ‘L- ,@ . .’

‘temporary’, when applisd’io housing, is a I ‘4 . “L:

!, fi mgith; that the, ‘temporary’ prefabs of World ‘\ + Wars I and II are s&ill%eing-lived irrin Britain is. testimony to this fact (XC?). “A f&her ’

‘i,: \ 0x

‘example was recently “recorded by ‘Larry ’ .’ Baldassaru (1 OJ. He, describe% the #$it oT’ 3 it, ., + 4 45,000 peoble still living in appalling.

\ _ 4 ?

conditions in.‘temp,orary”barracks, Quonset g ‘, .’

where units were built in small areas, back- gardens or odd scraps of ground, thus ’ J

.~i huts, following the 1968 Sicilian .eafthquake. .

obviating the need for alot of bure’aucratic In this instance there has been an ‘out of ~

‘y

sight, out OJ mind’ attitude, when the \ $

approyals (36). ., 4’ A more recent kxhmple of this rapid be

temporaryo shelter has removed all official, ’

house-buildi,ng piocess is that of Lice, where will properly, to house thme earthquake 3 ” * vie tims.

, I

1,500 prefabricated @ermanent) houses, In cont_ast, the Italia$ authoritieshave , .- ‘4 .a were completed by the Turkish government’

_Y. ->.-

by 10 No;ember,nei$t weeks after-the ; L- earthquake. This .is undoutitedly the fastest ~

earthq&&e inmorthern Italy m-1976. A‘

building programme of a& recent disasteift - -decision has been taken’ to rebuild $I the ’

%&&ie speed was highlight.ed by the fact ’ historic towns and villages as they were prior

th&t:;he Oxfam*‘temj>orary’ or emergeticy to the disaster. In consequenceeach house,

D shelters-were being constructed’hfter ahese

will be rebuilt 0ver.a five-Lykar period by the

units!were complete (24).~ -F-- -~ government. Already’elaborate steps-have

The obvious conclusion is to c deen taken&&& up historic fagades, ”

1

all resources on a rapid housing? number the brick~~rches-~~~~-h~ve--~~._,

with ~ehanent housing, while relying o’fi be t,t%porarily d&@Iishr!d and so on, ‘....

’ al&ough, tragically, many of these shored-up c tents, existing.buildin@ and the extended . family ‘spqnge’ to ho’id the po.p n du&g

fasades Collap3eh.ir-r the further ezthquake of September 1976. ‘In order to @

the oonstnic&ion period. The m 4

cems accommodate the populationduring this . . of such a rap(id housing programme will be:’ I siting relative -to future disasters; the use of ir

pesi’od of reconstruction,the government ‘. assigned architects&and planners to each

lo&l materialswhere available; and thi use community. They then drew up plans for T *oP’labour-intensi.ve rather thti capital-’ .3nn “dtemporary housing’. This provision is for ’ . . %.

..< *. I % _I 7 \ (r ~ .’ I1 , - 4 d5 ;*

.I . . . L5 I *= s .

i .) L’ ‘I \ 1

I* ofticialsLI,talked ts in ‘Friuli explained tfiat

/ 1. L they realise&that*the ‘temporary’ homes’,

~&F== = would ‘st,ay for good but they had in minti. ,

“- the tourist, development of the‘neighbour!- . hood; a’nd this *would be the major ‘use of the ’

homes once. their temporsr, o&pants * returned tot,their original houses. ’ ;, x

One very fascinating aspect. of th’e policy

-

, being,pursued in Friuli is its relationship to the Sicilian situation discussed by Baldassaro - (IQ). Following a very fervent’press i’

.I campaign which highlighted the details of’ r J’ I. the Sicilian fia.$co, the government iwith az

general election looming) decided to. embark ,% on this highly expensive two-stage operation,’ which &may be’doomed tg failure, “* Y

Professor O&o Koenigsbefger has -’ succinctly summarised the re.l&ionship of

the,public sector should do is the construction of houses, of any kind. 3,. Under the immediate impact of a

1 ,disaster people are ready to change _ * long-standing methods and,customs.

Therefore act quickly to introduce ^* improved construction methods and ’

bye-laws. 4. Qui‘cklaction means planned action. It is no good starting making plansafter the event. The plans must be

..

.ready beforehand, including four vital / ’ _ ” . . checklists. (2) Emergency legislation,.

particularly with regard’to the use and I occupation of land. (b) Neti and extended city layouts, that’s for ik- \ . modelIing as tidll as for groq:, (c) New cogstrustipn’systems and byelaqs.-

. . * (d) Most important, a role casaing plan, I ’ relief~to;ji‘ec,onstruction,and of indigenous a because the disastef,is the CL&& raiser -.%-’

3 response to official”provision..: to a big drama and the action.will not * ‘

There are really four principle> 1. Relief -take place unless every role in the ,. L

subsequent action ‘= filled by-an actor 1 < 0 is the’enemy of reconstruction. Therefo e

% (58).

.’ d :- I + %I c . S’

‘,A, ’ , , __

,,.i ’ \’ ~

. *

- Jcentr&y heated;fully, serviced prefabri&tecl$:J ,’ minimise’ r&f. 2, Even thkminimal relief ~ 7’ units.. They cost $n average betGeen &5,000 ‘w

afrd &$,,OOO per house’unit, Niturally’ih/e’ ~ k ;operati& &re$hes the public, sector +-” executive capacity to the +utmost. ,d

~ 7’

.I ; question which @be asked’repeat&lIy~over I thg hex.t few years is, ‘can any govern@ ‘nt

4

Fqherefore Goid pate&&m. The public z d ‘<

secto’r must not touch any jobs the ;

afford this type o,$ two-stage poli~y‘?“T’he people can do themselves. The last thing ,

6

r

9.

.

- . m

. ,+J,

a ‘

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n

PART 4

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‘,

1..

,

_.I-

_J

p ives, ., ,.’ ., . . I . ’ ,

. And God saw that the.wickedness of &an was great- in the earth, and that every imagi&atidn I

of the thoughts of his +art was only evil continually . ._. Aji-d $.&& &; No& . ;-:$f*, - ‘, m

thee an ark-of gopher wood; rooms‘ shalt thou nqke in the a& and shalt iitch it within and’ / .,

without’with pitch’ . . . \ In’the six hundredth year of Noah’s life, in the second month, the

seventeenth day of the month, the same day we&all She fountains of the great deep broken.

up, and the, wi;ldkvs ofheaven were opened. And thj3 rain was upon the ear& forty days and 1

forty nights. In the selfsame day qntered Noah, and Shem, and Ham, and Japlieth, the sonsS of

Noah, and Noah’s wife, and the three $&es of his yns with him, into ,tie ark . . . kd the r ’ .‘. I w

waters prevailed, and Were increased greatly upoi the”&-th; and the ark went-upon the face ’ ‘. I ~ / ‘I 5

qf the waters.

Genesis vi, vii

pen Noah and his family climbed into the Ark, they were-entering a disaster shelter of

reference prior to the C&at Fire of London ‘ ~$1666. Th$k a very brief reference tihich .

alather special kind, built as a piece of meticulous pre-disaster plarining, This m;st

states that An& Kh&au LXhlaG IjZz-I Khusravi, a poet who lived in Persia between -

be one of the ,earliest recorded extipleshof shelter provision against disaster, in this case

’ 1253 and’1325,livedJn a tent following’thq .I collapse of his house-in the rainy season. CO

aq ‘act Of ‘God’ in a very.Jiteral sense.- - .~ ------~ ~-~ Within this sect&..-1 want to look at

Although the centriil theme of this -~ --- - -~~~a~~e’i-i~~~a~~~~~r. a*~.‘oi3.cg-.-d * ,~.” ..,... ..,,

various disasters in history, drawing ghereier p@isiori, I have delibera@y-s$ray~d into: possible oh primary sources of ir$rmation

, pdripheral are%. where There are items of ’ .

dr, if these.4aie unavailable, on seco’A&uy’ .*. * recorhspf.these events. The evidencebf .

interest. For exampld; t.he&bjects of aid pro$on, public riioralq and reconstruction . ’

shllterQprsvision+in history is very - -. - lragment&y and slender, as will be seen:In

y.--a;e .c~ose~-~~,+~e~ated;m~ I-have ~ot-~,..T.- -... ,. -.- .: 7

my researches I have found only one hesitated to compare previous patterns of ‘ human behairiour with current &titydes. _,:

I

rr .. , 7’ /I ,. r

Famine in Judea &AD 4%,-M ’ ‘In addition to the account of the Flood, there is another story of a disaste,r in the Bible, with an early example of aid OF ‘d,onor provision’. This is the account in Acts xi: 27a of the-sending of aid from. the church at... _ Antioch to Jerusalem, where a fan&e had q been prophesi&l: -~-

I Agabus stod;jd up and foretold by the ‘I

Spirit thatOther: would be a great famine all :over the world; and this took place in the days of Claudius. And the disciples .determined, every one according to his ability, to send relief to the

who lived in Judea; and they ending it to the elders by ‘the

and Saul., -4 .

Eruption of Vesuvius AD’ 79 c In the same era the Roman historian Pliny wrote a meticulous description of this

companions by repeatedly declaring that

&/-- eruption. He describes the reljef efforts of these were nothing but bonfires left by the pea&its in their terror, or else

his uncle, in a letter he wrote to Cornelius i

Taci tus: : empty houses on fire In the districts

I , they had abandoned (754. ‘. ** ‘1

He gave orders for the karships to be launched and went on board himself with the intention of bringing help ‘to many more people . . .‘he hurried to the place where everyone else was hastily leiving, steering his‘course straight for the danger zone. He was entirely fearless, describing each new movement ar-rcl phase of the portent to be noted down exactly as he observed them. Ashes were already falling, hotter and thicker as the ships drew near, folloped.by bits of

* ‘pumice and blackened stones, charred and cracked by the flames: then suddenly they were in shallow water, and the shore was bIbcked by the .!debris from the mouhtain (75)’ _t x

It

The family within tl% house were faced with a dilemma whether to remain i&oorf OF tie go into the open. But with ashes fiiing the , courtyard they feared they would be tr&c within the building.- they were almosf

’ literally between the devil and* thy;&ep blue

Pliny goes on to describe the situation on the A mountain slopes: Y

- - --

h4y uncle ,tried to alIay the fears of his

sea. h .:

Outside, on the other hand, there was a danger from falling pumice-stones, even though these-were light and porous; however, after comparing the risks they chose the latter . . : As a protection Against falling objects they put pillows ,

’ on their heads tied down with cloths” o .i . ” Q

This is,d 20OO-year-old example of resource- fulness when a disaster occurs: it is.aIso a very vivid picture of the re!iefefforts.~~at---r - were made, although the account is tanGlEingIy brief ;$nd we are-left in doubt as to the success qf the relief mission.

\ -. II Y

‘-, -* -Eafihqu-&+s ifi. history:- I :.. _- _ ..‘.._... ,‘.. ,,. .i_ -..c:.. _ _I:! * : i

The study of past’ea;iquakes has taken on a P, St’

.: ; ‘.

vital &npetus- ’ the light of modern Q&II in

70 .1 i .i* . Y I G-J

5’ ,! ^.._ -0 ~~_-

. ‘,’ i; PI ’

-G-‘-- . ” _

evaluating earthquake risk to assist in-the ,. -‘.- Taxila etirthqtiake which occurred in-, _ A-’ ; prediction of future disasters. - I

In China, scientists have stti ’ North&+P.a@tan [near_Isl@a-Q-in AD 25.

I’ ,The~gnifcan t ~arch~ological d&covery here i documentsi_spannirg a 3000-yea this knowledge h-as assisted the Su predictions of earthquakes. Thes

was of hdus@ebGilt after this earthquake in*+ -~ % a ar~ei%orm, with special precautions to ,

from foolproof, however, as is evide&e$by r-iG&e their foundations secure. In som-

th,e earthquake of Tangshan&.Iay 1976 -ir&nces the new foundation depth was as

, where up to 700,?_00-have been reported killed. _ -* i

The studies of Professor Nicholas

much as five metres deep. Ambraseys and his research team have also found this change in -. foundation depth in Syria and Southern Anat’olia. Further, he found that the new . ,

Ambraseys have been mostly related to buildings were built only one or~two storeys historical earthquakes in the eastern high, where there had previously been three- Mediterranean basin (4, 6, 7). He has plotted storey structures. earthquakes, in the dimensions both of time This team also found examples of the

1’ J 1.d of geographical distribution. Some very switch from stone walls to timber bracing in significant discoverieaevant to w, ,~parts of Anatoha, Crete and Northern : provision and early earthquakes have ‘,’ 1 pattern’emerged of I emerged from this work. I

One of his historical studies is of the folloiving certain disasters. .,

Lincoln earthq,uake 1185 ,’ *?-Iolinshed, the Tudor chronicler, wrote: church of Lincoln ren

In 1185, on the Monday in the week downwards (26).

1 ’

.t from the top

before Easter, chanced a sore earthquake This is the sum total of knowledge !f the s

through all the parts of the land, such . . . earthquake. It took about two hundred years as . . . had not been heard of in England to rebuild the’cathedral, which was infinitely since the beginning of the world . . . Stone more sumptuous than its predecessor. . houses were overthrown and the great-

0 , :

: c

Great Plague.of London 1665 .I Only one aspect of this disaster concerns us here. This is the rbassive evacuation that to6k place, on such a scale as to iesult in a capitaj city that,,was virtually deserted (28).

@r-Al Defoe was only five years old at

‘how I’should dispose of myself; that is 1 ‘. to say, whether I should resolve to stay : .:.- in London or-shut up my house and

,. . .

flee, as many-of my neighbours,did. . . I had two important things before me; -

---T-, . .- :,A ’

the time, but he 1ateruse.d his memory and, the one was the carrying on my - r _,_ __,.r’ “’ ’ ,, interviews to set down a’contemporaI;y ., c ‘business and shop . . . in which was. ‘, .‘ .

9 ; account of the disaster. He records the ’ embarked all my effects in the -worId; dilemma of a London shopkeeper. L ---.’ + ’ ’

. .’ “and the othiir’was the preservation of :- my,,Iife in so dismal a calamity-‘as I saw I

I now began to consider”seriously with : myself concerningb my own cas,e, a&i

appareritiy wts cqning ripon the whole.’ j .: city(43). :.:‘I ‘.-~ _. : ,i

_ ___ :- .L ._I _____..__” ,.__ --..- .._.--.._. I

: 1 . .

.sL,

_- _- -- ____.. ._-__ ___ .-- . : .- a-- - .I--- ,,_. * zyti ,I * A ,.r * 4” ,..A ,, , /’ 7 - 4. _- C,

.,&*.;’ ” /;; --’ <,,:

,’ 0. .a., . . -B : ‘N_ @: x,.

P-

-- -._._

4

c

Great Fire of London 1666 We can be grateful that Samuel Pepys and canopy over them, but that of the

Heavens (46). John Evelyn kept diaries when the Great Fire of London took place. Inevitably, they were preoccupied with the dramatic events of the first week in September 1666. However, the diaries give fascinating glimpses of the plight of the homeless families. John Evelyn wrote: I,

Here we saw the Thames cover’d with goods floating, all the barges and boates laden with what some had time and courage to save, as, on the other&e

‘,..

carts, &c. carrying out to the ‘fields, which for many miles w,ere stiew’d with moveables of all sorts, and ten+? erecting to shelter both people and what goods they could.get away (45).

. \ . Many thousands now have nowher to

lay their heads and the ‘fields arc the .s only receptacle which they can find

for themselves and their goods: most of the late inhabitants of London lie all night in the open air, with no other

76

Evelyn believed that there were .200,000 refugees dispersed upon the fields o Highgate and Islington, with the majority in Moorfields: ‘People of all ranks and degrees dispers’d, and lying along by heapes of what they could save . . .‘. (46). - ’ .

Amazingly only four people were killed, while those made homeless numbered about 100,000 (one in six of London’s population at that the>. Careful surveys were carried out of the damage., and it was found that 13,200 houses. were destroyed in an area of 436 acres. The estimated-cost of rebuilding these homes was calculated at 53.9 million.

\ Our .knowikdge of what happened to the

tuine&buildings is much greater than our

-Iu‘.ii..in rw.l+~lrr ,.i.i,.,rre ..liL,r FriT.or~. tusd’,r. lx~ll~.%.‘-kr ,) L;, .I!. w. \i.rnV~:.uLl.~L.sAun,rlu, OT llui MT.&L dc&rw.nr,~~ ,.& r*).

A Victbrian view orthe plight of the’homele$ af?er tk Grt?at’ci’e.of Lord&i, camping out in Highgate , ’ _/ i ’ * B’ I, . . : ‘”

72 P . . . . r ., ., .., ,( __ ---

.’ _- __ --a- -___. i .a_ .-~..~i__ ._ .\ Y- I. - .- _ _ --~~.) ,-*,._ --“ceT-. -,~.Pd,i :,_ .--. ,,-*,~.~=;,.,; <Le *; __ ;C., _T.- -a -,

““-w.F--‘.>“” -.T .- . . . c_, I -=-

_ _

_,

j i2 ,’ b’ - : “, ’ : .

!’ ,r, .’ ’ i\ ,‘, )/ , !.!,, ,,

4.‘ / _, ,“ .;ic’a,.r i I ~l~;t-lic'fl~ 1i1 ' I/ iilc (,if~* ii/ /,ynih/tl

-, x_ 73

f-‘- I

./’ . ?;’ *

‘un$erstandm$ c:f ~~*h3thappened to the rii~u$ez. \Ve iLlG !la\e J tew facts. King Charles code out tu Mlotirfields to address the iit;iTlr’!t’hS.J It Gr:,:Tlijei! them 2500 worth of bf-?iJ l;Jl’i II? ,Jj.;:-l ~r~)ii&d tents for them‘, J;!ci !!i? Cl!) ilt I-tijtdt,n pave permission for lc:!?LJI)ILli\ ‘zti:l$!lg !I1 rl~e open spaces north L\ t :!ifo Clt;; \! ~11;. Ti~rze tidys after the’fire broke tru:i a II>>& pro;lamation ordered all’ r.llz ;ttitht)rities III nei&bouring parishes to p:o\i& .lGtgin#> for tilz dsstitute. The pro~~i;lrr~ation r?\lurr<ci rhat all towns and <iti<b h!i<)lJld ‘wIthout my contradiction ie;zi~2 r.1~ <aiJ Astrejsld persons and permit tiierri t!le t‘i?? c?\2!‘CiS? cil‘ iheirmutual trades’. he h~c~c, that t:~&rs set up work in Ipswich and Osfijrd 35 ;i resu!r of‘ this proclamation ,

!1: httici&’ il cti,r!;crn<<! with immediate rrirct. ~rtd tltit pr~i:n~dv with reconstruction,, ls-;ii<j. But I[ IS j\‘urt!i i~l~trring,the distinct&on ld $!Tc~!!l :i!e KJkC L)f :~IC Great Firea whole jci%?, 01 ,)os!-JljaittZr ;t~~racterisfjeS, pltsrrls tii;lt reJppcsi 11~ subsequent catastrophes in major urbiHi centres or I CLl~lltlil iit!t’j /Z 6. 7.Q).

I. A \u!nzrab!e <audition was the basic ~~acw sd)I‘ the Jilajt=r. London was a mass of YZr\’ narrow <treeis 01‘ tall wooden housessal hghl~,, vplqkrablc’ tu tire. and the flames-

I

? i <

lI Lisbbn earthquake 1755

-- ‘-*

spread’quickly. 2. The refugees living in improvised

homes (tents, shacks, etc.) were gradually absorbed by those whose homes had survived. This was encouraged by ‘royal proclamations ,

3. Bold: near-Utopian plans were produced. (iWren’s-first planwas completed- within fourteen days, but Gvelyn had beaten him by three days with his proposals!) These \ plans were for wide streets and lo?g vistas, in sharp contrast’to the higgledylpiggledy nature of the old City.pt as so often in subsequent centuries, expedience, money ’ and private interests triumphed over the bold dreams&f innovators.

4. -1 have already mentio,ned*isee Diagram 2) that bye-laws were introduced aftpr the Fire to prevent the next disaster L while the charred City was still smoking. Since there has not been a similar disaster in tl;e subsequent 3OCl years, wecan congratulate the City fathers on the’ir,foresigh t !

Tlie reconstruction after the Fire isa ’ further. example of radical chwlge being triggered off by a catastrophe. It is a reminder that when officials have to contend with public uproar on top of financial loss, conditions are ripe for either reform or. repression. Mercifully for London the former. resulted.e .

_ :_:j _ kt 10 3.m. on I Kovember 1755 Lisbon (94). i ’

(perhapb the most prosperous European ~ caprtal bf the eighteenth century) was

The earthquake appears t&have been a *

” ‘classquake’ rather h&Guatemala

ravaged by a mas’sive earthquake. This disaster in that&e’casualties were almost created~rbtal havoc, widespread loss of life without exception from thepoorer. sections and extensive fires within the city; Just twenty minutes later, seismic seaZiior

;-- of Lisbon society, with just two deaths from --t.liii Zobiiity; .~_ _

fsttmmis engulfed the ruined city, causing . “-” The relief operation w&h&dled largely ’ further damage and casualties. Perhaps as , many as 60,000 people died in the cataclysm,

‘by local priests and nuns, and it. was carefully ?locumented bycontemporary hist

and it became the source of wid-espread Antonio Pereira de Figueiredo descr philo~&&!&..l.~debate throughout Europe-(56j. form of improvised shelter: . _ i .1

Th$?v%?~$wpled with the earthquake ‘,that had:&vas@ted Lima, Peru in 1746, had,

Q\. -\ , The general, desire was to get out of

a profound effect on Voltaire, and three /,,“’ years after the Lisbontragedy he wrote his

buildings into tents or huts, and to,sleep _ in the garden rather than indoors, even

very witty comedy Gmdide, a novel dealing if one’s home still stood safe.$nd sound, with the problkms.of evil a?rd human and for this reason &he great’ camps on suffering posed by such evgnts as earthquakes the high ind open places ‘round th$ city ,

%. I 74 .

78 ~i~11iernrh-c.etltlrl?, mgravirlg of‘ thP &srmctio~~ of Lishou

79 LlJbon rebuilt after I7.55 earthquake were for a long time crowded _1 c‘ommuruties, m spire of the initial dlscor~lfurt an< squalor+f’ the misera, ie bivouacs of matting, planks, and sail- 4

cloth under which rmny ot‘ the squatters spenr their first nlghts / 7dJ.

T.DrKendrick, from whose book the above account is Taken. comments on the relief operation: \

A particularly difficult prob&n was the control of refugees from the crty. They were finding ,therr way al1 over the county, and among them were thieves,

~ escat3ed,,prisoners, and rascals of all .‘* kinds, in addition to a large number of able-bodied&aftsmen and labourers

. . . . c

who,-yere needed in Lisbon. A system ,J’ of passes had to be introduced, and the provincial governors instructed to send 0

.-??.&<the capital all those wllo had I ) escaped to a diwc.e without very good reason (57).

So we can see the authorities trying to reverse. the mass migration from the capital into the &rounding rural areag -a&se ‘0 was the problem of iemporary shelters which Kendrick comments on: -1.

Anothei urgent business was the prbvision’ of tempo&&shelter for the homeless and the collection of material for-ma-king . huts. $ofiteering in wood, of which there was-a shortage, was,stopped, and ’

-_ 1\’ ‘% . . .

.v -as

Lhagram IS. .\iup of I,dx)tl imiicati~~g rec*wstntctiorl fdlowi~g the earthquake ._ , all. av;lllablc sugplies were commandeered Whin the week after the disaster there were.

,t‘yrLrsbun. Rents of land used for the’ a further thirty-tremors and shakes. By ” :reir~on of emergency hutments were August’l.756, ten months after the event, cclntro&Q~ople were encouraged to five hundred aftershocks had been recorded. return, wher Another similarity with present conditions and landlords were not allowed to evict their tenanis from surviving dwelling-

is the reference to spiral+rg costs of materials in demand, in this instance wood. At the

hoqses. and those who kept lodgings * time of writing the demand for corrugated, were not allowed to put up their prices iron sheet in Guatemala has created a similar (57). . spiral on the price structure. It has b:e>n

r estimated that 9,000 temporary wooden One major problem in the relief phase was to buildings were erected in Lisbon within six find accommodation for whole communities months of the Lisbon earthquake,

-. of nuns, whose convents had been destroyed Although the Utopian dreams of Evelyn in the ditister. , and Wren were never real&d in the rebuilding

(

Thus the situation in Lisbon finds echoes of London, the most grandiose schemes were in recent disasters. The efforts the authorities implemented in~Lisbon, through the ,

The voluntary movement 0 -ZO regions far away from the city is not the normal behaviour pattern, and it may have the entire city centre had been LebuIlt on the been the result of terror - a response to the lines of the boulevards,and squares of the aftershocks which follo;ved the earthquake. French ‘place royale’. ~

76

Irish pdat’o famine 1845-9 ’ I r ,I’ ,c a . . . +. *

Although it did not.destroy buildings;this * disaster illustrates certain attitudes over the

man in a quiet office, and what happens .to people when that principle is put into

giving or receiving of aid. Cecil Woodham- practice . : . The response of theBritish Smith has,written a moving account of me Government to the potato blight was’ tragedy: - according to Ricardo and Malthus. The .-

dry, antiseptic principle was enunciated Much of this obtuseness sprang from the by Charles Edward Trevelyan, the fanatical faith of mid-qiheteenth century permanent head of the Treasury: ‘Trade’, British politicians in the econqmic ‘Trevelyan advised, ‘would be paralysed’ - // doctrine of laissez-faire, no interference ’ that was his word - if the government by government, no m$ddling with the gave away food to the Irish and SO * d operation of natural causd. Adherence interfered with the profits of business 9.

to laissez-j& was carried to such a I: length that in the midst of one, of the,;

enterprise (481. c / major famines of history, the’ _’

” government was perpetually nervous It is probable that one and a half million ._

of being too good to Ireland and of Irish people died, many as a result of this

co$-upting the Irish people by kindness, / e%on&ic theory/Their deaths are a further -

and so stifling th virtues of self ,,” reminder of the+wo~pro~d!atu~oi‘

reliance and industry /VOl}. ’ ‘- relief, withdonor interests likely to win in

any conflict over8priorities. In talking to officials in government offices or embassies ” ’

John Kenneth Galbraithcommented on this in Central America.1 have heard similar attitude in his recent TV series: views to these of the politicians of the mid-

nineteenth century. One seasoned official I Few things in life can&be so appalling as told me: ‘Nature has its own way of dealing the differenxbetween a dry, an&septic with over-population, and it’s probably wise statement of a principle by a well-spoken d not to inte-rfere in the process.’ -

‘a ..- +

I

- San Francisco earthquake 1906 0 ’ . . This disastt+r was the first major urban their homes lest there’should be-,a further: earthquake of this century. Diagram 4 indicates the scale of damage. Set against the

earthquake. B”y June the total h,z+d dwindled

$525 million estimated damage, the relief to less than 50,000 and by July to 25,004. _ In the autumn, (five monthsafter the

grants were pitifully inadequate. The US . gownment gave $2.5 million and foreign

earthquake) the permanent population ;bf all -

governments contributed a total of $474,211 emergency camps was down to 17,00@

?I’here are many e?cellent studies of the’ (which included a gift from Britain of $6,57O).San Francisco ear&q&e; in one of these In terms of shelter provision, there was studies, William Bronson has written: widespread contemporary documentation,

‘ --which included (perhaps for the first time)” The makeshift shelters of blanketdand ,’ -.- photo&aphic coverage.

>e~troy&~i5Jl,POO homes rags’ which helped shield two hundred thousandfrom the rain .after the--fire - a ’

and resulted in 300,000 people sleeping outdoo\s during the first days after the

didn’t last for long.‘Tents issued-by the -I military refilacedthem, and the ,- .“Y -----_ -.-

disaster. This total, as in#a.ll earthquake I bJ beginnings of the permanent camps which situations, included both the homeless and were to dot the City’s.parks and. - those who were $2 frightened to rgturn to reservation$for more than a year were cl* ~~ -. ~ $

d , I L -I .-, 77 ,- .I .._ ..C z- _i_l_____ ..i, L-__ - 1, -----. ‘\:.~

i r”T i .-. _. 9

t

estabhsilecl. Tile ~rohl~‘m of housing a afraid these people will neve; want to leave, c’~t\ III \I~NLI! rhrtlc‘ rir‘t11~ of the dwellings their new homes here.’ This attitude is hai t:llin~d \\ LIS IlIL’t 111 marl> \V;1)‘5. AIld reminiscept of the authorities,’ views in Ill r!?t? t‘il!L!I Ltllzl).iiS. iTl<)jt Ot‘ tllFj p?Oplt’ Ireland. and not without its counterpart hd\eci it r‘ur I!IL’IX2!~.t’> i i-/i- today whenever’ we hear the outrage of press

or politicians St the featherbedding effects of social welfare provision.

After the cottages had been occupied for just uniler ,a year the egodus began. The unique event here was that the exodus was tif cottages as well ai people. The enterprising occupants su&eded in jacking the huts’off their foundations and iri fitting {heels to ther . . and then with suitabie’horse or mule “po 4 er the huts were moved to private lots. To this day some of‘these wooden cottages still re in as garden sheds, but now-they ., are almost unrecognisable.

The committee spent a further, $kOO,OOQ \ on building a further 1.4004~uses forpeople 6

. &ho had sufficient cash to match the money spent by the committee:As an incentive the owners got a financial discount if they sited fllese homes in the burned area of the city, a very unpopular area for’reconstruction (1SJ.

Z-3 lmprovisecl home anti refilgees ’ bilongitigs in Golden Gate Park, ‘San Francis&, 9 I ‘,,

1 84 Harbor View emergency camp with Alca&az in’the background. This site was u$’ for ^:.

--- ._ several monthssand housed the toughest &d most unmanugeable,group. ofrefugees _ i -80

. ‘. > 1 ‘,

. I ,-

._ ,., ,’

8.5 Emergency camp in Sah Francisco

86 77ze Park Presidio Drive site , ../

- *

mp called Funston Playground)

.

P 8 1 : . .-*: : ’

. . ..

1 Y L F r.

2: ,

-\

SY j,bU!I hlrrs :\*err btrrit ( III rhis crnc~rgenc‘y site in Park Fresidi(I I)n’ve I

80 A temporap house being moved to a permanent site in the summer of 1,908 (after about nineteen months on its original site). Note the legs of the small boys pushing the house. jkom rh;e rear .

82 I

. 1

Reggio-Messina &aith&ake%O8 / ~ c , ’

./ ts

‘.

r

Unfortunately;. Eve don’t have~suzh detailed knowledge of Gther disasters in the early part of the ienrun as we pOSS2SS for San FrancisLo. T1i.o y ear-3 after this major disaster. tile S~iltan city of blesslna and the iity of Keggio on the ltahan mamjand were destro>,ed. There lvere ,mass~ve <astralties wlr~h ma>. have rncluded 50.000 deaths. WZ i;in dedllce S~lll~tillIlg Oi the post-

disaster srtuatlon (in the era before rapid relief became a characterutii pattern) from the e),e-witness amount of a Swedish doctor, Axe1 Munthe. who described the s&xz&@ in his best-selhng autobiography ~~ The stun, of Saiz Jlicilel~ He writes:

[what] I did tn blessma \vas very little compared H’tth what I saw hyndreds of ., unnam& and unreiordrd pc’o‘ple do at rile peril of‘ their lives. I myself w&i in

no peril except that oi‘ dying from hunger and from my uwn stupidity. It , I> true that I brought a number of half-

s

7 ,, ’

,I 9

y ‘_ AC B -_,

.I P 5

suffocated p$ople back to life,by means _.

of artit>cial respiration . . . I know that I dragged single-handed an old woman from what had been her kitch*en but I also know that’ I abandoned her in the street screaming for help, with her two legs broken. There.was indeed nothing else for me to do until the arrivi’of the first hospital ship, no dressing. -. material and no medicine whatsoever , _., ’ was obtainable (64).

.#.,.,.

Following this earthquake the local authorities rebuilt the city of Messina, wit.6 every kind of earthquake-paoaf form of 5 construction. So successfuJ- was this )approach thatalthough.4,000 tons of Allied 3 bombs were dropped on the city during 1942, very few.of’th$ buildings &lapsed. r The technique was fjrstly to pro.vide a . . massive ground slab of reinforced co&rete, ’ in place of ind”lvkdual foundations for buildings. Secondly, each building wai SC, t ‘

3’ I 0 i :,’ . \

r . \ u

90Modern Messina, reconstructed ifter the karthquake of1 908 ’ L .x-zI,‘A - __I’- _,

40 ? 83 1 -

framed iri reinforced concre<e (ivith ma&rum .s@ns of 5 metres): %hiidiy; .z heights were limited initially to t$o s&rev\, but this was relaxid in4,‘the 1930s ‘to allo$ for’stmcturesup to four storeys. Finally? the spacing-of houses &d the ne\v street widths

.‘. were calcutated to provide fire breaks (1Tj. . .

.

v

*‘lJ 1.

\

yo earthquake and fire 1623 \ii, ‘1.. 3 The &rrhq&ke covered an a:ea of 1,800 square_miles. The casualties ‘were en”o’rmous:

I> :

authorities of Tok\o/sent cables to’ the Lord’ Mayor of iondon

140,000 killed? 1 OO-,000 injured,,,and massive I ,ebuesting anyqadvicethey

property damage. In al! 380,000 buildings could offer, as a re ‘ult of iolndon’s b ”

collapsed. and a further .7.00,000 we.re burnt reconstruction after$he ‘Great Fire 257 years earlier. . b ,

in the fire t,ha”t foIlowed the earthquake. The I have yet.to’djsc$ier any reliable -3

.^ ,’ tskami, or seismic .wa;e, was over $1, ’ ’ ‘high: and it ‘swept across the $agami hay to

accounts of tempora$ housing provision in Tokyo:’ T&e photographs indic,ate the O’

destroy. 155 houses and kill a further 60 ‘;; familiar pattern.of wooder-rhuts and ‘. people. i

* -

As arresult o’f the damige a total of improvised shacks.

6,OOO.OOO people were mad; homeless in i ; t&t One feature of thlTokyo.e&hqu&k

Tokyo-and Yokohama, Many t?uiIt : gets in#o ah-&e architectur&history bopks ),

’ .* ’ temporary shacks ofwood in the scorched,

.is the st.ory,cjf the susvi’v~I of Frank Lloyd

still-smoking ruins of their old homes. W@ht;s Imgerial.Hotei, because of itz. ~~_

12,000 refugees were taken by lifeboats and ’ earthqu.ak&-proof co’nstruction, of which .,Wri$$t was partic;ularly :proud. (’

fishing smacks and v+ere,pI,aced abo,ard the Etllpress @Australia, which was moored in

.I have:compared the Tokyo situatibn with

Yokohama harbour. The bewildered city mat ofi:an Francisco in D.iag.rams 4 and 5.

, : ’ ‘\ : .

91 Improvisb~ fhacks for homeless farriilik within the & $-ktery ,of Yokohama ,c’ ‘- ,_.. “2 * D .Id \,

‘\ :a ‘1

. ?“c’

‘, a 1 * - * I ,

v ,Z’ .’ I .

:* ,

I J ,...,*. _

r

_.r.

;;

-; In the two great man-made disasters of this, : century.. the two world w.ars, we &in find - “--~~xamples of shelter provision whi@ dwarf all i

p~Jst?iisasLer housing prc’vision in their vast -wale. Ewb? the gr-,

_rx” I Finnish architect, .AaIto,

proiiuced cietai ed designs for emergency shelters iSi). But the wdrs also . cry useful information “on social r in stress srtuations (27). I have

aheadi reFcrred to war-time studies of elvacuarion’in writing about Skopje and Darwm in Part III, strategy 3. . 1

.-- In o.r$ of tfte mijor studies of emergency , ,, housing provision during the Second World

-War, Fred Me has made a careful analysis of aimburg. H’ithin a few days in 1943 half of the city’s houses \tcre destroyed. Ikle w@es:’

XI first, sftei the raids, the _ dmitiisrrxGot1 ai13 the public expected

P ,., thar :t prograrnrfiz f‘or the construction

. ofemergenc)~ h~JlIlcs would provide ’ lomdess. People were ss,ist the building workers

their prospective hom& on Sunda\,s . . . Howe~~er five months ~ Liter, 90 mar? llran,#62? .emerge_ncy

4% homes had been erected, accommodating Iess rhan”Z+ of Hamburg’s homeless (53). 4

Ikle’p’roceeds to quote data from a housing cen.sus the German au’tho.rities ’ carried ‘ou-t-in October 1943: This is to

.describe the types of accommodation used by the citizens oFHamburg two and a half months ,rifte;r the heavy air raids. ’

\ 9-. 9 \

‘Ordinary dwellings 90.2% . Institutions and hotels 2.0% I *Rooms converted into *

dormitories 0.6%) “’ Camps and barracks Cottages or,shkcks in

accommodation, to ures for other cities.

Yokohoma in l!&+&

- There is not sufficient space to comment ‘,

on the prefabrication of’temporary’ homes;

I - 0 *

3 I

(1)‘ PRIMITIVE -SI-IELT$R :._ TRANSPORTABLE . 3 (2) PRIMrTIVE SHELTER: MOVABLE . ’ e 1: , *. i This is asomewhat hea-

,’ d ,vier type lhan the previous c (ye----- yz t “‘L _ d * she1 rer, and ‘once placed’

,I-- d 4. . . upon the site it is .intended L .- _ e.- ___ .- 4 it sl~dl stay there. However,

in the heg’iwling they*as well i I I.1 *

U :, will , sltclter fix-n families. After a more ‘permanent i stage is rrached, these shel-

: + te& will be regrouped to ‘. form a normal home for x

one famil.y, as s$owd in the i ,’ designs.

. _ .-ti7”I---These shelters are desi‘gned

bolely to p give temporai-> emergency shejter. They arc , so constructed thaC they m.ay

art?: assembled again, func: -w

be nested in a group of four .’ and .tjiucked to the site. ?‘hey

/ tionjng ’ as fou; separate shelttrs, grouped around a NXSL

,** -- -mwating unit. These

- .shelteq SF’- moved-.-4-@rn .-- place-’ to place, being of.-a tent-like character but more ., stable aid warm. ‘.

\

‘19 Diagram i!6. +-gn fo 9 . ,

t f % ‘7 b

t ? t ,

0’ ‘. _ :r

.I ‘A ” ,_,. , ,, . . : ‘,, jr; ,-‘( ,FI., . :” I ~jSZ, ., _,-.* ,,I ,lr .I< PO, liS ,,.. I,/,,. I,.!, a/z./ *l*i.j. ,,

‘9&l a,..~ ..I Jo,, ,r _.I, ,,, ,,l.‘l..

/ ,.( ,, ,i,,l.,,,, , ,,,‘,,

:i 3 * /“<

96 77~ C’tesiphon hlits that were builr in vast qua&ties throughout the south of‘ Englakd pn’or to D Da-v .\

., _,

this ha9 been covered extensively elsewhere (61). Two conclusions must follow from any study of the bewildering array of ‘prefab’ lidmes.

First, as I h.ave noted already, they are ‘still ‘with us - and some date from the .First World War. This is an important comment on the words ‘temporary homes’, which belong to the language of politicians, slick salesmen and, sadly, some relief officials.

Secondly, the prefabs were built in an -.

This has been a fascinating and yet highly * .- tantalising search. So often theYcontemporary

narrator stops short p-f any eomment on a, shelter needs. But .even with these slender

items of evidence, taken.from a small set of historical disasters, significant behaviour patterns emerge. And when the uniformity of behaviour, observed invarious historical“‘- disasters, is considered together with the . uniformity of ,behaviour seen over a wide contemporary geographical distribution of I disasters, -we can confidkntI$ make certain

.

astonishingly short space of time, such was the pressure to re-hbuse ‘blitzed’ families. Speed of erection had also been a characteristic of military construction programmes during the war. Immedia~ly prior to, D Day the South of England became a vast camp where 3.5 million troops ’ had to be housed. Sixty per cent of them

-’ were billeted with families but this left 1.4 ‘. milhon to be housed in&hutments (62). ’ _

‘_ .

s - 1

Assertions. + Firstly,.hum&n improvisa$on and I’; I’ ~

inventive resourcefulness are-geMa / - ,. ,, ~ charac ten’s tics, which -are to tally predicttible. 4 ” Diverse examples are the pillow9 protectors after v’esuvius or the wheels.that were f=ed under the San Francisco disastek’,cottages’;.

----Secondly, JentS h&e a very ‘ei tensive If pedigree. (From the Great Fire of London io ” Lisbon.

Thirdly, disasters can become the, .

catalysts for disasterpr~bntion.measures.’ : 9 . . .:,

’ 88 !’ 1 , /*’ ._ _

>\,, ’ I’ -. ,: :

The deep FoundationsOof Taxila; the London. Building Acts; and the reinforced concrete frame structures and fire breaks of Messina.

- Fourthy, fine architecture cm foUow in the wake of n-age&es. Lincoln and St. Paul’s Cathedrals, the Wren churches of the City 01 London, thenew Lisbon of Pombal, and the wide streets of Messins ail ihustrare the legacy of disasters.

~~~~~v;~~hen.tcf~ered thP choke, people. *put temporap housing wy~ low on the prejkreme f$ts’- San Francisco and Hamburg.

George Arkinson has also.looked back on ‘past disasters. and analysed the patterns of behaviour that tend to f&low ihem. There is:

. . . a wav$“of enthusiasm for planning, , b 4

c

i . sometimes accompanied by the lobby&g of planners; an attempt to determine the cost and to seek aid far and wide; a period of great realism as resources are balanced against plans; a waning of enthusiasm as the problems which reconstruction poses become m re - complex and less easy to solve; a % ifting out of carpet-baggers as prospect! of easy pickings recede;if fortune iskind ’ the set-ting up of a reasonably effect&- reconstruction organisation . . . or if ,fortun ‘s less kind, the wasting of

\ resources ?ver-ambitious and ill- advised projec‘&which enrich almost asmany pockets homeless families

._, *\ * ’ -..

-

t

.

.x- .

J, ’

,’

:

.z ‘\

2; -

“‘.,,,

‘,

‘, ; .’

0

_ 89 ‘. : ‘d . .,

., ‘5

\ ‘\

,p?‘ ‘, .._

,\ - ,-.

- -A-- -

EPILOGUE , ‘--. ,

By* glanzmg o’ver the cvenrs of history, and

by looking closely at contemporary disasters. I have attempted to tlnd patterns. i

There will be esceprlons to.any expected forms of behaviour. such as the looting and atrocities that appear to have followed the Tokyo earthquake of 1923. It is wise,

.therefore, at {h&ssrage of knowledge, to avoid doL~afis?n and I re+lise that at times I may have drawn premature conslusions from Iimited fastu”al evidence.

I hope I have Coriveyeci some of the . corn$esltles oi rl~~+~ubj~cr. Future studies c;snnot be iarried out m,~s~l;~ti~n. they will succeed only if the investiga tars recognise that the architect needs the seismologist. the relief ofticiai, the economist and the ’ anthro$ologis: (to name a few of the

<inrerdeRendent professions). One o’f the complexities is the variety of

attitudes that can be detected or exposed in L any analysis of relief provision. Initial, basic assumptions may well be very naive or totally false, and &is above all else curbs any optimism that matters are improving. Sadly, the three assumptions that we cannot take

,,for granted are: that societies show any concern to learn from the past’; that all.

-f officials in in{emational and government _x .I_~ - .__. offices <have -5 genuineconcern for the welfare of the vigtims; and that aid is always given alt.ruistically.

I - c

! .’ :*

.----- ” I-t is wise to recognise the seedier sides of

the problem. I have found, in making , detailed investigations of certain product.s, : that their existence as disaste? relief is not a .,, resporise to the needs%of the particular _ disaster. Rather it is the result of an ’ - i-2 individual’s whim, or sales pressures, or .aid quotas from a donor agency. When one 1 questions the logic with local or even inter-

’ national officials the indig?ant shrug is a good _. indication of the level ofconcern for the recipiedts of misplaced aid. Mercifully this is in contrast to tJ’;e genuine concern of others who are c0nstarjtly understand the real needs ‘. sensible answers.

In conclusion? I must restate the aim of emergency $elter, since’ this may have been lost in the &sues I have cohered. It is to. / provide protection for a vulnerable family. It may take the form of.a. product, or it may be a process. I&could start as a sheet of corrugated iron which would”ultimately .: become the roof of a house. ri ’

1 . . . . 5

In providing this protection, any donor must be aw,are of the long-term consequences of his actions. The future farm of the. new

dust still hangs in the air. ?- i I* ”

\

REFERENCES 1 ” b

LISTED ALPHABETICALEY 6 D

The, numIPGQed iist of aeferences given below and,UNDRO, Geneva, 1977. This . .

covsrs’the various texts referred to within bibliography is B part of the project,referrefi ” , this book. Manv of. these te,xts h ve been.. -to On_-P.A)t., z _ ,-

I produced ior private circulation nd may br -k

&

I diff.icult.to trace. Readers are advised to UNITED NATIONS ASSOCIATION. A check the following basic sources for references on this and related topics.

review qf new developments in.the field of international disaster relief. United Nations,

/. MANNING, Diam . Disaster technology..

fjew Yo,rk, 1976. 1

I Technical Group.- &

,- an annot.uted bibli I irk: London

------ --.

US DEPARTMENT*G-~~.-.---~ ^ ._.. * ‘,.’ man, Oxford, 1976: URBAN DEVELOPMENT (HUD) and .___l

FEDERAL IS’ASTEKASSISTANCE OFFICE.OF THE UNITED NATIONS W ‘ADMINIST ii DISASTER RELIEF CO-ORDINATOR

.ATION (FDAA). Directory of ’ disaster related techn>log-v. US

(UNDROJ. Bibiiography: the provision of shelter following disasters. Commonwealth

DepaStment of Housing and Urban X,‘:.._

. Association of Architects. London, 1977; Development, 1976.

’ N~prnbered aghabetical !Iist of references ” c 1. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL 8. ATKINSON, G.A. ‘Reconstru&ion--.

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Embassy, Mexico City, 1974. Country Planning Sum.mer School, 2. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL University of Nottingham, 1962, .,

DEVELOPMENT (AID j. L/n sistema pp. 108-15. L de armadu para construcciunes de

L

9. bajo costa. AID, US Embassy, Mexico

AY-TUN, All&t. ‘General inf-. ? on organization and activities for

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__ naturels tremblements de tei-re, vpl. 2,

$.- * -’ Comr$ttee on th@.chaBenges of’. ~_ ’ -- ,’ ---

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b ” Nature, vol. 232, no. 53 10 (Aug.

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._

1971), pp. 375;9. The nation, 13Sept. 1975,Ipp. 198-201’.’ 5. AMB.RASI5YS;N.p. ‘Earthquake 2;; 11.

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Bayer, Feb. 1973. ’ \ *;. 7. I - --. AMBRASEYS, N.N. ‘Earthquakes in 13.

,, _ “: BIRD; Eric. ‘An earthquike’ resisting’-

hist.ory’. UNESCO courier, May 1976, town. Lessons from rebuilt Messina’. .’ pp. 24-9. Builder, 18 Mar. 1960, pp. $43-4.

* I \ ., c- .“’ 93 ” L. J -- I

1.. _ W.-,.--l 5 j , ,;

14.

l-i

16.

17.

r.

1%.

;- -1%

70.

21.

77 --.

23.

!

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25.

26 .sp

94

BROSSON ,& The San Fraicisco earthyuake?rhe earrh shook the sky burned. Doubleday. New York? 1959, p. 118. BRONSON, Wdlia,m. The San Francisco.

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27. COLLIER, Richard. The city that . would not die. The bontbing of London, 1 O-I 1 May 1941. Dutton,’ New Yak, !959.

28. COWIE, Leonard W. PJague and Fire. London 1665-66. Wayland, London, 1970, pp. 87-l 10.

29. CRIBBEN, John’and WILSON, Peter. ‘Two approaches-to scientific aid for disaster areas’. Nature. vol. 250 (Aug.

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3 1 .‘I* CUNY, Fred. RT@ort on the Cqyo(ep’e ~ --- refrcgeeca~~?Ti-Masay ~~icaragrm_-- -_---- Intertect, Dallas, Feb. 1%73. CUNY, Fred. Relief operations ~ O

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CUNY, Fred, PEREZ, Julian and PARKER, Jinx. A report on the ~ refuge? camp an using programs in Cholorna Hondu hr the refug-ees of Hurricane Fifi. I ect, Dal&, 1,975. DALDY, A.F. Small b.uildings in earthquake areas. Building Research’ Establishment, Watford, 1975. DAVIS, Ian. Managua, December 23, 19 72. The provision of-shelter in the aftermath of natural disasters. Report ‘on housing strhtegy., Dec. 1972 - Sept. 1973. Research and Development Group, Depattment of Arcfiitecture, Oxford Po/ly,fechnic, Jan. 1974. DAVIS, ,Ian. ‘Disaster housing: a c3se study of Managua’. Architectural design, Jan. 1975, pp. 42-7.

XX%VI$, Ian. ‘Skopje rebuilt; re-, construction following ‘the .!963 -’ earthquake’. Architectural design, Nov. 1975, pp. 660-3.” DAVIS, Ian. Emergency shelter. Part of symposiuti%n emergency housing , and shelter convened by Disaster Unit’ and Disasters Emergency-Committee, ‘Jan. 1976, pp. l-47. (pef. 4 1 is a ‘, ,_ condens@ version pf this paper.) DAVIS& Iin. Guaremalb shelter and housing policy in weeks l-3. Research and Development Group, :Department of Architecture, Oxford Polytechtiic,

6. ,‘q ’ medieu.al .wsrld’ in The spirit of the age. 1 41 -. “-,

BtiILDING RESEARCH ESTXBLISHMEST. Repaii and 32. renovatldln o]-jIo~d damaged buildings. . Digest no. 152. Building Research Estabilshment, Garston. Watford, 19.73. 33. ~#i~~.~~-i&&b~-rf ~&htIlthm&2k?&.d ana/J.sls 01. the ~arthyuake in western _ G74ar~nzuh. Report for AID, US 34. Embassy, Ciutemala city, 1976. CARNEGIE-MELLON UNIVERSITY. Frusibilirr* trust oj‘an approach and protot.v,pe for ulti-u-low-cusf housing. Report b) Advanced Building Studies 3 j. Departmsnr. Carnegie-Mellon Unlvrrslty. Plrtsburg. Sub‘mitted to MD, Washington, 1975. 36. CATHOLIC INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (CIIR) and OXFAM TEAM. Report to Ihe British reliej‘agencies on Co.votepe relilgee camp MasaVva Nicaragua. Report by the team that assistedsin the administration of the camp. CIIR, ’ 37. July, 1973. ‘CATHOLIC INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (CIIR). Horrdrirai: anatomy of a ’ disaster. CII R, London, 197 5. CAVANAGI$ Jon and JOHNSON, Fiona. ‘Earthquakes and pre-fabs’. Ecologisf: vol. 6: no. 3 (1976), pp. 104-6.

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58. R, Otto. in a private unication with the author,dated ’

October 1976. This was part sfhis tutorial supervision of a Ph. B. project.

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I ’

19.74. 60. LECHAT, Michael F- ‘The

epidemiology of disasters’. Proc’eedings b s of Royal Society oj’Medici,nf, vol. 69. P +. (June 1976), pp. 42 1-6.

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of militati arL.hitertlirb’i~-tNilrrll ,Wesr ,-..

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,

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63.

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‘1,

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r $?.

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-1

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” T

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.’ “d. Flntte and Paul. -: .---- - -+ A)

75.

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WJARANTELLI, E.L. and DYNES, ~-a-TH,OMPs.N, Charlotte.& !a:!:

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isn’t much like what you’ve heard and housin&e Chile. OrgaQ$itiOn of

read about’. PSVC~O~O~Y today, Feb. American$@~es; -Bog@, -Aug. 1976.

1972, pp. 67~70. __ 90. THOMPSON,‘Charlotte an-d-?a$-.,,

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Russell R. Images of disaster behaviour ,&sing in Peb. O&Qisatioi; of F

(

A

m.78.

17l?‘t/ls arzd consequences. Prelihinary American States, Bogot\a,,Oct. 1976. ’ \

Paper no. 5, Disaster Research Center, 9I. UNITED NATIONS (UN).‘Wwje c’

resurgent, UN., Nc~.Xo.rk, 199% Ohi0 State University< Columbus, Ohio, 1912. (A

‘92. n expanded version of

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIOW:,

ref. 76.) SCIENTIFIC A.ND CULT~AL y\,,

RAPAPORT. A ORGANISATION (UNESCO). Country‘-<

rnos. ‘Tge ecology of housing’. Ecologist, Jan. 19’73, p. 10.

monograph of Turkey. Produced for the intergovernmental cpnferenee on ‘.

tion of ‘: @;.p*iS;*i~

Arnold, London, 19 5 1. ’ ._ 1 -----. ..- i

80. REPS, William, e&l)es&i jiring’md 93. 1( S &J%i%+ construction of low-cost housing and COMMAND. ‘,After ai;tion ;ePqt. ., romrnuni?? buildings, to better Disaster area stirvey team, Managua, ?---

3 23 / withstand earthquakes and storms. . ‘-,

,\ Nicaragua, 1972:. 3rd Civil Affairs , ; c Report Prepared for’ AID, Washkgton,

1973. Group (Airborne), 5.Feb. 1,973.. -* -‘-----

\\

81. ROYAL I$TITu+E OF BRITISH 94. VOLTAIRE. Candide. Pen&in,

Harniondswort& 1958, p. ‘33..-,. ‘\

” ARCHITECTS (RIBA). ‘EmFrgency 95. VITTANI, Ju,rg. Etu$e d’un typide

. . housing fgr refugees and in solu$ion‘ I. tente id&al pour les ac”h’0n.s de secogr$-~.. .?.- Of immediate post-war housing, ‘.’ probkms’.‘Journa/ of the Royal .’

Ligue des sociitks de la C&iGi+$yge, . Geneva [n.d.l.

,. ‘_ )

Rerum lusitanarurn epjiemerides, Lisbon, 176 1. D ia’rio dos successes de

Survey of reconstruction housing in

. . haPPeningto intermediite Frontier, vol. 1gi,

t&hnology?.’ standards fo.r $rm&e$ ‘IOW-C&b ;,,

no. 2, summer, 1972.,,/’ housing and for irbzpiovement Of : “- _ (. I \..- ,/ -,’ 96 ,I ‘a

/ \ . -...;*. ,__....... _.’ --‘.,.--- .._ --.. - ..- --.-qy _+

_. I ., ._- .--..___ .- . ! ~__ ._-- -- ___- -_

existing sub-stand&l areas. NEFF:.‘It’s a matter o? myths; an I

Department of Ho&&and Urban I

Development, Washington,‘;l’9rl.2. empirical examination of individtal I z >

97. WEBBER, .DfL. ‘Darwin cycloni?&n-., f insight into disaster response’. Mass

+ exploratiqn of disaster behaviour’. ‘* ‘X-J 00. emergtncies, x01. -J ( 197 5), -pp. 33-46.

Australian journal 0jsociaI issues, “‘\: WISNER, Ben, kESTGATE, Ken band

vol. i 1, no. 1 (1976)+pp- 54-63. --$KEEFE, Phi&. tPoverty and

98% WENGER, Dengis and PARR, Arnold. ’ Community jifrtnctions under disaster ?ondi#ions. Research report no. 4,

’ Disaster Research Center, Ohio State University, Cohimbus, Ohio, 1969. ,i”

99. WENGER, DYKES, SEBOK and /’ ,I/’

. . . \.

‘x ‘_

!.

a$ ‘, ‘\ ‘; / -.

,5 \\ ‘.. --- _- -. 2, .- _“-..“^I_.__-~----__t”..~---~.--~~~~ i

‘\ I*;‘, .+-“-A

\ ./c ‘\< . ;t --. -.- k . /. ‘,. ;: I, .j

. . xy q-“.;: ‘I,

q i - -_ ‘I\ ‘:; ; ‘. i ._ / 1\ . . "7,.

\

” Y ‘._ ‘1

i ‘ ” . /

: _-.

’ _ .- . .. 4 _. _ _A-

_~- REFERENCES LISTED ACCORDI?lG TO SUiHECT . -..

I This 1%~ is confined purely to the references

, quot,e8 in this book. 8, 10, 14, 19,?1, 23, 25, 32, 36:37, 38, 39,

40, 41, 42, 44, 5.0, 60, 65, 68, 77, 78, 83, i

,A-disaster planning ’ \ 84, 87, 88, 89, 90, 97, 98, -100.

/ 4 - --r’

I/

3, -5-9.- w,- w. -. --.------ .-- .---,~-~~ -.________ -.

A__ Techniques jbr building safe houses in + \Mnerable situations Earthquakes 0

..I, 1, 2;9, 13. 16, 17, 18, 20, 32, 33, 34, 35, ;;, 42, 59,6&00, 88, 89, 90, 92,

4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, [4;16, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33, $5,.36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 55, 56, 59,

.j 63, 67, 70, 72, 74, 80, 83, 88;89, 90, 91, . . . 92, 102. 4 ,; * /

Ernergenc-J) shelter /. ., - /’

5, 9, 31 ini tia?7Z??r period

, 24, 30, 3 1, 36, 37, 39, 40, w Wind storms ’ . /’

/’ 47, SO, 58, 60, 65, 76, 77, 84, 91, S&95. ---t&-$ 34, 50, 30, 87, 97. ’ L _ -, J-L’-

.y+ ~_ --~ Asasters ;Dnor to 1943

30, 31, 34, 36, 39, 40, 41, 47, 4, 6, 7, 13, 14, 26,!7; 28, 43, 93,

48,‘52, 95.

53, 56, 64, 73, 74, 75, 79, 81, 94, 101.

’ -. ‘World War II 29, 32, 36.‘37, 38. 39. 27. 53. 61, 81. I

’ ’ 41, 49, 54, 59. 88; 89; 901, ’ d 8 91, 95. I - --. ._ Skopje ‘>

Indigenous 1, 2, 8, 16,

-4QAL4,

The rule-of: 19, 27, 36,

Evacuation 14, 27, 36, 99. :

policies . 50, 53, 67, 76, 77, 91, 97, 98, 22,

_.-- __--

Prefabrication techniques , ‘*

8, 9, 10, 23, 24,. 32, 36, 59,63, S’l, 88, 89, 90, 91. Darwin .:i.. “’ _ *- -.-- /“..

-. x L 50, 97. --- _-- _z-/-- c.

Guatemala ,19, 25, 33, 40, 42, 72, 85, 88, lOi:“,-. -..:I _

* .i ‘<

. ,‘; ,?- t P ,>” ‘:

-3 i: 5’ &” :i ,J ’ -i.y

/ / ’ I; , ,.I.,. /,

: B I.. -

A~PPENDIFA: ~~A~MARY CHARTS i- The table which appears on the follov&g t%lve pages sunmarises the effects’ of six

-them. These disasters have been choy : .?-t’, .p

recent disasters and the kinds of relief work because I have had direct personal _.

4 and reconsrruction activity that followed

experience of them, either as an observer . , or as a qgnsultant.

b \ a \

e.

,*,/ -----l.\. ” (, ,’ . * :

I,.

i .:; .

P ._I

“:“---\., i -. :

! y’ , +-@; ~_:<

’ ,i ,/( ’ Lb. (

‘_

/I’

d

C 4 0 E.+ r) c)uLo+4

b 3L Lc cJ7.c

‘I

” I

,- . .

“: !‘ __ 2

e .,

, ,.)

I-

i ‘\ i -

-

\; Y

\,

;, I

1’.5

:’ : : 1 :

‘0 ‘.

. ..‘&~ ,’

, .’

. I_

DATE -1

' *

NO. KILL& NO.' LNJUR-El

I

NO. OF HousFls DES’IROYEZ

Yanagua, Yicaragua

4 37, OfJC

ii OF rENm 'ROVI'DED 360 in dasaya ipp r-ox. 1,600 in aanagiia

TO. OF TYPES OFSHELTEX M?..OF rmur PROVISIa4 mm HOUSE UNITS -. iOUSE UNITS BUILT SINCE

Ticnnts DISASl?!x

IglOoS Jnknown but Wooden huts 3pprox.

JO, 000 rpousc s 1

; % occuPANa

50%’ Hasaya 10-20x rIanaguq ,

1.

I.

!’ % oaJP AWY

Initiu,lIy, 35x] of AID rlut

,, urn

A policy of evacuation was-.. implemented using'all

r factor in ab.sorbing up 9O%'of refugees.

nearby towns. overnment with The government,built camp- 1 sites in Managua but these 4. T 1 yere.very little used, I since the eXtended family c 'sponge' uas the major 5. M 1

0 -6 ,' 1

; -1 / * >- I

DISAsrn TYPE I VALUEOF

0. HOMELESS DAMAGE ' I I

CURRENT VAUIE! CURRENT

VALUEOF d;. HOMELESS DAMAGE I

VALUE OF AiD' CURRENT VAUIE!

.* CURRENT “IVALUES VALUES - cil

I Earthquqke

STATISTICS OF SHELTW AND HOUSING PROVISION

TYPES OF NEW HOU&NC Wooden huts - by IJS AID grant - now -upgr'i3de

L ; ,and all types, concrete block,

tutic?k c *. primaritiy by private sector; numerous -agencies - IflJND1:CI, CEPAD, World Dank .etc'. - were heavily involved with a wide variety of housin&, mainly in outlying towns.

D mw&cY - SHELTEZ. - POLICY

‘.

.TMING ?F lWR&XNCY-~~VES .(DAYS, WXKS, MONTHS' FROM D % ASm)

In Man.agua 40 tents in L? days. :n MaSaya 40 tents in 3% weeks. Yfollowed by the rcmailiper of the total )f 1,960 tents). ‘he initialagroup of USi AID huts were completed 14 weeks afte:r the dis'q$er. :hc igloos were first occupied 5 moh'$es rfter the disaster. Lb Zertain local agencies,: like Caritas a&+*: :UNDE,'built simple woo,d-en houses within, 5 weeks of the disaster. P

d

EcilWwrIo K$IcY

! c I:?

. : . // B I

‘_

KN ‘poI.lms. OP. REFWENCE - IN ,oRDm OF WW~W .(Aum EvAykTIoN) :: i ,.. ;;. ‘I ,,,

ET. , . -

;,i : */ . . : 1 .!j i ...,* : k, I ‘.-

j .; : j .’

: i . . i’i

D

l.< A ;o I icy of recons t,ru?l. 1”;: ,i .

-

’ spmlgc ’ w:1s tii~~trly effectJve. 3. The Gotman ifilo~s (which have

not been used s inut Wanilg~~;l) qu$stioned. The urban waste land that siill

yx.ist.s is Id memorial to that decision,

22 The extended f’amily

llrZqlVCd VerAi ll$tl’, ;fhd Ws.$rL’ :

under-used desp~ LC free cfis7-rlbutlqn.

~ 4. The AID wocrdcn huts were b incfl‘ecti.ve as emergency

,_.

. Davi,s, ‘Ian. ilrlanagua, December 2‘33,

i972. wrt 6; housing : strategy, Dec.1972 - September 1972, Oxcord Polytechnic,

'Jan.1974. /

(ref.36)

2. CIIR E OXFAM Team. - I2epoFt. on Coyotepc refugee camp Masaya Nicarggua. CTIR, London, I 1975. (ref,21)

TRlMG OF RECONSTRUCTTW (MONTHS, YEARS, F-ROM’ DZS&WEX)

JII~V I 51011: were remotely sit&, insul’I‘icient attention being paid tp i nf’ros tructure.

5. Reconstructi on by Che private sector hiIS,, been rajjid; on the pcrlphcry of’ the city.

3. k’unez, Chtii stabel Rugama., Activities of the national emergency committee: paper. at sympoSi urn on Managua. Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, California, 1973. (ref.671

,

’

-i 4. IvanjOstrio -

‘Manakua rebuilds a cj ty. Prom earthqugke ruini’. Geogtaph i ca 1 magazi.ne ,

rs

;.: r

, / .

:: ! ,

I 7

/ I

,- ,,‘” 0 .

_,’ - . . . ; ( I

,>, ,/ ._ :

/) ;o@ ” ,

1

L I ‘,\ r

“.\ L _d’ / , I I ‘L >

\ \ .

‘\

< . , 104‘ I

There were the ma~ur pro,~rpmm<:s :1litiv llrtr flOlPf pl;r1n, UT, the ‘I _\ of house hui Id jig - each NJ :i I clc- .f’ Liic iii I 1 , but 1 :i :;Lj*l 1 D voluntary agencies. In LLC~LI:I t i rin VII 191 -ithI c in many irrsl.iig:l>>j CARE distrlbutcil’ roof ir>y,

4 . ii Ii c pO’/ I ’ cwt ‘dnd f i I 1 ’

materials t!o !), 324 tl.wses. a’lhu 1.1: cl1 ‘7 u c :i . housing has iall hcen hut1 3 \ _.

TMINC OF REXONS?RUC~oN * (MONTHS, mm, mobi DISASTER)

.Co I UII I ;J Canildil 181 llr~me:i - 7 months I 0 co1 oni a C;rrc- 44 homc::~ - 3 monI,hs Mcr1r101i i t.c prosy cc 1. “‘I hf,mcs - tj mcin t.lls -. ., CKIJRN proJecL - 134 lllJ~lle!~ - 5 montlls

r

ir t) i PC

1: dc 4 w

dr c/e

1. On% yf’ the nayc?‘hcJusing of‘ govcrnmc:ntal provl s 11~n of‘ settlements .J’Colonia Canada i

in that j,A!~~olved from a

SllCl ter and new housln~. in Choloma’ 1s interesting 3. There was al$o ii marked l;lclc

of Igcal involvement in the ryfugee/cafnp 01‘ 483‘ f‘ami ITies ref”ugec camps and in rehousing t;p a s&ttlement of-181 progrummcs, man\’ of whi ch were / hogs,&+ (with 200 planne’d’ for Cd tUra1 ly UIIsU; ted t0 1 OCiil

later addition).. conditions.

concc;ii.,*uCed as Cho loma. ‘I‘ spiral of ‘de long-term oon

5 . Many 0 1‘ id1 e PI

been casi ly ml 6. Most of the .e~ . b”:lt very ra,

nbsenbc of ’ ds external SOUP8

MAJOR LESSON> FOLUWMG llizd DISASTB

1 ceqlain centres such IS set in motion il . :ndency’ with adverse :quences. * Ising systems have not lified. :rgency hou.sirrg was dly, and there was an to? systems’ from !S .

$. There was a marked absence ?

4. The distribution of aid was

@cc-‘- e

.

OF *" b RWENCE -

‘. . Thompson; Charlokte & ‘. . Thompson; Charlokte & Paul. Paul. Survey of reconstruction Survey of reconstruction housing in Honduras; housing in Honduras; ‘1% years after Hurricalle ‘1% years after Hurricalle Fifi _ Fifi. Organisation of’ American .StaiZes, 1976. 1 (ref.871

_---_ Organisation of’ American .StaiZes, 1976. 1 (ref.871

2. Cuny, Fred, Perez, Julian and Parke’r, Jinx.

i 3.p&duras: evaluation iprelimlnar de las

/’ perdidas y efectos de1 huricane Fifi en la Comportamiento

i economic0 national. Tegucigalpa, 30 Sept. 1971.

4. I

/

.t$

‘111 . Induras: i T- l$tomy of a di.saster. ‘111, London, 1975. Rebart on the refueee

.~.A$ // Honduras IntertecJI. Da\ las I

1975 . *1:, (reF.34) 1 ’

i

‘Etf.22)

4

J’ : . i. ,.

& .y

‘“-‘. *, >..-

1 ,‘ r-, i:. - I 1 : I’

, Y i

!,I i

3

k . II

10. HOMELESS

I

ApI”‘“” . II, 000

VA ‘DA GUI VA -

I

* TYPES OF

LOCATION

p NO. OF HOUSFS D FSTHOYED

VALUE OF AID i CURRENT VALUE

* -632

NO: ‘TSJLJRED DTSASTFR TYPE

r

Rarthi;uuke t.icc Turk&

3 , :5:ii~ ~.

‘OPULATION

WD HaJsINo >RovIsIoN

463 igloos

r: TYPES OF SHELTEX PRovIsIoN usm

NO. OF HOUSE UNITS BUILT SINCE DISASTER

1 ) 568 _ in 2 months 1y,t105 ” . 1 II 9 mor1tt1s

fEy HOUSING

j sh pas t-d i sits Ler ,her frame with nl‘il, and corrugated .s similar designs and and Swi ty.erland.

The stan-dard ‘1’~: prc(‘ah house, t ashes tos cerllcrlt i~rorl roof. Varic f’rom I;r;~nce, Fir

i’uri 0”s types of t.c:nt: ridge, pole and chalet types. P I’olyure~hanc he~xagorral igloos provided II;,, Oxfam. Permanent hous itig. af‘tcr 2 months.

.: .

‘i *

**

% 0ccuPANcY

k Very low 1

.

.

/.’

i

/‘

r

1

f-- \ __,

. .

’ TIMING OF W (DAYS, YEEKS,

.Q Tgn t s ar.5 ,..in:: u i &he l.,%i8 new PI -completed

4it da

The first _ fam by day 60: . .

GENCY PROVISION <,.,,.,+=.~’ MONTHS.,FRQWD~SAS~)

,., .‘.

within 2 weeks. fab homes were

54.

rnits were produced

polyurethane uni a;s; i 1 was propo/sed ‘to build HO0 units hut only 463 were actual‘ly built.

L----- /f-- .--

Thp PIinistry for Reconstruction and ResettleBent decided that the town of Lice was in a highly vulnerable site and prevented people From rep building th,eir ruined homes; A new, safe, flat site was chob’en 1 mile from Old Lice, and on /’

I >

.

,’

\ ‘\

wv#--=-; i

/ -

i7 ,/ ,’ y /

,‘./ I

i I’

DISASTER TYPE

2 IdCA'iION

I

, .

I

NO. OF HOUSF3s DFSSTROYED

'VALUE OF NO. HOHElEss D~AHAGE :

VALUE OF AID% CURRENT VALUE

CURRENT YEUWEi

1 , Ii fj 0 , 00 3 ’ 1: :i t i ITlil t.eS I!5 JJf)VL. :

v il r‘s $7 .5 million b!ifJfJ mill 1on- in aid,

)',750 mil~lion $17.5 mj ll'ion I‘OI~

No. l@LED 'NO. T?('JlJMD

PRGfHSASI't$ POPULATION

l!nknrJwn

DATE

I

&+r,thyuake 0 ! il I :! 2 2 ‘I ,- 15

i.iil 1. . I: i t,y

8 7 , 50 uri, 1 ibrcil:i b3,SOl t.

Guatemala

rATIsTIcs r SHELTW ID HOUSmc ~ovIsIoN

0

6. op: PROVIDED

lO,OOO+

IO. OF 'MPORARY IOUSE UNITS

Jnknown

TYPES oF:sffELTE8 PROVISICN USFD

JO.OF . MUSE UNITS W-LTSINCE )ISASTiB

Unknown

, TyU.3 OF NW HOUSING _r

P

Tents. 6 7 Improvised houses. 2 programmes of tempor&& housing

13y May 1976 ) 4 months after the disaster, 24 differing agencies were implementing reconstruction grogrammes using: Block housi.ng ' Frame/roof' schqnes Cement/asbestpsi panel system ' Wooden housin$ : Steel, block *o/ad combination

I

A$: OCsaJPANcY

Unknawn

i j .

f” . 4 /

No real pc y existed, except: wa for 'a go#rnment programme ~0 da, build l($,UOO temporary house'se in y19h m,,$$itary support. This ;

.,

,

programmed to ta,&e 100. i but was largely ‘fective.

TMMG OF.-&%RcENCy PROVISI~ (DAYS, WEEK& MONTHS FROM DISASm)

Tents were instal-led within 2-3 weeks. Approximately 50,000 improvised homes were built within 24 hours of the <-,I disaster. Cqrrugat'ed iron sheeting was being distributed for temporary shelter withiri 2 weeks.

--a..., A.___

,i

c: I$ < ; k ‘f, ., 3’

a “u ’ ;i, a _ I’ I’ _---- *^ L-.. _ . . . .._ -. . . . -” ,. _...__._..- _.-__- -_..-. \. c.. , l? . ,, ! I ‘, P ,I- P I

t: * ‘I i - ‘4. ,. I ‘A 7

: : -. .’ . 7 : d :

. : ,.

m 4. . . 1 r c

_. --’ 1. _-- 1

.m ‘a=?-,.* ” 6

1 ,,’

I’ 4

;’

_ --- ..,,-;- .

#,,,’ ’

1 ,Jf/

Y’ ,. i

P

,,‘a

I

//<.M ‘2 ” ‘x,. i A _i _,., ..- .--.‘I\

.

I.

I-

,-

I.

0 !LI ‘h ‘5

‘i( . _ 1 i , : 1 i’ -.

_.; , >- .- I ;>,.;j-’ .I . . . : ,:

‘tAJOR LXSSON~ FtXI.LWING 'l%USDISASTE%

KEY SOUR& OF REFEBENCE- IN OPEX OF IMPORTANCE ,(AU@lOItS lTuLllATIoN)

_..A

,. .”

i _“-

The policy is: 1. To filter all governmenL

P&n&ce through iocal 3. Mc;1nwh1 le Lo bill Ld prcf‘nb

. Ilomc:i costing ES-8;OOO recotitruction units in eiictl - which WI 1 I br: provided each town. -

;‘. To rebuild the historic I,’ ~For,c;~cli Farnil:;. ‘l‘)~r::;e wi II i L&:n IIC used tift.er compl eLion.

4. towns as they were - of’ historic homr*s. ;LS Lourlst I .es.tlmatcd time 6-6 year:;. ~)rovl:i~‘on.-

TIHING OF RECONSTRUCTION' (MONTHS, YEARS, FROM DISASTER) I

Ini tin1 prefrdbrIcated housing .tias “dorIots* pray j sion f’rum GCtili,lIly’,

Scandinavians etc. I3y October (5 months ckl’ter thee I’1 rst eprLhqaakeJ .the I LajiaD ~pJcrnmt;nt h-ad st? 11’ not. beget to hui Id

p ihrir l10us0 Urll,t& -

s v.. .

1, s

n

1. The decision to delegnte < _ $ag;li ns t the corrupt relief and reconstructIon

,a policy to each town/village jcilian. earthquake. is an interesting oqe, 3. 5. which is unljke noqnal temporary housing (very pyramid structures. . erisive) then (2) rebuilt

2. The reli.~.f’operatidn:was undertaken in the “context ii. of much pressure from the media, who had reacted 3. after the disaster

: . . . \

. . Dalle tende alle -‘I barrache Special issue on the village of Osoppo 11 Dunto (Udine)

L 1 Sept.1976,.

I ,.x &.

Ital.‘<ari provision wa.s sti’ll bogged :down with bureaucracy, and house6 were- stil I not begun. The hotels on the Adriatic coast provided emergency accommodation for 20,000 during the winter months. Many able-bodied people l%t .’ Frsiuli very rapidly to find work and may not return.

3. Schwartz, Wal ter. ‘Quake victims , confront unknown] Guardian, 21 Sept. 1976. ‘Aid for the

victims: to0

too late’, Gunrdian, ‘, 21 Sept.1976.

4.

.,

APPENDIX B: MAPS 1

?-

* _’

‘_

4 -I _

‘. 0

I : . .d

a 3 *.- ,”

/- ’

1 : j ’ ’

_I . ,! : . I 1 \., ‘iI

J !i I

‘r I ‘- I

, E

I

.-a . .

\ ‘.

Datq. % Town icowtry . Disaster lg& biiyd.&

1 . a Homeless- Kill&-, ‘: No; crl

Japan . Earthquake & Pire ’ ’ .,?

1931 Yokohama

2oo,obO- ,l, .”

*Managua Nicaragua Earthqu*&e ” 250,000”

100,bo0 .&

‘/ 1932 Kansu China (1

Province Etiquake* 3 /

* ., ,[ ” : ._ . 1935,

> 1936 - .- ’ India&Pakistan &hquake r

’ .East Pi&Wan Cyclone ;

.22,000 5:: + 2 ,, ” ‘,

1 l-4 ‘, . . .._-.. ..-.- - ,I I .

._ _- .I_----- __ ---,

Disaster _

2n nnn L

J”,““” \ I qnn nnn.

193945SECONQWORI;Dwm - a 4u munon- li y

3n MLI

I:

1963 ,-- Skopje ’

_. i kW63’ - Mrricane Flora l

i 1970 Ciediz Turkey Earthquake ‘i ’ 90,ooo 9.,

. .f - il,ooo T

4,089 31 : ~:

;? -c

1970 Chimbote Peru (. Earthquake & ” homes’ destroyed

500,ooo ,J -m,mY $39 .

rhte Town

1957 .‘.

Disaster *

.

a.

-_ .._~_. -- _

:/ ..

E * .L_.- ---+ >; 1%

r i i

1.16”

Date .ad

1970 1971

l

1972

b-3

Town‘, - Lou;&--+----..

& ~Disaster---- - _ ----- :H Landslide

\ Chittagong Bangladesh BANGLADESH WAR:. .

Cyclone & Flood

- -1972 1974-5 ,l972-5 1974 1974-S

G 1,560,OOO _ .’ 1, s homes destroyed c

Managua Nicaragua Earthq&ke .200,060- 6,000 35 % 240,000 .

50,ooo ’ houses destroyed

BURUNDI MASSACRE T

CyBaUS~W-_, ,, 90,000 36 ;

Sahel --I- *, Drought -i- ” 5,000 37 i

Choloma e tc: Honduras Uiiknoti38

I+icane Fifi 142,000 $@)o 39. .-.-- q Ethiopia

--pjq--+fi ““-~-m3~~~-=,-~- I- .Drou@t

-==QC~~p’T iacy - L ,-cc

Two - 50 41 1975 Lice Turkey \ . Earthquake Approx. 5,000 ” 2,385 42 --t

15,000 s

---... homes destrbyed

j976 .+uawnala Earthquake ? 222,261t , 27,000 ;& 1976 ANGOLAN CIVIL W.4R~-.- 1976 Friuli Italy 1976 :. Philippines Earthquake & Tsunami 1976 Tangshan China Earthquake , l - rt-’ w ,/ ,?

/’ ,y’”

I

,’ * I

3 I

I

-..

0

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‘A’.fr%m$ housing, 52,*53, 54 l

Chirnbote earthquake (Peru) (;970), 19, 51,;:- Aalto, Alvar, 86 Y 9?, 4. ,n .,.:: n

1 ’ _ . .: -ad-hoc response, see indigenous response Chiqa,.xiii w - ’ ’ ,.,. F s ‘, ‘-1 - I ’

.P

adobe construction, 6, .l l? 12,‘35? 37,64 .histdrical re_cords; 7 1’ ‘- i 3 u

Agency for Internatibnal Deyelop.mentx(AID), ’ :n ,f f’ ‘8

predicti’on of earthquakes, al ’ ’ ’ ‘1‘ 5, i

21,..40, 55 _ >\ Y Sse!f-sufficie,ncy,,60 l ’ i

aid, see donor- countries, relief agencies * Tbgshan earthquake ( 1976), xv,,71 . I b air-raids, 86 ” i. *- J Christian Aid, 36 -, ; * ,Al$ous, Tony, 1 b

4 ” p .’ Clark Universifiy, Mass., 20 -” e . . - ’ Ambraseys, Nicholas, 8, 21, 7 1

. .-. Colombia, 23

c ; 1 t

i Anatolia, archaeological evidence++ 8, 7 1’ contingency plai-iqing, 55,66 Ankara, Turkey, 13 conversion of existing buildings,*28, &. .‘, l

‘$

., architects, 49, 65, 91 co-op$atives, 34,40 “. ““.

Atkinson, George, 6.5, 89 ,.. corr.u&rted iron’sheeting, for roofing,‘54 60, 64;65, 76 .

,.’ - 1 ‘1

~~Qreque=construction, 6 * “9

,,ibrrugated zinc, 37, 54 .! ,~ % 1 Baldassaro, Larry,65,66 i - corruption’23,.58,65,89 .I I

,’ Bangladesh. ii, 18, 19,44,49, 52, 53, 54, 60, 90 costs Bayer domes, 18, 50,.51, 52

_% of disasters, 1, 10; 21-2, 5’2, 55, 60, 7& ’

k behatriour after disalters, 26, .27, 2,8,40, 44’ , 76,88’ ’ .’ ‘. ., i 58, 69, 70, 75~276, 88-9, 91 3 i 9; of disaster,mitigationi l’Q;,26 ~,;,

. _ 1 ‘B&gal refugee campsl#-5 ” _ .FCrete, archaeological evid&ce; 8,. 10, 71 .’ ’ ;(. _, : Berlin, 86 5 , Crusoe, Robinson; 25 0, = : Bolivia, 7, M--F -’ .) ‘, ; ’ .‘s ,~

. . 3 ., cultural rejection, 28, 5,1, 60 ’ ” I ‘@’ S:

brickwork, unreinforced, 8 -’ ,Q> ‘. culture

--- Bronson, William, ‘77-8 I ,’ \ m---m-.

\gap, 4617, 63 ‘b ’ building techniques,4,6,7-8,9, 11, 12, 19;

‘. patterns of,&, 16, 17,,19, 28,,73‘ H/j, ‘;-

35, 37, 52, 53-4, 60, 64-6, 71,!74,‘96,83-4, yalues ofJ5-19 f,’ ; r-y .” -9.1; $a& aZso ‘safety in building ~Ct.u$; Fred,’ 15, 36,55, 60,63 ” !

bulldozers, use in clearing’ operations, 25~ , ~cyclones, 54, 61 ’ a ‘. ; by&laws, 3,4, 10,38,,39, 66, 74 ’ _

_I . . ) I-. yy .” ,.’ #, *

Cambodia;55 ‘. . ‘1’ l, ;

,&$sessmest.ofj 40. ,+- .“< : ::--!““;‘. camp sites: 44,55, 56, 57 ,Cd -in Great Fire’of London; 72 :

in l-&story, 74-5, 77, 8012, ,88’ ’ \ / ‘.,; ‘J,.

kndide, Voltaire, 74 in San Francisc,o earthquake (19$X 77 ,, j : r ’

Canvey ‘Island floods (1953), 3 ~ , ” I in Tokyo earthquake (1923 j, 84 1 ‘:-

&pin, Au&&a, -61,436 -- ., d t A . ,j' -*I-:

‘. CARE, 15,46 &&/house ratio, 9 ‘cl “:;* CARITAS, 65

, 1

‘Carnegie-Mellon Umversity~ 52-4’ t; ---, -‘--- .-_ JDef~j&.$j q5; 7 1. , ::;-------

designers, 491 ho<, t.* casualties; xiii, 9, 13, 19-24j.3475’,‘40, 49, 60, Y. ;‘developed.vjbrld,, l.l;l5,, 3’ *

“72; 74, 83, 84, 99-l 11 .J : ‘.. Yak,’

‘housing;in, 21-2:’ IY., ~ :~ Cavanagh, Jon, 51” ’ , ’ disasters, $v, 22 <’ ‘: .,,1 -, .&.,< 1, i. ’ ., / i. I “-( V.Z?- : ; :1 “ . ‘. $. ?’ ‘k -I. . ‘. _, ‘... ., I-

k ,,p’;;* ‘) *

,” I ‘, ,/. .’ .$T” ‘:_) T< .+,:, ;

’ e

* a+ ‘- . j’ ’ ‘2 “. _ pde$nitiori of, 2-3,. $&l/r . 2 1 ‘foui-&tions, 8 .9. 7 i ; $3$ g ii .‘. ’ “’ _.

jncideqce of, ld!Y~f;7.$& , ‘l.:,,$. .: F/i& 3, 2, a&qu$&~~76j~~4~27, 55, +5?, 61,.\’ ,’ / in history: 69a8&i’-o:” ’ c 1 4 -: YY:,T; ;, “16 L, ,Il(-&l$ ‘$$ ‘_ 7;. n ‘- 3-T

, needs 0: victims, 2&,.40 , +,(A de 1 “~~t”@uj-~~$ BoSyg.Co~,~td~;.s4”~~‘,” .’ L. ,_ :”

. preventioriof, see,mitigation *- ‘i _ +UNDl$,,65 ’ %O.. sy . . I ,‘, , ’ “1: ‘:” ” , g’,f ‘f$exures, plm”&qg ’ :’ _, ‘I \ I - “3 :’ >- . ,‘_ ;. M _ -,” t 1’

: proneness to, se;! vulnerability 4 . ::a “see also undef specific di&sters ’ ”

’ Ijisasttr,Resea.rch Centre (Ohio Umversity), . r 757 ‘C * _- a 7 . Goodspeed, Charles, 56

,‘. 1 p.; ,‘:*

)rDisas-ter Resqaroh Unit (Bradford ” . Un&ersity), 2,7, 12-1S 1 1 - ’

grass roots respbnse, see indi’genius$~onse ,! ,.

disease risk, see epidemics . : 1. ‘Great-$i’rq of L&d@ (1’666),3, I,& 69,, $23,;

d&-rgr countries, pro&ion of ajnd &;,!23,301, -*. * 8498, --j ‘. -4~ ‘!,+

33, &I, 46-61,&S; .76,-ET: 91 ’ ! ,.Grea; Plague ‘of&ndor?(.l665],,.7 1’ %-Greece, &&quake (1965)‘j,‘29

j ;,i ,.,I, . -

drough’ts, ‘26, 446 ” * d’,, 1: 1, !<rL .;

.I _- -i eaFthquakes.x$, S-l&, 11,-l?, !5;-2,a&2’-?5,

&-eemgn, Ad&i 5 I-2 ’ %. ,i .,, ,[. 4’I;,i;s

‘Guatemal’a~ 27, 39, SS,57j 6.!, 63-4, 76 “1.. ,/?‘“‘z~ -26,.34, 35, 99-111, 1i3-17 ;I “c . . teaching ‘irl.~itoky , 76-l .. . ’

k ‘fsa$e-‘b&i#dihg te&niq$$3$ ’ ,I i : .,., ,& h : ’ *

” see also under sp&ific eqthquakes .36-B. ’ ;/_-” . . ~ _/ .~‘,y --, i”’

, ‘\- vulnerability of h’oustig, 6-, i”f-15, 19 ,. i ,“‘,: economic. factors, 4, lo! 19,‘21\, 36,38,47, Guatem~,city”ear~,qll~e (1976,),..&3~1~4-4. ” %i

52, 53.;*58,6& 62,>$34,65,‘77, 91 _’ EFICOR, 18

2,O; 21, 23&g,, 31, 3$+,+4,54-,-57-B.;..:.. :: . .f? 63-4, &$; 74, 76, 108~9 y.1 I-” :

emergency shelter., xv; 28,29,3 1,34&9-63. A,, ” .,

Isubsequent pop&ion grbwth, 2043 ’ :” : ,. -corr$aris$n o’f damage with British“ -. 77, 81,82;86,911, andpassim i! ’ ,:L

empfoyment n

‘S ,Pquivale,ni+ 2 1:2 -. : t 3>’ 1 ,’ ; ‘0

location of, 34 . B * * :. $ . : ‘: ,;’

_ after disasters, 20, 30, 5,2:.53,-60, 65 ..’ Habitat conferknce(~978)~ 13 T : ->-‘. -----“:-I epidemics, 28 Hagan, Toni, 44 - ,’

Cr.;’ 1 ‘., . ”

erosion, 13 , + ,“i’

.y c evacuationafter disasters, 28:,&-, ?!!<‘65, 7i,* Hmb&g, 86 1 :,:! . . ss. sm ’ ” :,’

1

1 ( .,

Han Rivejfloods,7*,, ‘( ’ * ;’ :? ‘. ”

I 75,78 ” 1 Haftkopf, VoIker, ‘54~ ‘$ : , ., _I ,_ r ” ),

B Evans, Sir Arthur, 8 ,, A ~ ** p Holinshed, 7 I: ‘f ’ : >, :\: .’

,Evelyn, John, ,I2 ..,M _

exploitatioh of the poor;l2, 222.!‘, ,, ’ Honduras, .HurrQne,Fifi (1974), 13,’ l&I-5 :“’ ”

‘, ” ‘Hope Structures’, 47 2 sea-?&o e,conomic.factors . ,7-

’ \

P? exposure, risks fro pq&$?+ ,t ,,: -,:‘I,,‘: .,’ :.: j

., extende$famili-es, 65

‘j-j ,- ~j

, .1

- , :49;‘31, $2; 60> ,646, ‘77,:86, ‘88.and .‘“,, :. -..; I -

I- family cohesion, 2,8 d ‘. I \ j see alsq extended fa&ilies ,’

’ I .b famines, 26,70,77 0 I. . ,,, I fatalism, I, 9AO _ ’ ;fmelas, 14 fi;es,-74; 77,78 i . L’ to clear rubble-, 28, 65

,i * Y risk. of, 51-2

i / .’ Great Fire-of London; r1.0, 69 _.. . ._ f&“..L . _’ .._

> 1 ., ye~rr&rlar; 4,& 8,9, j&*7;,‘26; 3’5,‘3$f :Y;>-:, -. ; ,’ -r ‘, . . r 3 .,“I I

1 .’ I :,\- I); @w _(i

. ‘ 8’ ; *‘CL .; .

< I, : .. c 4 *, .,;: .. :,q- . . ,A / : a.,

,’ - F’&&, W. Russ@ 27&24. ,’ * ’ . / * .Fi7 i jldods,$$26@, 69; 70< 9 ‘;

*. ..&‘. , ‘*

._ l co@rof of;%-3,.4, ;7-8,, 15 : i .:; ‘I

7 :v;“. l-&k& p --+F -+&‘p-._ ,_ : .__- ~._ _. L fodd, needsafter disasters, 26, 28

t

* i '"y; * ' " {&I 'I - ,._ (L

~essina earthquake (J208); 834, 89 1 i Mexico,, 60 ’ ~--

,, I 1.. .

poverty,*l0-15j 22,23,X, ‘34; 401‘62 - A prediBiop.of disaster;, 3, 2(!:. ” ,

’ h,,

prefabricakn, 1.7, 65-6,70-l ,.8.6-B ’ -.. .:

,w

Salvador, 60’. San, Frar$isco ear .- 7782,‘88, 89

~thy& is.’ . .

-prevention Aeasures, 2&‘9, -10, 15, 26, 34, p ,.> San J~zI, 13 ‘1 j ; a \,, ! I 0 . 1 . 75, 88-9 \ I’ * -‘ .San Martin, Gvatem’ala, 27, 57:,58. l :.

: s-e aisi, mit&ation measu+ planning Ia Save m Children Fund,:46 t ‘, , -press coverage; --, 33 25,46, 58, 60, 78 , ~blic$elati&s, 60 0 ’

~~&:~~&$f$s &&edraj:i)$,+89, * i;~ , -

i-~~~hu~~;he;, ‘EvF., .46,

Pueito Rico, 13,* , “1 Sears&h<Wall Chalet t-ents; 56. n _. ,- 1 seismic waves, see tsunirmis - <> ? * Quarante1h.E.L;;57* ‘. .I ’ :,,

@ Quo-n&t huts, 65 ” f ,-SeouL,&or&.57 --- :-4 -, .,

\/ _ TtT~ -.-’ - ---~ __.~____~ -- --- ~-Shakespeare; :William, I . * . -.- , . .a , Si-Zily earthquake (196g), i,

. ,.

&&&-&fi-’

jb, 2?,:3_3.; 3’0; i I-, 40, . ;.’ ~, ” :,,-

tindon, ‘724 : ib ‘, ‘, m,Ej. : o- B e@hquake, 73-6. -

n, 25, s8, 29,30,?6;,> a

aftpr S&r Francisco ‘&arth&rake, ‘PJ,,> ’ stone ,const$etion, 4, 6,7,35; 71,’ , se&also 99-111 ” ’ 1, Syria, historical earthquakas,~71 ’ : recycling, 30, 37 -* ,

‘It ?&.

. recurrence of disast&s, 4: k: IO, 26:;. ‘Tacitus; “.* I Red Crescent;‘.54-S -.,.#. -

“Red Cross, 18, 22, 50-X , ..-z ‘P Tangshan (China) earthquake (1976), J&, 71

Taxila “earthquake (AD 25j, ?I, g$J q’ .,refiIgees, 72, 7684 ’ ’ ; /: , temporary sheiter, 14,43,m54,63; 65-6, 74;

.:,

I refugee camps, .1

j , k/80-2

26,445, 531; 55, :F, 6OJS:- ei 75,.76, 78, 82, 84; 86,. 89,;ilnCpass,iF -,

“,* Reggio;q ;: tents, use+fter disasters, 16;$24; 25, 28,.,54-B,,

-es&a earthquake (I%$)‘, B&-4,89 0 . - 6~~88’ I;> 0 ’ rehabilitation, see &construction - ’ ” -

., .t g ’ .I 1 1, r. >

reinforced concrete, 83.4 0 js s. : in/histor~ 69, -72; 74, 77

- ’ ’ ‘under use’of, -28, 56-8 ‘. n ‘1 . tj ~rehe~,66,70,~1~,72,74,78,83;91 . * ’ ‘. Terra, Juan:13- F

b ’ relief agencies, 17, 18, 30, 34,36,39,40,’ ;,.:...c *Thames”, r$er; 72 * ,’ ‘7

P ~, * ,**; ,’ 1

4&,49,51,34,60,67 0 -. 5.; . reloca-ti.on of &‘mmunities, IS, 16; 3p;3-8-9, ,.

b.atiag&,‘l-3, 10, 26’ J A .I .: d t$ird world, see ,un&rdey&ped cotiatries -.

\ 65 :., Ricardo, David,, 77

? ii ‘*” 0”

Thompson,;dha&,tte arid Paul, 51 ..’ * -‘,,,~ -‘~ I :

, . to-resist fires, 3, 84 Y * ’ ““‘toi resistflo%s,“4, 7-8 ’

‘._

.: ,’ underdeveloped countries, 12, 13, 23, 26,34,38,46, 65; ye also

i United Nations, 13, 15, 33 .x UNDRO, xv, 22 __ ., ” i’

Universi;ty of BrAdfordi 2, 7, 1.2-15 L . / ’ urbanisation, l&15, 19; 2Q, 21;23,4&

U?oiian,ideas, 74, 76 - ’ j ,-- _ ‘.

-38-9;‘46, 48 :. , V~suvius eruption, (h.‘79), 70, 88 /’ ^

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