Short Notes on A2 Biology

8/18/2019 Short Notes on A2 Biology

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TOPIC 5: ON THE WILD SIDE5.1 PhotosynthesisThylakoids

•

(made of) membranes ;• (arranged as) {sta!s " grana " e#$ ;• onta%n {&%gment " 'oro&'$ " e# ;• (arranged as) #*antasomes " &'otosstems ;

Advantage of growing crop in glasshouse rather than open eld• ro&s an be gro+n {o*t of season " a ear ro*nd$ " e# ;• &ants &'otosnt'es%se ,- 'o*rs a da " e# ;• %dea of ess &'s%a damage from {+eat'er "an%mas " e#$ ;• &est ontro eas%er " e# ;• ref to ontro of ot'er named fator. eg CO,. tem&erat*re. '*m%d%t. +ater

s*&& ;

Dierence between abiotic and biotic factorsref to b%ot% fators %n/o/e {organ%sms " %/%ng$ ab%ot% are {&'s%a " 'em%a "non0%/%ng$ (fators) " e# ;Using quadrat to obtain mean density of two species in an ecosystem

• ref to {se/era " man " more t'an ,$ read%ngs ;• ref to *se of random #*adrat &os%t%ons ;• desr%&t%on of s*%tabe &roess to g%/e random &os%t%ons " e# ;• ref to {!no+n " stated$ area of #*adrat ;• n*mber of %nd%/%d*as %n ea' #*adrat {o*nted" reorded$ " e# ;• desr%&t%on of 'o+ mean dens%t a*ated *s%ng tota o*nt e1g1 tota

n*mber (of ea' s&e%es) d%/%ded b tota area sam&ed ;

Reasons for not using all the light hitting the surface of a leaf is notused

• %dea of re2et%on ;• referene1 to {%norret " e# $ {+a/eengt' " oo*r " fre#*en$ ;• %dea of {not '%tt%ng t'e {'oro&ast " 'oro&'$$ " %t %s transm%tted ;• %dea of %g't be%ng %n e3ess e1g1 at ma31 &'otosnt'es%s so more %g't an

be *sed ;ight dependant stage of photosynthesis (aso see 4, re/%s%on g*%de &age )

• referene to {thylakoids " thylakoid (membranes)$ ; %n {granum " grana$ ;• (%g't energ) ra%ses energ e/e of electrons " {chlorophyll "

electrons$e3%ted " e# ;

• electrons reeased from {chlorophyll "&'otosstem " e#$ " e# ;• referene to electron {arr%er " e#$ ;

referene to ser%es of {redo3 " o3%dat%on 6 red*t%on " e#$ reat%ons ;• referene to energ e/e of electrons {fas " e#$ ;• referene to {snt'es%se 4TP from 4DP 7P "&'os&'orate 4DP$ ;• referene to photophosphorylation ; referene to 4TP {synthetase /

synthase /ase$ ;• referene to {chemiosmosis " e#$ ;• %dea of electrons from { photolysis " e#$ *sed to re&ae t'ose ost ;


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• referene to %n/o/ement of {aessor &%gments " named e3am&e$ ;

!roduction of o"ygen in light#dependent reaction of photosynthesis• referene to energ from %g't ;• referene to &'otos%s ;•

of +ater ;$tructure of chloroplast involved in AT! formation• referene to {gran*m " grana$ ;• referene to (a gran*m %s) a sta! of {t'a!o%ds " membranes$ O8 grana

are onneted b ameae ;• referene to (t'a!o%ds onta%n) {eetron arr%ers " e#$ " 'oro&' "

&'otosstems ;• referene to (membranes onta%n) {4TPase " 4TPase 'anne$ ;• %dea t'at {eetron arr%ers " 4TPase "e#$ are asso%ated +%t' {t'a!o%d "

t'a!o%d membranes$ ;%hy can&t light independent stage of photosynthesis occur without light

dependant stage• %dea t'at &rod*ts of %g't0 de&endent stage are {needed for " *sed %n " e#$

{%g't0%nde&endent stage " Ca/%n e$ ;• referene to (&rod*ts of %g't0 de&endent stage) are {red*ed N4DP " e#$

and 4TP ;• referene to *se of {red*ed N4DP " e#$ for {red*t%on " e#$ of {arbon

d%o3%de " 9P " e#$ ;• referene to *se of 4TP as so*re of energ ;

'mportance of thin lamina in leaves• %dea of {fast " ma3%m*m$ {gas e3'ange " *&ta!e of arbon d%o3%de " e#$;• %dea of &enetrat%on of %g't ;

• %dea t'at arbon d%o3%de %s *sed %n t'e {%g't0%nde&endent stage " Ca/%ne " format%on of 9P$; O8

• %dea t'at %g't %s *sed %n {%g't0de&endent stage " &'otos%s "&'oto&'os&'orat%on "e# $ ;

'mportance of midrib in leaves• trans&ort (%n 3em) of +ater (to t'e ea/es) " e# ;• trans&ort (%n &'oem) of {s*rose " s*gar " arbo'drates $ (a+a from t'e

ea/es) " e#;• (+ater) for {%g't0de&endent reat%on " &'otos%s " so*re of 'drogen

(%ons)$; O8• %dea of (trans&ort%ng s*gar) to ma!e more room for more arbo'drate

snt'es%s ;(ow )A! is used to synthesise cellulose

• 94LP %s a C moe*e " e# ;• referene to on/ers%on (of 94LP) to g*ose " e#;• %dea of enmes %n/o/ed %n t'e snt'es%s of {g*ose " e*ose$ ;• (+'%' %s) < g*ose ;• referene to format%on of gos%d% bonds ;• bet+een C= and C- " t'ese bonds are =0- (gos%d% bonds) ;• b ondensat%on ;


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• referene to {stra%g't " *nbran'ed$ ('a%ns of g*ose) ;• referene to e*ose as a {&osa'ar%de " &omer of g*ose " e#$ ;


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(ow )! is used to synthesise starch• %dea of on/ers%on of GP to GALP " e# ;• *s%ng ATP and red*ed NADP " e# ;• %dea of on/ers%on (of GALP) to {glucose "'e3ose$ e# ;• (+'%' %s) > glucose ;• referene to format%on of glycosidic bonds ;•

t'ese bonds are =0- and =0? (glycosidic bonds)" e# ;• b condensation ;• ref to amylose and amylopectin ;• red%t deta%s of amylose e1g1 stra%g't 'a%n. =0- bonds ;• red%t deta%s of amylopectin eg bran'ed. =0- and =0? bonds ;


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5.2 How ecosystem works*!!

• (rate of) {&rod*t%on of " energ %nor&orated %nto " e#$ {b%omass " organ%mater%a " e#$ ;

• referene to {osses %n res&%rat%on " 9PP @ res&%rat%on " e#$ ;• %n {&rod*ers " &ants$;

%hy *!! may increase due to increase in temperature• %dea t'at t'e rate of {(b%o)'em%a " metabo% " &'otosnt'et% " named$

reat%ons %nreases ;• %dea of %nrease %n {mo/ement " !%net% energ$ of {enme " s*bstrate "

moe*es " &art%es$ " e# ;• %dea of (%nrease %n reat%on rate) bea*se of more enme s*bstrate

%nterat%on ;'mportance of *!! to farmer to use a land for cattles

• atte {are &r%mar ons*mers " 'erb%/ores " eat grass " eat &ants " e#$ ;• (t'erefore) ga%n energ (a/a%abe as NPP) ;• %dea of gra%ng a&a%t of t'e grassand ;

• %dea of aAet on %ed of {meat " m%! " e#$ ;• %dea of 'ang%ng to a more {eB%ent " NPP %ed%ng$ ro& ;

+actors which may in,uence *!!• gra%ng " {ons*mers " 'erb%/ores " named 'erb%/ore$ " e# ;• tram&%ng " e# ;• s'ad%ng b {&ants " named &ant$ " e# ;• om&et%t%on from ot'er &ants " e# ;• d%sease " e# ;

$uccession• %dea of (a se#*ene of) 'anges %n {a omm*n%t " organ%sms " s&e%es "

&ants$ ;• o/er a &er%od of t%me " e# ;

-lima" community• %dea of na {stage " sere " omm*n%t$ ;• feat*re of omm*n%t desr%bed e1g1 sef0s*sta%n%ng . stabe. one dom%nant

s&e%es. a fe+ odom%nant s&e%es ;'mportance of conserving endangered plants

• %dea of onser/at%on of {genet% d%/ers%t " genet% /ar%at%on "b%od%/ers%t$ ;

• %dea of e3t%nt%on ;• %dea of aest'et% reasons ;• %dea t'at t'ese &ants ma be *sef* e1g1 as med%%nes ;• %dea t'at ot'er an%mas de&end on t'ese &ants as a {so*re of food "

'ab%tat$ ;*ich

• %dea of t'e {roe " &*r&ose " %nterat%on " e#$ of {organ%sm " sea anemone "s&e%es " e#$ ;

• referene to tro&'% e/e(s) ;


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$uccession• referene to %'ens and mosses as &%oneer omm*n%t ;• abe to gro+ %n {%tte " no$ so% " e# ;• (t'at) brea!s *& (ro!) fragments " forms {t'%n " s'ao+ " e#$ so%;• referene to {&ants " e#$ +%t' {sma " s'ort " e#$ roots ;• (abe to) gro+ %n {t'%n " s'ao+ " e#$ so% " e# ;•

%dea t'at 'anges %n so% str*t*re enabe {trees " s'r*bs$ to gro+ " e# ;• genera &o%nts to be %n*ded:

◦ referene to so% abe to {'od " reta%n " onta%n " e#$ {+ater " m%neras$ ;◦ as &ants {ose ea/es " d%e " dea " e#$ ;◦ referene to {organ% matter " '*m*s " e#$ {%nreases " reeased " e#$ ;◦ referene to om&et%t%on eAets ;

-lima" community• %n*des (bot') an%mas and &ants " 'as man s&e%es " 'as '%g'

b%od%/ers%t " e# ;• referene to {%nterat%on " e#$ bet+een s&e%es " e# ;• %dea of baaned e#*%%br%*m of s&e%es ;•

referene to {dom%nant " odom%nant$ (&ant or an%ma) s&e%es ;• referene to stabe %f no {'ange to en/%ronment " '*man %n2*ene$ ;


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5.3 Global warmingRole of .herbivorous/omnivores0 animal in recyling carbon

• referene to {arbon " organ% " e#$ om&o*nds %n &ant mater%a ;• %dea t'at d%gest%on &ro/%des res&%rator s*bstrates ;• arbon d%o3%de reeased (from res&%rat%on) ;• (t'%s arbon d%o3%de %s) a/a%abe for &'otosnt'es%s ;• referene to +ood%e {eaten " deom&ose$ ;

Role of microorganisms in recycling carbon• referene to {deom&os%t%on " dea " &*trefat%on $ (b m%roorgan%sms) ;• referene to res&%rat%on ;• reeases arbon d%o3%de for &'otosnt'es%s " e# ;• met'ane reeased %n anaerob% (ond%t%ons);• (met'ane) a/a%abe as f*e " e# ;

1iofuels may help to reduce global warming• referene to b%of*es be%ng (&oss%b)arbon ne*tra ;• %dea t'at {&ants " ro&s$ are *sed for b%of*es;• %dea t'at arbon d%o3%de *sed for &'otosnt'es%s (b &ants " %n &rod*t%on

of b%of*es) ;• %dea of *s%ng b%of*es to re&ae foss% f*es ;

Disadvantage of using biofuels to reduce global warming• and 'as to be eared to gro+ &ants for b%of*es " e# ;• b*rn%ng &rod*es arbon d%o3%de " t'e &ants gro+%ng t'ere +o*d 'a/e

been {&'otosnt'es%s%ng " *s%ng arbon d%o3%de$ " ma'%ner *ses foss%f*es " oss of 'ab%tat ;

• deom&os%t%on of dead &ant mater%a (after ear%ng) " e# ;• &rod*es arbon d%o3%de " e# ;• %dea t'at t'e and o*d 'a/e been *sed for food &rod*t%on ;• ess food &rod*ed " e# ;• ref to *se of fert%%sers ;• %dea of e*tro&'%at%on O8 *se o%0based &rod*ts

!roduction of biofuels may not be carbon neutral• %dea t'at b%of*e &rod*t%on ma (o/era) res*ts %n more arbon d%o3%de %n

t'e atmos&'ere ; O8 %dea t'at arbon ne*tra means t'at t'e arbond%o3%de &rod*ed e#*as t'e arbon d%o3%de *sed ;

• %dea of forests as arbon {s%n!s " e#$ ;• %dea t'at {ear%ng and " deforestat%on$ res*ts %n (net) %nrease %n arbon

d%o3%de (%n atmos&'ere) ;• (ess &ants means) ess arbon d%o3%de {remo/ed " *sed " e#$ b

&'otosnt'es%s ;• {b*rn%ng " e#$ trees &rod*es arbon d%o3%de ;• %dea t'at (%nreased) deom&os%t%on &rod*es arbon d%o3%de;• %dea of *s%ng {(foss%) f*es " &etro " d%ese$ b {orr%es " ma'%ner "

e#$&rod*es arbon d%o3%de ;• {b*rn%ng "e#$ of b%of*es &rod*es arbon d%o3%de ;


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-ombustion of biofuels may lead to global warming• referene to &rod*t%on of {green'o*se gases " named green'o*se gas$ ;• %dea t'at t'ese gases {b*%d *&" rema%n " form a aer$ %n (*&&er)

atmos&'ere;• +'%' {absorb " tra& " e#$ {'eat energ " %nfra0red " I8 " e#$ ;• re2eted from eart's s*rfae ;•

%dea t'at %nreased e/es of t'ese gases %nrease t'e green'o*se eAet ;• %dea t'at (mean) tem&erat*re of eart's {s*rfae " atmos&'ere$ %s

%nreas%ng ;+orest res may lead to global warming

• referene to {res " b*rn%ng " e#$ &rod*es arbon d%o3%de ;• +'%' %s a green'o*se gas ;• %dea t'at t'ese gases {b*%d *& " rema%n " form a aer " %nrease$ %n (*&&er)

atmos&'ere;• +'%' {absorb " tra& " e#$ {'eat energ " %nfra red " I8 " e#$ ;• re2eted from eart's s*rfae ;• %dea t'at %nreased e/es of t'ese gases %nrease t'e green'o*se eAet ;•

%dea t'at (mean) tem&erat*re of eart's {s*rfae " atmos&'ere$ %s%nreas%ng ;• %dea t'at ess arbon d%o3%de {remo/ed " *sed " e#$ b &'otosnt'es%s ;

)reenhouse eect by methane and carbon dio"ide• (arbon d%o3%de and " or met'ane) are green'o*se gases " e# ;• +'%' {absorb " tra& " e#$ {'eat " %nfra red " I8 " ong +a/e$ (rad%at%on) "

e# ;• {re2eted " (re)rad%ated$ from t'e Eart's s*rfae " e# ;• &re/ent {'eat " %nfra red " I8 " ong +a/e " e#$ (rad%at%on) esa&%ng ;• %dea of tem&erat*res ma%nta%ned '%g'er (t'an t'e +o*d be) ;

Reduction in use of fossil fuels may not prevent further global warming

• arbon d%o3%de &rod*ed {b *s%ng " %n &rod*t%on of " e#$ foss% f*es " e# ;• no (d%ret) e/%dene t'at %nreased arbon d%o3%de eads to goba +arm%ng "

e# ;• referene to arbon d%o3%de reeased from {ot'er &roesses " named

&roess$ ;• %dea of remo/a of {arbon s%n!s " named e3am&e " e#$ (aso) eads to

%nrease %n arbon d%o3%de ;• stated e3am&e of an ot'er green'o*se gas reeased from anot'er so*re

e1g1 CC. +ater /a&o*r. met'ane ;• desr%&t%on of so*re e1g1 r*m%nant an%mas. &add eds. met%ng %e.

earane of &eat and ;

• %dea of nat*ra {es " e/ents " &'enomena " e#$ ma be %n/o/ed (%ngoba +arm%ng) e1g1 soar. /oanoes ;

• %dea of e/%dene from &ast %s be%ng *sed ;• %dea of {(&ast e/%dene) %s not %n %nd%ator of f*t*re e/ents " %m%tat%ons of

(%mat%) modes$ ;• %dea t'at s%ent%sts ma be b%ased ;• desr%&t%on of b%as e1g1 em&oed b {om&an " o*ntr$ +%t' /ested

%nterest. sef &romot%on ;• s&e% e3am&e of &robem +%t' " d%sad/antage of$ aternat%/e so*re of


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energ ;%hy body temperature eects rate of development of animals

• referene to %nrease %n {metabo% rate " enme at%/%t " e#$ astem&erat*re r%ses ;

• referene to %nrease %n {!%net% " e#$ energ of moe*es (as tem&erat*rer%ses) " e# ;

•

referene to %nrease %n {enme0 s*bstrate om&e3es " energ of o%s%ons" e#$ (as tem&erat*re r%ses) ;• %dea of {%nat%/at%on at o+er tem&erat*res" denat*rat%on at '%g'er

tem&erat*res$ of enmes ;• %dea t'at tem&erat*re aAets {d%Aerent%at%on " gro+t' "d%/%s%on " e#$ ;

Aect of global warming on distribution• %dea t'at goba +arm%ng +% %nrease t'e tem&erat*re (at t'e at%t*des) ;• %dea t'at tem&erat*res (at t'ese at%t*des) ma beome too '%g' for an of

t'e s&e%es ;• %dea t'at ne+ tem&erat*re ma be abo/e t'e ma3%m*m to om&ete

de/eo&ment or abo/e t'e *&&er et'a %m%t ;• %dea t'at s&e%es mo/e { to ooer reg%ons " e#$ ;• ref to 'ange %n {food so*re " &redators " om&et%t%on " e#$


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5.4 Speciation and evoltion)ene mutation

• %dea t'at str*t*re of DN4 %s 'anged O8 {s&ontaneo*s " random$ 'ange%n {gene " DN4$ ;

• {se#*ene " n*mber " e#$ of {bases " odons "e#$ 'anged ;• ref to {'ange " deet%on " add%t%on " d*&%at%on " s*bst%t*t%on " e#$ of

{bases " n*eot%des$ ;• +'%' eads to 'ange %n t'e {se#*ene " e#$ of am%no a%ds %n (&r%mar

str*t*re of) a {&o&e&t%de " &rote%n$ " e# ;'ndividual species

• %dea t'at %nd%/%d*as of a s&e%es an {%nterbreed " e#$ ;• to &rod*e fert%e {oAs&r%ng " e#$ ;

)enetic diversity in a species• {/ar%et " e#$ of aees ;• %n a gene &oo " e# ;

2volution of two species from single population of ancestral species• referene to or%g%na &o&*at%on %nreas%ng %n s%e and s&read%ng %nto a +%der

d%/ers%t of {'ab%tats " e#$ ;• %dea of geogra&'%a %soat%on e1g1 &'s%a barr%er;• ao&atr% s&e%at%on ;• referene to m*tat%ons ;• ead%ng to d%/ers%t %n breed%ng t%mes " e# ;• (and) ot'er organ%sms feat*res " e# ;• referene to re&rod*t%/e %soat%on ;• restr%t%on %n gene 2o+ " e# ;• bet+een e3tremes of &o&*at%on " e# ;• referene to d%Aerent en/%ronmenta fators %n ea' reg%on ;• ea' reg%on 'as d%Aerent seet%on &ress*res " e# ;• an e3am&e of seet%on &ress*re e1g1 food so*re. d%Aerent 'ab%tats ;• %dea of organ%sms ada&ted to a reg%on ;• referene to s*r/%/a and breed%ng ;• t'ese {aees "genes$ &assed on (to oAs&r%ng);• referene to 'ange %n aee fre#*en%es (o/er t%me) e1g1 %nreas%ng

fre#*en of (t'ese) aees. 'anges %n gene &oo;• (eads to) d%Aerenes bet+een gene &oos " e# ;• !re3ygotic reproductive barriers F Hab%tat %soat%on (do not ome 6

ontat %n re&rod*t%/e season" re&rod*t%/e %soat%on). tem&ora %soat%on(d%Aerent breed%ng t%mes). me'an%a %soat%on (eg %nom&at%be gen%ta%a).be'a/%ora %soat%on (eg d%Aerent o*rts'%& d%s&as). gamet% %soat%on

(gametes do not attrat"&enetrate); !ost3ygotic reproductive barriers FLo+ 'br%d gote /%go*r (gote fa% to de/eo& &ro&er). Lo+ 'br%d ad*t/%ab%%t (oAs&r%ngs fa% to gro+ &ro&er). Hbr%d %nfert%%t (%nfert%eoAs&r%ngs)


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'mportance of sequence of base pair in a gene• referene to tr%&et od%ng sstem ;• %dea t'at se#*ene of bases determ%nes {order of am%no a%ds " &r%mar

(&rote%n) str*t*re "e#$ ;• referene to %m&ortane of {&r%mar str*t*re " e#$ %n {fod%ng " D

str*t*re " tert%ar str*t*re " e#$ of &rote%n ;•

%dea of start se#*enes ;• Idea of sto& odons ;

+ormation of protein by using gene• referene to transr%&t%on ;• referene to {&ost0transr%&t%ona mod%at%on " s&%%ng$ of (&re0) m8N4 ;• referene to s&%eosomes ;• referene to remo/a of %ntrons ;• %dea t'at e3ons are arranged %n d%Aerent omb%nat%ons ;• %dea t'at t'e (m)8N4s are d%Aerent ;• referene to transat%on ;• %dea of d%Aerent {&r%mar str*t*re "se#*ene of am%no a%ds$ ;•

%dea t'at t'%s res*ts %n d%Aerent bonds ;Advantage of se"ual reproductiongenet%a d%Aerent ; greater gene &oo ; greater genet% d%/ers%t "e#Advantage of ase"ual reproductionfaster ; one of ea' organ%sm needed ; onser/es ad/antageo*s aees "e#4(ow 3oo could be important to the survival of endangered species

• %dea of a&t%/e0breed%ng &rogrammes ;• referene to {onser/e " &reser/e " e#$ {aees "genes " gene &oos$ ;• referene to {re0%ntrod*t%on " reeas%ng of S1 +'%te'ead% %nto s*%tabe

'ab%tats$ ;%hy could protective reserves likely to be more successful for

conservation of endangered species than captive breeding in 3oo• %dea of ess {stress " tra*ma " d%somfort " de&ressed "e#$ (for t'e an%mas) ;• %dea t'at an%mas are more %!e to breed %n nat*ra en/%ronment ;• %dea t'at an%mas ma re#*%re arge areas ;• %dea t'at &robems of reeas%ng an%mas ba! %nto t'e +%d %s a/o%ded eg

'ab%t*at%on ;• %dea t'at {d%sease %s ess %!e " d%sease +% not +%&e o*t &o&*at%on$ ;• %dea of ao+%ng (nat*ra) {%nters&e% reat%ons'%&s " omm*n%t%es$ to e3%st

;• %dea of ao+%ng (nat*ra) {%ntras&e% reat%ons'%&s " fam% " so%a " e#$

{str*t*re" be'a/%o*r$ ;•

(bea*se) arge n*mbers of an%mas needed " +%der gene &oo " e# ;• %dea t'at (nat*ra) {d%et " food " e#$ a/a%abe ;

Reproductively#isolated population• %dea of no {(%nter) breed%ng " re&rod*t%on " mat%ng " e#$ (bet+een t'e G1

Seene);• (bea*se) {geogra&'%a " &'s%a$ barr%er " e# ;• %dea of d%Aerent be'a/%o*r ;• %dea of %nom&at%be gen%ta%a ;• %dea of ea' &o&*at%on 'a/%ng a {d%srete " e#$ gene &oo e1g1 restr%ted


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gene 2o+. d%Aerent m*tat%ons. d%Aerent aees ;

!S "opics$ome bers in materials eaten by cattleseren'ma (bres) ; 3em (/esses) ; e*ose (bre) ;

!roduction of amino acids and carbon dio"ide in decomposition of cowpat

• ref to {m%roorgan%sms " m%robes " bater%a " f*ng% " e#$ ;• ref to res&%rat%on of (m%roorgan%sms " bater%a " f*ng% " e#) ;• ref to aerob% " anaerob% (res&%rat%on) ;• on/erts {organ% om&o*nds " e#$ to arbon d%o3%de " e# ;• on/erts {n%trogen om&o*nds " &rote%ns " am%no a%ds" *rea$ to ammon%a "

e# ;2ect of temperature on activity on en3yme

• %dea t'at enme at%/%t %nreases *& to o&t%m*m and t'en dro&s ;• %dea of %nrease %n tem&erat*re res*ts %n %nrease %n !%net% energ ;• res*t%ng %n more {o%s%ons " energet% o%s%ons$ " enme0s*bstrate

om&e3es " e#$ ;• %dea t'at enme %s denat*r%ng (abo/e o&t%m*m) ;• d*e to {/%brat%ons of +%t'%n t'e enme " bonds 'ang%ng " e#$ ;

'nvolvement of pollen grain in the production of the embryo• %dea of &oen {transferr%ng " e#$ genet% mater%a ;• referene to &oen t*be %s {formed " e#$ from t'e &oen ;• %dea t'at &oen t*be gro+s to {o/ar " o/*e " femae gamete " m%ro&e

"e#$ ;• referene to {fert%%sat%on " f*s%on$ of t'e femae gamete and t'e mae

gamete ;• &rod*%ng a {(d%&o%d) gote " d%&o%d e$ ;• %dea of e d%/%s%on (%n format%on of embro &ant)

%hy is starch suitable molecule to store• star' %s a {&osa'ar%de " &omer of g*ose " e#$ so stores energ " e# ;• Idea of om&at so {ots of energ stored " more an be stored$ ;• %nso*be ;• %dea %t does not aAet osmot% &otent%a " e# ;• { bran'es " =0? gos%d% bonds$ (%n amo&et%n) " e# ;• brea!s do+n #*%! " e# ;

(ow amino acids are 5oined by peptide bond• ref to &e&t%de {bond " %n!$ ;• bet+een (am%no gro*& " NH " NH-7$ and {arbo3 gro*& " COOH "

COO0$ ;• ref to ondensat%on (reat%on) ;• %dea of roe of {t8N4 " r%bosome " enmes " orret named enme$ %n

o%n%ng am%no a%ds toget'er ;*ot all contaminated food causes food poisoning

• referene to enmes {!%%ng " destro%ng " e#$ (m%roorgan%sms) ;• referene to {stoma' a%d " 'dro'or% a%d " HC$ {!%%ng " destro%ng "

e#$ (m%roorgan%sms) ;


13/55

• referene to a! of o3gen aAet%ng (m%roorgan%sms) ;• %dea of om&et%t%on b g*t 2ora +%t' (m%roorgan%sms) ;• %dea t'at %ns*B%ent n*mbers of (m%roorgan%sms) (to a*se food &o%son%ng)

;• %dea t'at t'e (m%roorgan%sms) ma not be {&at'ogen%" 'armf* " a*se

food &o%son%ng$;•

referene to (%mmed%ate) /om%t%ng to remo/e (m%roorgan%sms) ;$tarch vs cellulose• a&'a g*ose %n star' and beta g*ose %n e*ose;• on {star' " amo&et%n$ an be bran'ed " e*ose on a %near

moe*e ;• star' onta%ns t+o t&es of moe*e. e*ose on one ;• aternate monomers rotated t'ro*g' =JJ %n e*ose on ;• on {amo&et%n " star'$ an 'a/e =0? gos%d% bonds " e*ose 'as =0

- gos%d% bonds on ;Amylose vs amylopectin

• on (a&'a) =0- gos%d% bonds %n amose " (a&'a) =0? on fo*nd %n

amo&et%n ;• on amo&et%n 'as s%de bran'es " on amose %s {o%ed " e#$ ;• 4mo&et%n %s a {arger " e#$ moe*e t'an amose ;

+ibrous proteins .like actin and myosin0 vs globular protein .likeen3ymes0

• bro*s @ ong " %near " stra%g't ('a%ns). gob*ar @ om&at " s&'er%a "e# ;

• gob*ar are foded and bro*s are not " e# ;• gob*ar are so*be and bro*s are not " e# ;• bro*s @%n/o/ed %n {str*t*ra " e#$ and gob*ar are not ;• gob*ar @ %n/o/ed %n {atas%s " metabo%sm " e#$ and bro*s are not ;


14/55

TOPIC ?: INECTION. IKKNITM4ND O8ENSICS

#.1 $orensic investigations and analysis o% &'!D*A !roling

• DN4 &ro%ng ass*mes e/er %nd%/%d*as DN4 %s {*n%#*e " d%Aerent$ " e# ;• a&art from %dent%a t+%ns " e# ;• ref to DN4 &ro%ng anases t'e {%ntrons " nonod%ng• bo!s " ST8 " s'ort tandem re&eats " e#$;• non0od%ng DN4 {/er /ar%abe " '&er/ar%abe "e#$ ;• arge n*mber of {%ntrons " non0od%ng bo!s " e#$;• %dea of man {omb%nat%ons " e#$ (at ea' o*s) ;

limitations of D*A !roling• ref to DN4 &ro%ng 'as se/era stages ;• ref to {artefats " ontam%nat%on " e#$ an ar%se at an stage ;• on {a fe+ se#*enes " sma &ort%on $ of DN4 anased " e# ;• ref to &oss%b%%t of t+o %dent%a &roes from *nreated %nd%/%d*as ;• {%dent%a t+%ns " ose0reated %nd%/%d*as " e#$ ma s'o+ same &roe "

e# ;(ow to use D*A proling to e"amine fossils

• om&ar%sons made bet+een DN4 from foss%s and ot'er organ%sms ;• to nd genet% reat%ons'%&s " 'o+ ose reated " e# ;• ref to *sed %n {ta3onom " ass%at%on " e#$ ;• to *nderstand e/o*t%onar %nes " to determ%ne ommon anestor " e# ;

!-R• %dea of %soat%on or &re&arat%on of a DN4 sam&e (from t%ss*e) ;• desr%&t%on of reat%on m%3 %n*des referene to DN4 &omerase and

{(deo3) n*eot%des " &r%mers " e#$ ;• desr%&t%on of reat%on m%3 %n*des referene to {magnes%*m %ons "

b*Aer$ ;• desr%&t%on of denat*rat%on ste& to %n*de a&&ro&r%ate tem&erat*re e1g1 J

to 5C " e# ;• desr%&t%on of &r%mer b%nd%ng ste& to %n*de a&&ro&r%ate tem&erat*re (-J0

JC)Q " e# ;• desr%&t%on of e3tens%on ste& to %n*de a&&ro&r%ate tem&erat*re (J0

JC )Q " e# ;• referene to an a&&ro&r%ate t%me for an one ste& eg J15 to , m%n*tes ;• referene to s*%tabe stated n*mber of es e1g1=5 to 5 ;

!roperties of en3yme used in !-R• %dea of enme %s 'eat stabe ;• %dea of o&t%m*m tem&erat*re for t'e enme stated e1g1 J0JC ;• {snt'es%ses a ne+ strand of DN4 om&ementar to " reads aong$ t'e

tem&ate strand " e# ;• %dea of snt'es%s %n one d%ret%on ;• needs a {&r%mer " 0OH$ to beg%n snt'es%s of t'e om&ementar strand "


15/55

e# ;


16/55

'mportance of temperature in !-R• Denat*rat%on of DN4 " J to 5C " ste& = F %f tem&erat*re too o+ " e# ;

DN4 strands +% not se&arate " e# ;• Pr%mer annea%ng " -J to JC " ste& , F %f tem&erat*re %s too '%g' " e# ;

%dea of ess annea%ng e1g1 ess b%nd%ng of &r%mers and %f tem&erat*re %s tooo+ fe+er &r%mers annea;

•

E3tens%on " J to JC " ste& F %f tem&erat*re %s too o+ " e# ; snt'es%sof ne+ DN4 strands not om&eted " e# ;• O8 %f tem&erat*re %s '%g'er t'an 5C " e# ; t'e enme +% denat*re " e# ;

)el electrophoresis• referene to so*re of DN4 sam&e. e1g1 bood. sa%/a. semen ;• referene to sma sam&es of DN4 an be am&%ed b PC8 ;• referene to *se of (restr%t%on " e#) enmes to {brea! " e#$ DN4 ;• referene to *se of {eetro &otent%a " &otent%a d%Aerene " e#$ ;• referene to {treatment " sta%n%ng " e#$ ;• s'o+ *& as {bands " bars " e#$ ;• referene to t'e {n*mber of bands " e#$ t'at mat' %nd%ates s%m%ar%t of

t'e DN4 ;Transcription• DN4 strands {se&arate " *n%& " e#$ ;• %dea t'at one DN4 {strand " e#$ *sed as tem&ate (to form m8N4) " e# ;• from free n*eot%des " e# ;• referene to om&ementar base &a%r%ng ;• referene to 'drogen bond%ng ;• orret referene to {8N40&omerase " DN4 'e%ase$ ;• red%t orret se#*ene of bases on {m8N4 "DN4$ ;

Translation• tr%&et ode " e# ;

• re&resents am%no a%d (se#*ene) " e# ;• (m8N4) b%nds to r%bosome " e# ;• referene to s&e% am%no a%d atta'ment to t8N4 ;• %dea t'at ant%odon (on t8N4) {atta'es " b%nds " %nes *& " e#$ to t'e

{odon " tr%&et$ on m8N4 ;• referene to ant%odons on t8N4 {b%nd " %n! to " %ne *& aga%nst " e#$

odons on m8N4• %dea of 'drogen bonds bet+een bases (of t8N4 and m8N4) ;• d%agram e1g1 t8N4 +%t' aan%ne 'as C94 ant%odon +'%' b%nds to 9C on

m8N4 ;• %dea t'at t+o t8N4 'ed %n r%bosome (at anone t%me) ;

• referene to format%on of &e&t%de {bonds "%n!s$ (bet+een adaent am%noa%ds) ;

• referene to &e&t%d transferase ;


17/55

D*A to protein• %dea of se#*ene of bases {form%ng t'e genet% ode " determ%nes t'e

am%no a%d se#*ene$ ;• %dea t'at one tr%&et odes for an am%no a%d;• ref to (DN4) at%ng as a tem&ate ;• referene to transr%&t%on O8 deta% of transr%&t%on e1g1 DN4 *n%&s. m8N4

snt'es%s ;• %dea t'at m8N4 mo/es from n*e*s to to&asm " e# ;• referene to transat%on O8 deta% of transat%on e1g1 roe of r%bosome. odon0

ant%odon %nterat%on ;• %dea t'at t8N4 arr%es an am%no a%d ;• ref to format%on of &e&t%de bonds bet+een am%no a%ds ;• %dea t'at &r%mar str*t*re %s t'e {se#*ene "order " e#$ of am%no a%ds ;• omment on &ost0transr%&t%ona mod%at%on of m8N4 (bet+een

transr%&t%on and transat%on)e1g1 remo/a of %ntrons. s&%%ng$top codon

• *sed to end t'e {se#*en%ng " f*rt'er atta'ment of t8N4 " e#$ ;•

reease of t'e {&o&e&t%de " r%bosome$ "e# ;Triplet code• %dea t'at ea' am%no a%d %s oded for b t'ree {n*eot%des " bases$ ;• red%t #*oted e3am&e " %dea t'at =, {n*eot%des " bases$ ode for - am%no

a%ds ;*on#overlapping

• %dea t'at ea' {tr%&et %s d%srete " ea' base %s on *sed one %n a tr%&et "e# $ ;

• eg t'at 44T 7 44C 7 C49 7 TTT g%/es - (d%st%nt) {tr%&ets " odes$ ;Degenerate

• %dea t'at more t'an one ode an be *sed for a {&art%*ar am%no a%d"

sto& ode$ ;• eg 44T and 44C ode for e*%ne ;

)ene pool(t'e tota of) a t'e aees %n a {&o&*at%on " e#$ ;Allele frequencyt'e {&ro&ort%on of " n*mber of t%mes o*rr%ng " e#$ for one aee +%t'%n a {gene&oo " &o&*at%on " e# ) ;D*A is called double#stranded polynucleotide because

• (Do*be0stranded bea*se made of) t+o strands ;• (strands o%ned) b 'drogen bonds (bet+een bases ) ;• (&on*eot%de) of {man " e#$ n*eot%des ;

• (n*eot%des) %n!ed b &'os&'o(d%)ester bonds " e# ;+unction of codons ar each end of a strand of mR*A during the processof translation

• referene to {start " sto& " nonsense$ (odon) ;• start (odon) needed to beg%n {&o&e&t%de snt'es%s " e#$ " {sto& "

nonsense$ (odon) needed to end {&o&e&t%de snt'es%s "e# $ " e# ;


18/55

%hy variety of dierent protein structures could be formed frompolypeptides translated using mR*A of same gene

• referene to {d%Aerene " /ar%at%ons " e# $ of {e3ons " m8N4$ ;• referene to d%Aerent {&r%mar str*t*re " se#*ene of am%no a%ds$ ;• referene to {seondar " tert%ar $ str*t*re of &rote%ns de&ends on

&r%mar {str*t*re " se#*ene$ " e# ;•

d*e to {'ange %n " d%Aerent$ bonds ;• {'drogen " %on% " d%s*&'%de$ bonds ;• referene to d%Aerent D s'a&e " e# ;

Using core temperature of dead body and ambient temp for accuracy ofestimating time of death

• %dea t'at (dro& %n) ore tem&erat*re %s reated to t%me after deat' ;• %dea t'at t'e dro& %n ore tem&erat*re de&ends on amb%ent tem&erat*re ;• %dea of *s%ng a {a%brat%on " oo%ng$ *r/e ;• %dea t'at tem&erat*re aAets r%gor mort%s ;• %dea t'at e/%dene an be omb%ned ;

+actors that could in,uence the rate at which a body cools after death•

{(bod) mass" GKI " +e%g't " e#$• {(s*b*taneo*s) fat "e#$• s*rfae area.• {amb%ent " e# $ tem&erat*re• %mmers%on %n +ater• age (of &erson at deat')• s!%n oo*r• t'%!ness of 'a%r• gender• ot'%ng• bood oss

• '*m%d%t• a%r mo/ement• {ore " bod$ tem&erat*re at t%me of deat'

+actors which could in,uence rate of rigor mortis• &'s%a damage " e# ;• %mmers%on %n +ater " e# ;• (e3terna) tem&erat*re " e# ;• b*rn%ng " e# ;• eetro*t%on " e# ;• referene to {ot'%ng " e#$ ;• +%nd " a%r mo/ements " e# ;


19/55

+actors which could aect estimation of death using temp• stated fator and eAet on {'eat oss " bod tem&erat*re " dro& %n

tem&erat*re$ ;• %dea of more 'eat oss g%/es an *nder0est%mate O8 %dea of ess 'eat oss

g%/es an o/er0est%mate ; 4CCEPT an of t'e foo+%ng fators t'at red*e'eat oss:◦

ot'%ng " e#◦ {arge " fat$ &erson " '%g' GKI◦ bod { *red *& " b*r%ed " %n +ater " o/ered " %n st% a%r " %n '*m%d

ond%t%ons " e#$◦ {bod tem&erat*re " fe/er " e#$ (at t%me of deat')

• 4CCEPT an of t'e foo+%ng fators t'at %nreases 'eat oss:◦ (arge) +o*nds " (ots of) beed%ng "e#◦ bod mo/ed from a ooer area " e#◦ {at%/%t " e3er%se " e#$ (at t%me of deat') ;◦ Less 4TP " s&eeds *& r%gor (mort%s) " o/er0est%mate " e# ;

Determination of time of death•

referene to s*ess%on ;• referene to (forens%) entomoog ;• e3am&e of {%nset " e#$ e1g1 2. beete. +as& ;• %dea t'at t'e {t&es " s&e%es " %fe e stages$ (of %nsets) are *sed ;• referene to {deom&os%t%on " dea " e#$ ;• %dea t'at t'ere are d%Aerent stages of {deom&os%t%on " dea " e#$ ;• deta% of {deom&os%t%on " dea " e#$ e1g1 &rod*t%on of gases. %#*efat%on

of t%ss*e. boat%ng. d%soo*rat%on ;• referene to rate of {s*ess%on " %nset de/eo&ment " deom&os%t%on$

%n2*ened b {e3terna fator " a&&ro&r%ate named fator$ ;• %dea t'at %nset and deom&os%t%on %nformat%on %s *sed to determ%ne t%me of

deat' ;Temperature and time of death

• %dea t'at a dro& %n bod tem&erat*re %s %n!ed to t%me after deat' e1g1 agormort%s ;

• %dea t'at fators aAet tem&erat*re dro& e1g1 en/%ronmenta tem&erat*re.bod s%e. ot'%ng ;

• (*sef* bea*se ) t%me of deat' an be a*ated %f (amb%ent) tem&erat*re!no+n " e# ;

• on *sef* for s'ort &er%od of t%me foo+%ng deat' e1g1 ,- 'o*rs. a da ;$tate of decomposition and time of death

• %dea t'at bod deom&oses %n a s&e% se#*ene (+%t' t%me) ;

• %dea t'at fators aAet deom&os%t%on e1g1 en/%ronmenta tem&erat*re.+o*nds ;

• (not *sef*) %f a t'e bod 'as deom&osed " e# ;'nvestigation to study eect of temperature on life cycle of hister beetlefound in dead body

• %dea of *s%ng a range of tem&erat*res (5 stated tem&erat*res. m%n 0= JRCand ma3 5JRC) ;

• %n a {+ater bat' " %n*bator$ ;• %dea t'at t%m%ng starts +'en a ne+ stage of %fe e a&&ears ;


20/55

• and ends +'en t'e ne3t stage a&&ears ;• %dea t'at se/era organ%sms s'o*d be *sed at ea' tem&erat*re ;• %dea of &ro/%d%ng food for organ%sm ;• referene to a&&ro&r%ate ontroed /ar%abe e1g1 '*m%d%t. mass of food.

s&e%es ;• %dea t'at tota engt' of %fe e an be{meas*red d%ret "

#.2 (icroorganisms and diseases)ene of bacteria vs virus

• bater%a 'a/e DN4. /%r*ses 'a/e DN4 or 8N4 ;• %dea t'at bater%a 'a/e {%r*ar " e#$ genet% mater%a. /%r*ses 'a/e {%near "

stra%g't$ ;• bater%a DN4 %s do*be0stranded. /%ra {DN4 " 8N4$ %s s%nge (or do*be)

stranded " e#;•

bater%a (ma) 'a/e &asm%ds. /%r*ses do not 'a/e &asm%ds " e#;$tructure of virus 6$ bacteria• bater%a are es. /%r*ses are {not " &art%es$ ;• %dea of bater%a s*rro*nded b {e +a " s%me " a&s*e $ . /%r*ses s*rro*nded b

{&rote%n " a&s%ds " en/eo&e$ 4• bater%a 'a/e { &asm%ds " r%bosomes " ot'er named str*t*re$ . /%r*ses do not

'a/e {&asm%ds " r%bosomes " ot'er named str*t*re $ ;• bater%a (genome) are DN4. /%r*ses an be DN4 or 8N4 ;• bater%a DN4 %s do*be0stranded. /%ra genet% mater%a %s s%nge (or do*be)

stranded " e# ;• %dea t'at bater%a 'a/e {%r*ar " e#$ genet% mater%a. /%r*ses 'a/e {%near "

stra%g't$ genet% mater%a ;

(ow bacteria are killed by bacteriocide• e +a {+ea!er "annot form &ro&er " e#$ ;• {e " e +a$ b*rsts (eas%) " e# ;• d*r%ng d%/%s%on "e# ;

%hy should we limit antibiotics• referene to ant%b%ot% at%ng as seet%/e &ress*re ;• referene to some bater%a res%stant (to ant%b%ot%) ;• %dea t'at res%stant bater%a s*r/%/e and {re&rod*e " &ass on res%stane "

&ass on gene " e#$;• %dea t'at ant%b%ot% no onger eAet%/e ;• referene to some %nfet%ons annot be treated +%t' ant%b%ot%s ;

%hy it might be advisable to change the antibiotic being used• %dea t'at ant%b%ot% *sed %s {most eAet%/e " e#$ (aga%nst t'e !no+n

bater%*m) ;• %dea t'at none of t'e ant%b%ot%s %s =JJ eAet%/e " some bater%a {s*r/%/e "

e#$ ;• some bater%a {are res%stant " e#$ ;• %dea of res%stant stra%n {de/eo&s " &re/ented$ ;

'nvestigating eect of dierent antibiotics on bacteria• %dea of bater%a d%str%b*ted e/en " desr%&t%on of te'n%#*e e1g1 a+n


21/55

s&read%ng ;• desr%&t%on of met'od *sed to a&& d%Aerent ant%b%ot%s at !no+n &os%t%ons

e1g1 m*t%d%s!s. +es %n agar ;• referene to ontro of ant%b%ot% onentrat%on ;• referene to {ster%e " ase&t%$ te'n%#*e ;• referene to %n*bat%on at a s*%tabe tem&erat*re ;•

desr%&t%on of 'o+ eAet %s assessed e1g1 meas*re {ear area " %n'%b%t%onone " e#$ ;• referene to re&%at%on (+%t' same bater%*m) ;• referene to re&et%t%on +%t' d%Aerent bater%a ;

'ngestion of bacteria by macrophages• referene to {&'agotos%s "endotos%s " eng*ng$ ;• red%t deta%s of &'agotos%s (eg format%on of {&se*do&od%a " membrane

e3tens%ons aro*nd bater%a$ " to&asm% stream%ng " b%nd%ng to bater%a ) ;• referene to bater%*m %ns%de a {/a*oe " /es%e " &'agososome$ ;


22/55

(ow T1 bacteria are taken up by macrophages • %dea of {bater%*m " e#$ reogn%sed as {non0sef " e#$ ;• referene to abe%ng of bater%a b G {m&'otes " es$ ;• &'agotos%s " &'agot% " &'agote ;• desr%&t%/e deta% of &'agotos%s (%n/o/%ng {bater%*m " e#$) ;• referene to format%on of /a*oe ;

Antibiotics may not be eective against dormant bacteria because• %dea t'at bater%a need to be aess%be to ant%b%ot%s ;• %dea of bater%a %ns%de maro&'ages ;• referene to +a3 aer of (t'ese) bater%a ;• %dea t'at (bater%ostat%) ant%b%ot%s aAet d%/%d%ng bater%a;• referene to ant%b%ot% res%stane (of t'ese bater%a) ;

Articial immunity• %dea of {dead " atten*ated " e#$ {organ%sms " &at'ogen " bater%*m " e#$

&*t %nto &erson;• referene to (st%m*at%on of) {s&e% " &r%mar$ (%mm*ne) res&onse ;• red%t deta%s of T 'e&er e at%/at%on (eg maro&'ages as 4PCs) ;•

red%t deta%s of G e at%/at%on (eg %n/o/ement of to!%nes. G es as4PCs) ;• red%t deta%s of T !%er e at%/at%on (eg %n/o/ement of to!%nes. %nfeted

es as 4PCs) ;• referene to &rod*t%on of memor es ;

Articial active immunity• referene to {/a%ne " /a%nat%on $ ;• onta%n%ng {snt'et% moe*e " (snt'et%) ant%gen " (snt'et%)

go&rote%n"dead "+ea!ened d%sease organ%sm $ ;• ref to st%m*at%on of t'e {s&e% " '*mora$ %mm*ne res&onse (to t'e

snt'et% ant%gen) ;

• red%t deta% of &roess of &rod*%ng eAetor G es e1g1 ona e3&ans%on of G es. %n/o/ement of to!%nes. T 'e&er es at%/ate G es ;

• referene to (&rod*t%on of G) memor es ;• %dea t'at (,9=,) ant%bod%es are &rod*ed {faster " %n greater onentrat%on$

on {re%nfet%on " e#$ ;(ow vaccine gives active immunity

• %dea of *s%ng {/%r*s " PC,$ as /a%ne ;• +'%' %s {mod%ed " atten*ated " 'armess " s%m%ar " &art of " e#$ ;• %dea t'at t'e /a%ne onta%ns t'e ant%gen ;• %dea of {at%/at%on " &ro%ferat%on$ of (s&e%) {G e " T e "

m&'ote$ ;

• referene to &rod*t%on of (G " T) memor es ;• %dea t'at bod no+ abe to &rod*e (s&e%) ant%bod {faster " at '%g'er

onentrat%on " e#$ on anot'er e3&os*re to PC, ;Activation of dormant T1 bacteria and inhibition of T cells by them maylead to death

• referene to {f*rt'er *ng damage " se/ere breat'%ng &robems " e#$ ;• %dea t'at t'e Kobater%*m get %nto t'e {bood " m&'$;• %dea t'at organ fa%*re (eads to deat') ;• %dea of {red*ed " +ea!ened$ %mm*ne res&onse (d*e to a oss of T es) ;


23/55

• red%t deta% of roe of T ('e&er) es ;• red%t deta% of eAet of no T !%er es ;• red%t deta% of eAet of no G es ;• ref to {seondar " o&&ort*n%st% " ot'er$ %nfet%ons (a*s%ng deat') ;

(ow infection with a bacterium results in the production of plasma cells7• referene to '*mora (%mm*ne) res&onse ;•

referene to {&'agotos%s " e#$ b {&'agotes "named &'agote$ ;• referene to maro&'ages as { ant%gen&resent%ng es " 4PCs$ (to T 'e&er

es) ;• referene to G es as { ant%gen0&resent%ng es " 4PCs$ (to %tsef) ;• %dea t'at T 'e&er es reease to!%nes for G e {at%/at%on " st%m*at%on$

;• %dea of G es {form%ng ones " d%/%d%ng "e#$ (to form G eAetor es) ;• referene to {d%Aerent%at%on of G es %nto &asma es " format%on of

&asma es from G es$ (s*bse#*ent to on%ng) ;(ow antibodies help to recover from an infection

• referene to {o&son%sat%on " ant%bod%es b%nd to bater%a " e#$ ;•

(as a res*t) en'an%ng &'agotos%s " e# ;• referene to {%mmob%%sat%on " agg*t%nat%on " e# $ (of bater%a) ;• %dea of ant%bod%es ne*tra%s%ng to3%ns " e# ;

(ow virus in bood is recognised and destroyed by the immune system• referene ant%gens (on t'e /%r*s) ;• referene to ant%gen &resentat%on ;• {st%m*at%on " at%/at%on " e#$ of {m&'otes " T e " G e$ " e# ;• &ro%ferat%on (of m&'otes) #*a%ed " e# ;• eads to {e med%ated " '*mora$ res&onse ;• Ce med%ated:

◦ referene T !%er es ;◦

a*ses /%r*s0%nfeted e s%s " e# ;• H*mora :

◦ referene to {&asma es " G eAetor es$;◦ {&rod*e " reease " e#$ (ant%gen s&e%) ant%bod%es ;◦ desr%&t%on of ant%bod at%on ;◦ referene to {&'agotos%s " maro&'age at%on$ ;◦ 8eferene to %nterferon at%on ;

-haracteristic features of antibodies• referene to go&rote%n ;• red%t deta% of str*t*re e1g1 s&e% (D) s'a&e. L and H reg%ons. M0s'a&e. -

(&e&t%de) 'a%ns. d%s*&'%de br%dges bet+een &e&t%des. '%nge reg%on ;

• referene to {ant%gen0b%nd%ng s%te " /ar%abe reg%on " ab (reg%on) " e# $;• %dea of ant%bod%es 'a/e a {s%m%ar " onstant " " e# $ reg%on;• &rod*ed b &asma es " &resent on G es ;• roe of ant%bod desr%bed e1g1 o&son%sat%on. %mmob%%sat%on. agg*t%nat%on.

s%s ;%hy antibiotic is used in treating in,uen3a

• %dea t'at %n2*ena ma ao+ de/eo&ment of ot'er d%seases e1g1o&&ort*n%st% %nfet%ons ;

• ant%b%ot%s +% {!% " %n'%b%t gro+t' of " e#$ bater%a ;


24/55

!repare microscopic slide to observe T cells• %dea of ma!%ng a s%de of T es (from bood " m&' nodes) ;• referene to named sta%n eg aet% ore%n (ACCEPT acetocarmine

!eulgens "chi#s toluidine blue$ ;• red%t orret deta%s of met'od eg 'eat%ng sta%n. *s%ng a%d (ACCEPT idea o%

adding co&erslip$;•

%dea of oo!%ng for m%tot% feat*res (ACCEPT stages o% mitosis $ ;Role of T helper cell in immune response• referene to to!%nes (from T 'e&er es) ;• %dea of %n/o/ement %n {'*mora res&onse " at%/at%ng G es " e#$ F

(4CCEPT st%m*at%ng. s+%t'%ng on NOT &rod*%ng)• %dea of ant%bod &rod*t%on b &asma es ;• %dea of %n/o/ement %n {e med%ated res&onse " at%/at%ng T !%er es "

e#$ F (4CCEPT st%m*at%ng)• %dea of T !%er es destro%ng %nfeted ('ost) es F (4CCEPT !%er es

NOT nat*ra !%er es)Role of golgi body in T helper cell

•

referene to &rote%n {mod%at%on " &a!ag%ng " e#$ ;• eg to!%nes ;• eg CD- (ant%gens " ree&tors) ;• %dea of e3otos%s (of snt'es%sed &rote%ns) ;

-ommon cold virus cannot infect if they enter blood through cut skin• %dea t'at /%r*ses on {%nfet " atta' to " e#$ {s&e% ree&tors " s&e%

es " 'ost es$ ;• %dea t'at ree&tors not &resent on {bood es " endot'e%a es " e#$ ;• referene to {destr*t%on " e#$ of /%r*ses b &'agotes ;

!roduction and action of interferons vs that of lyso3yme• %dea t'at %nterferon %n/o/ed %n /%ra %nfet%ons. some aAets bater%a;

• %dea of %nterferon &rod*ed b %nfeted es. some &resent %n{seret%ons " &'agotes " ne*tro&'%s " maro&'ages " e# $;

• %nterferon {%n'%b%ts " e#$ {re&%at%on " e#$ of /%r*ses. some {!%s "destros$ bater%a;

'mportance of lyso3yme&s protein structure in acting against pathogens• referene to (some) %s an enme ;• %dea t'at {&rote%ns " at%/e s%tes " enmes$ 'a/e a s&e% s'a&e ;• %dea t'at some ats on e +a ;• of bater%a ;

1roken skin due to insect bit may lead to in,ammation• referene to '%stam%ne reeased as a res*t of damaged {t%ss*e " es$ ;

• ('%stam%ne reeased from) {baso&'%s " mast es " &ateets$ ;• deta% of eAet of '%stam%ne e1g arter%oes d%ate. /asod%at%on. %nreased

bood 2o+. a&%ar%es more &ermeabe ;• named eAet of %n2ammat%on e1g1 {oedema " s+e%ng "redness " 'eat "

&a%n " e#$ ;%hy applying cream could be better than tablets with antihistamine

• %dea of (on) {a oa reat%on &rod*ed " '%stam%nes &rod*ed aro*nd b%tearea$ ;

• %dea t'at ream {'as been a&&%ed to at*a s%te of &rod*t%on of


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'%stam%ne $ ;• %dea of {eAet " treatment " re%ef " e#$ {more ra&%d " %mmed%ate " e# $;• %dea of '%g'er onentrat%on of ant%'%stam%ne at s%te ;• %dea t'at t'e ant%'%stam%nes +% not be {d%gested (b enmes) " destroed

(b a%d " enmes) " e#$ ;• %dea t'at tabets ma o+er %mm*ne res&onse genera " ead to s%de0

eAets ;


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#.3 People verses pathogens1acteriostatic antibiotic and bactericidal antibiotic

• %dea of ant%b%ot% %s *sed to {ontro " !% " &re/ent re&rod*t%on of " e#$bater%a

• bater%ostat% &re/ent {re&rod*t%on " d%/%s%on " m*t%&%at%on " gro+t' " e#$of bater%a;

• bater%%da {destro " !% " e#$ bater%a ;(ow to prevent .8R$A0 infection in hospitals

• referene to 'os&%tas {'a/%ng " 'ang%ng " e# $ a {ode of &rat%e "&rotoo " &o% " standards " e#$ (for dea%ng +%t' 'os&%ta a#*%red%nfet%ons) ;

• {str%ter " e#$ 'g%ene &rat%es " e# ;• ref to 'and +as'%ng reg%mes for {dotors " n*rses " med%a staA " /%s%tors$ ;• &art%*ar +'en dea%ng +%t' o&en {+o*nds " e#$ " e# ;• +ear%ng s*%tabe ot'%ng ;• ant%se&t% (so*t%ons) read% a/a%abe ;• named ant%se&t% e1g1 ges. &astes. ao'o r*bs ;• ref to {%soat%on of s*s&eted ases " sreen%ng of adm%ss%ons$ " e# ;• red*e &ro3%m%t of &at%ents to ea' ot'er " %soat%on " e# ;• {ontros " mon%tors$ *se of ant%b%ot%s " e# ;• fe+er {&at%ents " /%s%tors$ &ass%ng %n and o*t ;• referene to {ster%%%ng e#*%&ment " d%s%nfet%ng s*rfaes " e#$ ;• referene to s*%tabe dress eg mas!s. no e+eer ;• referene to %m&ro/ed a*ndr of {bedd%ng " *ter " *&s " e#$ e1g1

{%nreased fre#*en " '%g'er +as'%ng tem&erat*re " e#$ ;• referene to orret d%s&osa of {dress%ngs " needes " e#$ ;• referene to sreen%ng of {&at%ents " /%s%tors$ ;

%hy when 8R$A enters blood it produce several plasma cells which

produce variety of antibodies• (bater%*m) %s made of man d%Aerent {&omers " 'em%as " e#$ " e# ;• +'%' an at as ant%gens " e# ;• referene to G {m&'otes " es$ ;• referene to (%nd%/%d*a G0m&'otes) reogn%se s&e% ant%gens "

ant%bod%es are s&e% " e# ;• referene to {at%/at%on" e#$ of G0 m&'otes b T {m&'otes " es$ ;• referene to m%tos%s (%n G0m&'otes or es) ;• to {form " e#$ genet%a %dent%a &asma es

Advantage of using monoclonal antibodies rather than polyclonalantibodies in detecting antigen

• s&e% {ant%gen " /%r*s " &at'ogen " bater%*m " e#$ an be {%dent%ed "e#$ ;

• %dea of {s&e% " monoona$ ant%bod b%nds to {s&e% " on one$ant%gen ;

• s&e% treatment an be g%/en " e# ;• a/o%ds *nneessar *se of {dr*gs " treatment$ " e# ;• more %!e to be eAet%/e " e# ;

Dierence between ('6 and T1 bacteria• 8N4 %n HI and DN4 %n {bater%*m " e#$ ;


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• om&arat%/e desr%&t%on of n*e% a%d e1g1 %r*ar %n bater%*m and %near%n HI " e# ;

• &asm%ds %n {bater%*m " e#$ and no &asm%ds %n HI ;


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%hy is skin a barrier against viruses• {!erat%n " &rote%n$ %n s!%n {s*rfae " e&%derm%s$ ;• %dea of forms a {'ard " %m&enetrabe " &'s%a " e#$ barr%er ;• referene to a! of ree&tors (for t'e /%r*s) ;

%ays the skin ,ora protects a person from infection• {om&et%t%on " e#$ for n*tr%ents ;•

{om&et%t%on " e#$ for s&ae ;• {seret%on " e#$ {'em%as " s*bstanes " some " e#$ O8 aAets {&H "

e#$ ;• {st%m*at%on " e#$ of (s!%n) %mm*ne sstem " e# ;

-hanges in -D9 T#lymphocytes immediately ('6 infection• {glycoprotein " g&=,J$ on /%r*s " e# ;• b%nds +%t' {ree&tors " CD-$ " e# ;• on (s*rfae) membrane of lymphocytes " e# ;• /%ra 8N4 enters t'e lymphocyte " e# ;• /%ra 8N4 *sed to &rod*e /%ra DN4 (%n lymphocyte) " e# ;• b at%on of re&erse transcriptase ;•

ref to format%on of ne+ /%r*ses ;• lymphocyte destroed +'en ne+ /%r*ses {b*d o*t of " ea/e$ t'e e " e# ;• T !%er {es " lymphocytes$ destro T 'e&er {es " lymphocytes$ " e# ;

2ect of changes in -D9 T#lymphocytes on blood of ('6 patientG {es " m&'otes$ { not at%/ated " not st%m*ated " are %n'%b%ted " e#$ "fe+er ant%bod%es " T !%er es {%nrease " m*t%& " e#$ ;Action of R*A in common cold virus 6$ that found in ('6

• re/erse transr%&tase (re#*%red) %n HI. no re/erse transr%&tase %n od /%r*s;

• DN4 formed (*s%ng 8N4) %n HI. {no DN4 formed " 8N4 *sed to ma!e&rote%n " transat%on$ %n od /%r*s ;

• referene to {&ro/%r*s " aten " dea %n /%r*s format%on " e#$ %n HI%nfet%on. {no &ro/%r*s " t% e " (%mmed%ate) format%on of /%r*s&art%es " e#$ %n od /%r*s ;

Types of cells that ('6 enters in immune system• {T 'e&er " CD- (&os%t%/e)$ (e " m&'otes) ;• &'agot% es e1g1 maro&'ages. dendr%t% e ;

(ow ('6 is able to enter these cells• referene to (HI) b%nds to (CD-) ree&tors on e (s*rfae) ;• ref to CD- (ree&tors on es) ;• referene to {go&rote%n " g&=,J$ on /%r*s (s*rfae) ;• referene to f*s%on of /%r*s (en/eo&e) +%t' (e s*rfae) membrane ;

• %dea of &'agotos%s (%n maro&'age " e#) ;


29/55

$equence of events after ('6 infection which may lead to death• referene to /%ra 8N4 ;• referene to &rod*t%on of (/%ra) DN4 (*s%ng /%ra 8N4 as a o&) ;• orret ref to re/erse transr%&tase ;• referene to %nor&orat%on of /%ra DN4 %nto 'ost es {DN4 "genome $ "

referene to &ro/%r*s " e# ;•

orret ref to %ntegrase ;• referene to &rod*t%on of {/%r*ses " /%ra 8N4 and &rote%ns$ " e# ;• %dea of %nfet%on of f*rt'er (T 'e&er) es ;• referene to destr*t%on of (T 'e&er) es b T !%er es O8 referene to

e s%s " e# ;• referene to o+er%ng of %mm*n%t ;(to ot'er d%seases ;• red%t referene to roe of T 'e&er es %n %mm*ne res&onse e1g1 &rod*e

to!%nes. at%/ate G es " !%er es ;• deat' %s a*sed b e1g1 o&&ort*n%st% d%sease. &ne*mon%a . TG. Ua&os%s

saroma. aner. dement%a. e3treme +e%g't oss. men%ng%t%s. to3o&asmos%s;

2ect of immunosuppressive drugs• %dea t'at t'e %mm*ne res&onse +% be +ea!er ;• &erson ma not reo/er from t'%s %nfet%on " e# ;• %dea of {ot'er (o&&ort*n%st%) %nfet%on " aner$ ;• referene to to!%nes reeased from {T 'e&er " CD- $ es ;• %dea t'at to!%nes are %n/o/ed %n• {at%/at%on " d%/%s%on $ of {G es " T !%er es$ ;• red%t onse#*ene of %m&a%red G e f*nt%on ;• red%t onse#*ene of %m&a%red T !%er e f*nt%on ;

%hy a mi"ture of many drugs are required to treat ('6• %dea t'at HI 'as {man " /ar%et of " ne+ " e#$ {stra%ns " t&es "ant%gens "

&rote%n oats " e#$ (%n %nfeted &erson) ;• some stra%ns {are " beome$ res%stant to {an %nd%/%d*a " a s&e% " a

&art%*ar " e#$ dr*g " e# ;• t'ese +o*d s*r/%/e %f (on one dr*g *sed) " e# ;• {m%3t*re of dr*gs " e# $ 'as more 'ane of gett%ng r%d of {a " more$

(stra%ns " t&es " e#) " e# ;• referene to dr*gs *sed toget'er bea*se of m*tat%on ;• referene to ra&%d rate of m*tat%on ;• referene to ra&%d rate of {m*t%&%at%on " e#$ of /%r*s ;

+ormation of new virus inside the host cell• referene to snt'es%s of 8N4 ;

• *s%ng 'ost e {enmes " named enme " (8N4) n*eot%des$ ;• referene to snt'es%s of (/%ra) &rote%ns ;• *s%ng 'ost e {enmes " named enme " am%no a%ds " r%bosomes "

t8N4 " 4TP$ ;• referene to assemb of {/%r*ses " &art%es$ (%ns%de es) ;

Alcohol based hand was do not reduce transmission of virus• referene to t'e {'and +as' " ao'o$ not aAet%ng t'e /%r*s ;• referene to /%r*s {not 'a/%ng an en/eo&e " s*rro*nded b &rote%n " e#$ ;• ao'o does not {damage &rote%n oat " &enetrate$ /%r*s " e# ;


30/55

• &rote%n %s 'dro&'%% " ao'o %s an organ% so/ent " e# ;

TOPIC : 8N O8 MO8 LIE).1 *elllar respiration + the energy spply

:"idative photophosporylation• %dea of eetrons be%ng {&assed aong " e#$ t'e eetron trans&ort 'a%n ;• %dea of {os%ng " e#$ energ ;• (*sed to) add a &'os&'ate to 4DP to ma!e 4TP " e# ;• referene to 4TPase ;• %dea of 'em%osmos%s ;• %dea of o3gen as t'e na ae&tor ;

;reb&s cycle• %dea t'at t'e f*e %s from metabo% &roesses eg from gos%s . from

&r*/ate ;• arbon om&o*nd (acetyl coen'yme A / acetyl coA) ;•

%dea t'at t'%s %s added to a - arbon om&o*nd to form a ? arbonom&o*nd (citric acid) ;• %dea t'at arbon d%o3%de reeased d*r%ng Urebs e ;• {'drogens " &rotons " e#$ remo/ed ;• atta'ed to N4D " *sed to red*e N4D " format%on of N4DH;• ref to red*t%on of 4D " format%on of 4DH, ;• referene to format%on of 4TP ;• %dea of regenerat%on of t'e - arbon om&o*nd ;• %dea t'at o3gen *sed %n format%on of +ater ;

8aintainance of high conc of (< in the intermembrane space ofmitochondria

•

(H7 %ons) from red*ed N4D " e# ;• H7 %ons &*m&ed %nto %nter membrane s&ae " e# ;• referene to energ needed (for &*m&) " e# ;• referene to mo/ement of eetrons aong ETC "e#;• (ETC on) %nner membrane " r%stae;

Role of (< ion conc gradient in making available accessible supply ofenergy for biological processes

• (H7 %ons) from red*ed N4D " e# ;• H7 %ons &*m&ed %nto %nter membrane s&ae " e# ;• referene to energ needed (for &*m&) " e# ;• referene to mo/ement of eetrons aong ETC "e#;

• (ETC on) %nner membrane " r%stae;'ncrease in breathing rate in an atmosphere with hight carbon dio"ideconc

• onentrat%on of arbon d%o3%de %n t'e {a/eo% " *ngs " e#$ %s '%g'er " e# ;• onentrat%on of arbon d%o3%de %n t'e bood %s '%g'er " e# ;• %dea of &H of bood fas (d*e to %nreased CO,)) ;• (CO, " &H e/es %n bood) deteted b 'emoree&tors %n {arot%d bod "

arot%d arter " aort% bod " aorta " med*a$ ;• %n {arot%d bod " arot%d arter " aort% bod " aorta$ ;


31/55

• referene to {/ent%at%on " res&%rator$ entre ;• %dea of ontro %s %n med*a ;• sends{ more " e#$ %m&*ses aong {ne*rones " ner/es$ ;• to %nterostas m*ses " d%a&'ragm ;

Reduction of -:= conc in blood when in environment with low -:= conc• (%n'aed) a%r 'as a o+er CO, ;• %dea t'at t'e CO, onentrat%on %n bood %s '%g'er t'an %n t'e {a/eo% "

*ngs " e#$ ;• (so) CO, mo/%ng {do+n onentrat%on grad%ent " o*t of bood$ " e# ;• CO, ost (to atmos&'ere) t'ro*g' {e3'a%ng " breat'%ng " /ent%at%on " e#$ ;

+unction of en3ymes in respiration• Idea an enme on/erts a named s*bstrate %nto named &rod*t ( ACCEPT

re% to an en'yme con&erting one named intermediate to the ne)t e*g*+en'yme/ named en'yme, used to con&ert he)ose to phosphorylatedhe)ose) ;

•

%dea t'at t'%s &rod*t beomes t'e s*bstrate of ne3t ste& ;• %dea of s&e%%t ( ACCEPT description o% speci-city e*g* acti&e site o%

en'yme only accepts certain substance or in conte)t o% named respiratoryintermediate ) ;

• {ontros " e#$ t'e on/ers%on " e# ;• s&eeds *& t'e on/ers%on " e# ;• b red*%ng at%/at%on energ " e# ;• red%t referene to ontro of +'oe &roess ;

Role of en3yme in glycolysis• %dea of a d%Aerent enme for ea' ste& ;• (+'%') on/erts one %ntermed%ate %nto t'e ne3t e1g1 enme = on/erts

DH4P to ,0P9 " e# ;• %dea t'at t'%s &rod*t beomes t'e s*bstrate of t'e ne3t {stage"enme$ ;• %dea of s&e%%t ;• {ontros"reg*ates" e#$ t'e on/ers%on " e# ;• {s&eeds *& " atases$ t'e on/ers%on " e# ;• b o+er%ng t'e at%/at%on energ " e# ;• %dea t'at &r*/ate on &rod*ed %f a enmes at%/e ;

+ormation of *AD< from *AD• (d*e to) red*ed N4D {reeas%ng"e#$ {eetrons " e#$ ;• Idea of eetrons go to {arr%er 4 " ETC " e#$ ;• %dea of H7 mo/ed %nto %nter0membrana s&ae ;

Role of (< ion in forming AT!• d*e to H7 &ass t'ro*g' {sta!ed &art%e " 4TP snt'ase$ ;• (H7 &asses) do+n an eetro'em%a grad%ent ;• (s*B%ent) energ %s {reeased " e#$ ;• to o%n 4DP and {P% " e#$ ;• referene to 'em%osmos%s ;

Role of electron carriers in 2T-• d%ret%on of eetron mo/ement desr%bed " e# ;• referene to o3%dat%on " red*t%on ;


32/55

• %dea of reeas%ng energ ;• %dea t'at t'%s %s *sed to &*m& t'e {H7 " 'drogen %ons"&rotons$ ;• from t'e matr%3 " %nto t'e s&ae bet+een t'e %nner and o*ter m%to'ondr%a

membrane


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Role of stalk particle in respiration• referene to {H7 2o+s t'ro*g' {str*t*re V " e#$ " 'em%osmos%s$ " e# ;• do+n eetro'em%a grad%ent " e# ;• (s*B%ent) energ %s {reeased " e#$ to ;• ao+ {4DP 7 P% to o%n " 4TP to form$ ;

(ow energy is released from muscles without having enough o"ygen

available for muscles• %dea t'at energ obta%ned from 4TP ;• %dea t'at 4TP aread %n m*se es e1g1 4TP store ;• 4TP from {gos%s" s*bstrate e/e &'os&'orat%on" e#$ ;• %dea t'at gos%s &rod*es 4TP {ra&%d " e#$ ;• %dea t'at some {aerob% res&%rat%on " e#$ d*e to some o3gen &resent ;• gos%s o*rs %n to&asm " e# ;• %dea of need to ree N4D7 ;• %dea t'at &r*/ate %s on/erted to atate ;• referene to anaerob% res&%rat%on ;• %dea of atate toerane ;•

referene to fast t+%t' {m*se " bres$ ;• referene to {reat%ne &'os&'ate " e#$ ;

2ect of lactate build#up on muscle contraction• (atate b*%d *&) a*ses {dro& %n &H " more a%d% " %nrease H7 "e#$ ;• %dea of t'%s aAets enme {at%/%t " s'a&e " e#$ ;• t'%s so+s do+n {gos%s " 4TP &rod*t%on " anaerob% res&%rat%on " e#$ ;• referene to m*se ontrat%ons be%ng aAeted ;

+ate of lactate• referene to atate %n t'e bood " e# ;• {trans&orted to " bro!en do+n %n " e#$ %/er ;• atate %s {on/erted to &r*/ate " e#$ ;

• t'%s %n/o/es {o3%dat%on " &rod*t%on of red*ed N4D " e#$ ;• &r*/ate %s t'en {o3%d%sed " e#$ ;• referene to Urebs e ;• {t'%s re#*%res e3tra o3gen " referene o3gen debt$ " e# ;• %dea t'at arbon d%o3%de and +ater are &rod*ed ;

Using spirometer to compare tidal volume and breathing rate of maleand female

• %dea of a%brat%on for /o*me ;• %dea of a%brat%on for t%me ;• desr%&t%on of 'o+ to a*ate t%da /o*me (from trae) " e# ;• %dea t'at one &ea! one breat' ;

• referene to breat'%ng rate %s n*mber of &ea!s &er m%n*te ;• %dea of standard%sed gro*& of maes and femaes e1g1 same age. non0

smo!ers ;• %dea t'at traes ta!en at rest ;• referene to re&%ates ;• desr%&t%on of 'o+ to a*ate t'e mean from t'e trae ;


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).2 (scle and movement-ruciate ligament

• {%n t'e !nee " be'%nd t'e !nee a&$ "{ross0 s'a&ed " t+o %gaments$ ;• (onnet%/e t%ss*e t'at) onnets bone to bone " e# ;

Adv of keyhole surgery• %dea of smaer %n%s%on red*es 'ane of %nfet%on " e# ;• %dea of smaer %n%s%on red*es reo/er t%me ;• %dea of smaer %n%s%on red*es %!e%'ood of osteoart'r%t%s " !nee o%nt

re&aement ater " e# ;• %dea of smaer %n%s%on so ess sar t%ss*e " e# ;• ess damage (to t%ss*e) " e# ;• %dea of smaer %n%s%on so ess bood oss " e# ;• %dea of smaer %n%s%on so ess &a%n " e# ;• *se of oa anaest'et% means ess (asso%ated) r%s! " e# ;• %dea of ess anaest'et% needed ;• so%a benet e1g1 more &at%ents an be treated ;• %dea of 'ea&er reated to fe+er staA needed ;

%hy muscles occur in antagonistic pairs• %dea t'at m*ses annot e3tend t'emse/es ;• need o&&os%ng m*se to e3tend " e# ;• antagon%st% m*se ao+s ontro (of mo/ement) " e# ;

Role of calcium ions and AT! in muscle contraction• referene to {/es%es " t0t*b*es " saro&asm% ret%**m$ onta%n a%*m

%ons ;• {b%nds " e#$ to tro&on%n ;• tro&omos%n mo/es e3&os%ng b%nd%ng s%tes " e# ;• for mos%n "e# ;• needs 4TP to remo/e a%*m %ons " e# ;• 4TP &ro/%des energ for 'ang%ng s'a&e of mos%n " e# ;• 4TP %s re#*%red to {brea! ross br%dges " e#$ ;• 4TP for snt'es%s of ne*rotransm%tter " e# ;

2g of neurotransmitter binds to receptorsaet'o%ne " {noradrena%ne " e# $ ; (ACCEPT . ACh noradrenalinnorepinephrine$'nteraction between troponin and tropomyosin during musclecontraction

• {Ca,7 " a%*m %ons$ b%nd to tro&on%n ;• tro&on%n {'anges s'a&e " mo/es " e#$ ;• t'%s d%s&aes tro&omos%n (a+a from mos%n) " e# ;

%hy tendons need to be inelastic• (tendons) atta' m*se to bone " e# ;• do not stret' +'en m*se ontrats " a fore transferred to bone " e# ;• so {bone " s!eeton $ %s mo/ed " e# ;

+unction of ligament{'od " atta'es " e#$ bones toget'er " e# ;%dea t'at st% ao+s mo/ement (at t'e o%nt) " e# ;


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8aterial from ligament can be used to 5oin damaged tendon> why therecovery would be slow and require careful physiotherapy

• omment on t%me needed for re&a%r " e# ;• referene to d%Aerene %n om&os%t%on of {%gament and tendon$ e1g1

%gament 'as more east% bres . tendon %s %neast%. tendon %s ess 2e3%be ;• %dea of need to (grad*a) stret' re&a%red t%ss*e ;


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).3 "he heart energy and e,ercise-hanges in heart to bring about increase in cardiac output

• 'eart rate %nreases " e# ;• {stro!e /o*me " e#$ %nreases " e# ;• {S4N "e#$ at%/%t %nreases " ;• 4N t%me dea dereases " e# ;

• %dea t'at more bood ret*rn%ng (to t'e 'eart) a*ses {'eart " m*se$ tostret' ;

• %dea t'at /entr%es ontrat +%t' greater fore6ariables which may aect breathing rates=1 'o+ often t'e &a ,1 age 1 bod s%e " GKI " e# -1 gender " e# 51 tnesse/e " e# ?1 'eat' stat*s " e# 1 %feste e1g1 smo!er or s+%mmer ;oss of heat from skin

• %dea more bood 2o+s near t'e s!%n s*rfae " e# ;• d*e to {/asod%at%on " d%at%on of arter%oes " e#$ ;• {/asoonstr%t%on " e#$ of s'*nt /esses " e# ;• more bood to a&%ar%es " e# ;

• %dea of more 'eat ost ;• /%a rad%at%on ;

Role of $*A in controlling hertbeats• {%n%t%ates " e#$ 'eartbeat " e# ;• (starts) +a/e of e3%tat%on " de&oar%sat%on ;• {determ%nes " e#$ 'eart rate ;

Aect of cardiovascular centre in medullar oblongata on $A* duringe"ercise

• {%nreased " e#$ %m&*ses to S4N " e# ;• (/%a) sm&at'et% {ner/o*s sstem " e# $ ;• st%m*ates more fre#*ent de&oar%sat%on %n S4N " e# ;• %nreases {'eart rate " ard%a o*t&*t$ "e# ;

2ect of ectopic beat on heart activity 01213452C• 'anges {eetr%a at%/%t " de&oar%sat%on$ of 'eart " e# ;• &ea! %s re/ersed " e# ;• %dea t'at &ea! %s ear%er t'an e3&eted ;• no 'ange %n &ress*re %n &*monar arter ;• (bea*se) %tte bood %n /entr%es ;• m%ssed norma +a/e after E " onger ga& before ne3t +a/e " e# ;• m%ssed (eAet%/e) ontrat%on after E ;• ear de&oar%sat%on ea/es /entr%e %nsens%t%/e ;• %dea t'at t'e +a/e of de&oar%sat%on %s &re/ented ;• referene to refrator &er%od " e# ;

2-)• %dea t'at %t s'o+s {+a/es " 'eart rate " 'eart r't'm $ ;• %dea t'at t'ese are +a/es of eetr%a at%/%t %n t'e {'eart " s!%n$ ;• o/er a &er%od of t%me " d*r%ng ard%a e " e# ;


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Using spirometer to calculate men breathing rate• %dea t'at one breat' %s &ea! to &ea! or tro*g' to tro*g' ;• %dea of o*nt t'e n*mber of &ea!s or tro*g's %n a set t%me ;• n*mber &er m%n*te " e# ;• %dea of re&et%t%on to obta%n a mean or %m&ro/e re%ab%%t ;

Temperature regulation in human•

t'ermoree&tors %n '&ot'aam*s " e# ;• detet t'e %nrease %n (ore) bood tem&erat*re " e# ;• referene to 'eat oss entre at%/ated ;• referene to a*tonom% ner/o*s sstem ;• referene to %m&*ses do+n motor ne*rones ;• to {eAetors " named eAetor$ " e# ;• deta% of met'od of 'eat oss " e# ;

Temperature regulation in hot environment• ref to {detet%on of tem&erat*re 'ange " tem&erat*re ree&tors$ ;• referene '&ot'aam*s ;• more s+eat%ng " e# ;•

oss of 'eat d*e to e/a&orat%on (of +ater) " e# ;• /asod%at%on (of arter%oes) " e# ;• oss of rad%ant 'eat " e# ;• 'eat ga%ned e#*a 'eat ost " e# ;• referene negat%/e feedba! ;• be'a/%o*ra 'eat oss me'an%sm desr%bed " e# ;

(ow shivering raise body temperature• (s'%/er%ng) %s m*se ontrat%on ;• +'%' *ses {res&%rat%on " 4TP " e#$ ;• +'%' reease 'eat (to +arm bod) " e# ;

'ncrease in blood ,ow is brought about by noradrenaline

• eAet on 'eart desr%bed e1g1 %nrease 'eart rate " %nreased ard%ao*t&*t ;

• %dea of ats as ne*rotransm%tter" eAet on s%tes of ontro e1g1 %nreasedS4N at%/%t. e3%tator entre. sm&at'et% ner/es ;

• %dea of /asod%at%on ;• %nrease %n bood &ress*re " e# ;

8yogenic• %dea t'at st%m*at%on generated from +%t'%n (m*se) e1g1 no e3terna

st%m*at%on ;• %dea of br%ngs abo*t de&oar%sat%on ;


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-oordination of muscular contraction in heart• referene to {S%noatr%a node " S4N$ ;• %n%t%ates de&oar%sat%on " e# ;• &asses t'ro*g' (+a of) atr%a " e# ;• a*ses atr%a {sstoe " e#$ ;• 4N ond*ts to /entr%es " e# ;•

referene to {P*r!ne bres " b*nde of H%s$ ;• /entr%*ar {sstoe " e#$ foo+s (from a&e3) " e# ;• atr%o/entr%*ar /a/es osed (and &re/ent 2o+ to atr%a) ;• sem%*nar /a/es o&ened b &ress*re " e# ;• bood fored %nto arter%es " e# ;• 'anged &ress*re %n {d%astoe " e#$ oses sem%*nar /a/es ;


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).4 Health- e,ercise and spport2thical positions on whether to ban performance enhancing drugs

• %dea t'at (abso*t%sts) sa dr*gs s'o*d not be *sed at an t%me ;• s'o*d not ao+ at'etes to be &ress*red %nto *s%ng dr*gs ;• r%s! to 'eat' " e# ;• ga%n *nfa%r ad/antage " e# ;

• ot'er 'armf* s*bstanes banned " e# ;• b*rden on are ser/%es " e# ;• %dea t'at (reat%/%sts) sa t'at dr*gs o*d be *sed *nder some

%r*mstanes ;• %dea t'at t'e o*d be *sed for med%at%on ;• dr*gs (%n t'e bod) an be d%B*t to eg%sate for " e# ;• 6hich substances are banned (notes %rom te)t book p2789$: Anabolic

steroids hormones and their releasing %actors beta0 agonists hormoneagonists diuretics blood dropping gene dropping stimulants narcoticsbeta blockers


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TOPIC : 98EM K4TTE8.1 Sensitivity in plant'AA and growth of shoot

• I44s d%A*se {do+n " o*t of agar " to one of eongat%on$ " e# (ACCEPT a;ay %rom the light$ ;

• referene to e eongat%on " e# ;• deta%s of e eongat%on " e# ;• s'oot bends to t'e s%de +%t' ess I44 " e# ;

'AA stimulates synthesis of protein• %dea t'at I44 enters t'e e ;• referene to mo/ement +%t'%n e " I44 %n to&asm to n*e*s ;• eAet +'en b%nds to transr%&t%on fator e1g1 forms a transr%&t%on %n%t%at%on

om&e3 or o*nter%ng an %n'%b%tor ;• referene to s+%t'%ng on gene ;•

at%/%t at &romoter reg%on " e# ;• ao+s format%on of (m)8N4 " e# ;• %dea of transat%on &rod*es &rote%n

!hototropism • %g't a*ses {red%str%b*t%on " e#$ of {a*3%n " I44 " e#$ ;• '%g' onentrat%on {a+a from %g't " %n bo! G$ " e# ;• (a*3%n " e#) d%A*ses (do+n) %nto s'oot ;• st%m*ates e eongat%on " e# ;• desr%&t%on of 'ange %n e e1g1 fe+er ross %n!s %n e*ose. e +a more

&ast%. a%d%at%on. st%m*at%on of enme &rod*t%on. /a*oat%on ;• {s%de a+a from " e#$ %g't onger " e# ;

!hototropism vs hormonal response in animals• bot' 'em%a " e# ;• bot' trans&orted a+a from &rod*t%on s%te " e# ;• om&ar%son of me'an%sm of trans&ort desr%bed e1g1 d%A*s%on %n &ants.

bood sstem %n an%mas ;• s&eed of at%on om&ared e1g1 so+er %n &ants. some an%ma 'ormones are

faster ;• d*rat%on of eAet om&ared e1g1 some an%ma 'ormones 'a/e a s'orter

term eAet ;• %dea t'at t'%s &ant res&onse %n/o/es {gro+t' " e eongat%on$ on e1g1

an%ma 'ormones do not *st aAet gro+t' ;•

om&ar%son of st%m*% ;1enet of plant being able to respond to changes in day length• %dea of {2o+er%ng " de/eo&ment "e#$ 'a&&ens at t'e r%g't t%me ;• t'erefore 2o+ers +'en %nsets a/a%abe " eaf fa %n a*t*mn " same s&e%es

2o+er at t'e same t%me " seeds germ%nate at t'e r%g't t%me " e# ;• %dea t'at da engt' 'anges to a set &attern e1g1 a+as {s'ort das %n

+%nter " ong das %n s*mmer$ ;• om&ar%son +%t' ot'er ess reg*ar st%m*% e1g1 tem&erat*re ;


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.2 How nervos system works2vents occurs in synaps after release of neurotransmitters

• d%A*ses aross {ga& "e#$ ;• b%nds to (ree&tors on) &ost0sna&t% membrane " e# ;• %dea of gated0'annes o&en%ng or Na7 tra/es t'ro*g' &ost0 sna&t%

membrane ;

• a*s%ng a de&oar%sat%on " e# ;• (%f s*B%ent &resent) an at%on &otent%a %s set *& %n {&ost0 sna&t%

membrane"adaent e " e#$ ;• deta%s s*' as tem&ora or s&at%a s*mmat%on ;• %dea t'at ao+s oord%nat%on " one +a 2o+ of %nformat%on ;• %dea t'at %t ao+s %ntegrat%on %n &ost0sna&t% e ;• ne*rotransm%tter bro!en do+n (b enme) " e# ;• so t'at do not get {&roonged "e#$ at%on &otent%a %n &ost0 sna&t%

membrane " ma!e ree&tors a/a%abe aga%n ;• red%t referene to fate of &rod*ts e1g1 reabsorbed t'ro*g' &re0sna&t%

membrane O8 to be re snt'es%sed %nto ne*rotransm%tter s*bstane ;

*eurotransmitter• %dea t'at %t omes from &re0sna&t% ne*rone e1g1 from /es%es t'at b%nd to

&re0sna&t% membrane ;• %t d%A*ses {aross t'e sna&t% ga& " e#$ ;• %dea t'at %t {aAets " e#$ &ost0sna&t%{ ne*rone " membrane$ ; (ACCEPT

receptors depolarises initiate action potential e#ect on Na+ ions /channels ,

2vents that begin depolarisation of neurone membrane• de&oar%sat%on of adaent {membrane " e#$ " e# ;• 'anges PD aross membrane " e# ;• o&ens sod%*m {gates " e#$ ;• sod%*m %ons mo/e %nto (t'e ne*rone) ;

During action potential • orret {referene to " desr%&t%on of$ d%A*s%on grad%ent of sod%*m %ons

('%g't Na7%on on o*ts%de and '%g' U 7%on on %ns%de t'e a3on) ;• %dea t'at &ermeab%%t of membrane to Na7 %nreases ;• Na7 {'annes " gates$ o&en ;• deta% of 'annes e1g1 {/otage0gated " /otage0de&endent$ 'annes.

at%/at%on gate o&ened;• Na7 mo/e %nto ne*rone ;• t'ro*g' d%A*s%on " do+n t'e {onentrat%on"e#$ grad%ent ;• st%m*ates more Na7 'annes to o&en " ref to &os%t%/e feedba! ;• %dea t'at &d %s &os%t%/e bea*se of e3ess {Na7 " e#$ %ns%de ne*rone ;

After action potential• orret {referene to " desr%&t%on of$ d%A*s%on grad%ent (of &otass%*m

%ons) ;• orret {referene to " desr%&t%on of$ eetro'em%a grad%ent (more

&os%t%/e %ns%de t'e a3on) ;• %nreased &ermeab%%t (of membrane) to &otass%*m %ons " e# ;• referene to &otass%*m {gates " e#$ o&en " e# ;• referene to sod%*m {gates " e#$ osed " e#


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(ow does hyperpolarised membrane returns normal• PD ess negat%/e " e#• %dea t'at t'e membrane rema%ns &ermeabe to &otass%*m %ons ;• &otass%*m %ons {mo/e bea*se of 'arge d%Aerene " e#$ ;• %nto {ner/e e " ne*rone " a3on " e#$ ;• %dea t'at &otass%*m %on %s remo/%ng a &os%t%/e 'arge (from t'e o*ts%de) ;•

%dea t'at e#*%%br%*m %s estab%s'ed e1g1 d%A*s%on grad%ent baaned b&otent%a d%Aerene ;8yelination increases speed of nerves transmission

• {ne*rone (e) s*rfae membrane e3&osed " no me%nat%on " e#$ at nodesof 8an/%er ;

• Nodes are t'e s%te of *sters of {sod%*m0gated 'anne &rote%ns "&otass%*m 'annes$ ;

• W'%' {o&en " ose$ +'en %m&*se arr%/es " e# (%n2*3 of sod%*m %ons);• 4o+%ng de&oar%sat%on at nodes " e# ;• %dea t'at me%n"e# ats as an (eetr%a) %ns*ator (on ne*rone s*rfae

bet+een nodes) ;•

referene to S'+ann e ;• %dea t'at %m&*se"de&oar%sat%on X*m&s to ne3t node ;• 8eferene to t'%s be%ng satator ond*t%on ;• %dea t'at t'%s 'a&&ens bet+een t'e me%n aers of t'e S'+ann e ;

Role of the myelin layers of $chwann cells• referene to (eetr%a) %ns*at%on " e# ;• referene to de&oar%sat%on at nodes ;• %m&*se *m&s from node to node " e# ;• satator ond*t%on ;• referene to faster ond*t%on ;

(ow structure of a"on cell membrane is related to the conduction of

nerve impulses• %dea t'at &'os&'o%&%d restr%ts %on mo/ement " e# ;• &rote%ns s&an t'e membrane " e# ;• %dea t'at sod%*m &otass%*m &*m& mo/es %ons " e# ;• (&rote%n) {gates " 'annes$ ao+ {d%A*s%on " mo/ement$ of %ons " e# ;

$$R' to reduce depression• %dea t'at seroton%n not reabsorbed O8 SS8I b%nds to re*&ta!e &rote%ns ;• referene to{ sna&se " sna&t% eft$ ;• %dea t'at t'ere %s a '%g' e/e of seroton%n ;• %dea t'at seroton%n ont%n*es to 'a/e an eAet e1g1 seroton%n ont%n*es to

b%nd to ree&tors %n &ost sna&t% membrane ;

(ow 8D8A could reduce levels of serotonin in the brain• referene to {'%g'er e/es of " more$ seroton%n " e# ;• referene to sna&se " e# ;• {%n'%b%ts " e#$ reabsor&t%on (%nto ne*rone) " e# ;• ma re/erse &*m&s to reease more seroton%n " e# ;

2ect of light on rhodopsin• r'odo&s%n {s&%ts " bea'es " brea!do+n " e#$ ;• %nto o&s%n and (trans0)ret%na ;• %dea of a 'ange %n s'a&e of ret%na " %s0 ret%na %nto trans0 ret%na ;


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2ect when visual corte" of one eye is covered for ?st few weeks afterbirth

• (a! of st%m**s"%g't %n r%g't ee meant t'at){ fe+er %m&*ses " ess r%ng "e#$ to {/%s*a orte3 " target es " o*ar o*mns " e#$ ;

• ess ne*rotransm%tter reeased " e# ;• sna&ses {+ea!ened " ost " destroed " %nat%/e " e#$ ;•

ne*rones for r%g't ee ost " e# ;• %dea t'at ne*rones for eft ee de/eo& ;• {e " o*ar$ o*mns {smaer for r%g't ee " arger for eft ee $ ;

(ow light changes voltage across cell surface membrane of rod cell• referene to %g't %ntens%t re#*%red " e# ;• %g't {absorbed " e#$ b r'odo&s%n " e# ;• r'odo&s%n 'anges s'a&e " e# ;• r'odo&s%n %s on/erted to ret%na 4ND o&s%n " e# ;• o&s%n b%nds +%t' e s*rfae membrane " e# ;• %dea of fe+er {sod%*m %ons "Na7$ enter rod e ;• %dea of sod%*m %ons &*m&ed o*t of rod e ;•

'&er&oar%sat%on o*rs (ead%ng to 'ange %n /otage) " e# ;%hy change in voltage across rod cell may not lead an action potential inoptic nerve

• %dea of not eno*g' {r'odo&s%n %s on/erted "o&s%n b%nds to membrane$ ;• (so) 'ange %n /otage %s %ns*B%ent " e# ;• %dea of { ne*rotransm%tter " g*tamate$ st% reeased (from rod e) ;• %dea t'at de&oar%sat%on %n b%&oar ne*rone %ns*B%ent ;• %dea of b%&oar ne*rone aread de&oar%sed ;

!upil is black because{&%gment " e#$ at ba! of ee absorbs %g't " no %g't %s re2eted o*t (from t'e'oro%d) ;

%hy circular and radial muscles need to be antagonistic• %r*ar m*ses ontrat (and rad%a m*ses rea3) to {onstr%t " e#$

&*&% ;• rad%a m*ses ontrat (and %r*ar m*ses rea3) to {d%ate " e#$ &*&% ;• need for ne ontro of a&ert*re to ao+ &*&% to be reset to a d%Aerent

s%e " ao+ 'ang%ng to ta!e ao*nt of /ar%ng %g't %ntens%t ;• (t'ese) m*ses an on s'orten " e# ;• antagon%st% m*ses 'a/e o&&os%te eAets " e# ;• %dea t'at ontrat%on of one m*se set stret'es t'e ot'er ;

(ow neurones enable increasing diameter of pupil in dim light• deta%s of %m&*se e1g1 de&oar%sat%on " e# ;

• referene to b%&oar {ne*rone " e " e#$ ;• referene to sensor ne*rone " e# ;• referene to o&t% ner/e ;• referene to {motor " e#$ ne*rone onneted to (rad%a) m*ses ;• referene to ontrat%on of rad%a m*se ;

(ow deciency of vitamin A aects person&s vision• ret%no (a %orm o% &itamin A) and ret%na are /er s%m%ar %n str*t*re " e# ;• %dea of ret%no %s needed to ma!e ret%na " e# ;• %dea t'at s'ortage of ret%no %n d%et eads to ess ret%na ;


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• %n rods ;• %dea t'at t'%s eads to red*ed /%s%on %n {o+ %g't " at n%g't " e#

2thical issues on using animals for medical trial• +% fee &a%n " r*e " an%mas 'a/e r%g'ts " not g%/en t'e%r onsent " a*ses

{damage " 'arm " b%ndness " stress$ " e# ;• (rat%ona%st /%e+) o/era good s'o*d o*t+e%g' 'arm (to an%mas) ;•

(abso*t%st /%e+) a *se (of an%mas) *nae&tabe ;• %dea of as fe+ an%mas as &oss%be *sed %n t'e tr%a ;• +efare of an%mas s'o*d be %m&ortant " e# ;

$teps need to be taken before a treatment could be used for humans• test {sma sam&e " e#$ {for safet " of 'eat' %nd%/%d*as$ " e# ;• arge sam&e of {&at%ents " tested for eAet%/eness$ " e# ;• referene to %n%a tr%as on {=JJJs " arger sam&e$ ;• referene to do*be b%nd {tr%as "tests$ ;• referene to &aebo ;• %dea of re&resentat%/e sam&e e1g1 ta!e %nto ao*nt se3. age ;

%hy treatment might not restore vision in people who have been blind

from an early age• Idea t'at a! of (/%s*a) st%m*at%on %m%ts bra%n de/eo&ment ;• Idea t'at t'%s d*e to of a! of onnet%ons ;• +%t'%n t'e {/%s*a orte3 " e#$ " e# ;• Idea t'at t'e bra%n annot %nter&ret t'%s /%s*a %nformat%on orret " e# ;• referene to r%t%a {&er%od " +%ndo+$ ;• %dea t'at m%e are d%Aerent from '*mans ;

!ain reduction by eugenol (a drug inhibits movement of Na+ and Ca2+ ion), referring -a=+

• {red*ed " e#$ Ca,7 enters { &resna&t% membrane " %nto sensor ne*rone$;

• d*e to Ca,

7 'anne not o&en%ng " dereased sens%t%/%t of membrane toCa,7 ;

• fe+er /es%es {mo/e to+ards " f*se$ +%t' &resna&t% membrane ;• ess ne*rotransm%tter {reeased %nto " ess d%A*ses aross$ {sna&t% ga& "

e#$ ;• ess ne*rotransm%tter b%nds to ree&tors on {&ost0sna&t% membrane "

adaent ne*rone$ ;• %dea of red*ed de&oar%sat%on " ess Na7 or at%on 'annes o&en ;• %dea of { t'res'od %ntens%t " at%on &otent%a " %m&*se$ ess %!e to

o*r ;• %dea of &a%n not be%ng sensed as %m&*se {sto&&ed before enter%ng CNS "

ea/%ng t'e sensor ne*rone$ ;(ow eugenol aects the movement of sodium ions and reduces pain7

• '%g'er onentrat%on of Na7 o*ts%de of ne*rone " e# ;• sod%*m %ons mo/e %n a*s%ng a de&oar%sat%on " e# ;• e*geno ma aAet { Na7 " /otage0de&endent$ gates " e# ;• e*geno red*es %n2*3 of Na7 " e# ;• (so) de&oar%sat%on ess %!e to o*r " e# ;• no %m&*se transm%tted aong ne*rone " e# ;• %dea of no transm%ss%on to ne3t ne*rone ;


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• %dea of &a%n not be%ng sensed as %m&*se sto&&ed before enter%ng CNS ;


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(abituation• '%g' fre#*en of %m&*ses " e# ;• {de&etes "e#$ ne*rotransm%tter " e# ;• a%*m %on 'annes do not o&en " are ess res&ons%/e " e# ;• referene to sna&se " sna&t% {membrane " !nob " e# $ ;• (&ost sna&t%) membrane not de&oar%sed " e# ;•

%m&*ses do not rea' g% " e# ;1enet of habituation• a/o%ds +asted {eAort " t%me " reso*res " e#$ " e# ;• to {non0t'reaten%ng " *n%m&ortant " e#$ st%m**s " e# ;• referene to nat*ra fre#*ent st%m*% e1g1 +a/e at%on ;


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.3 /rains and behavior(ow -T scan helps doctors to determine appropriate treatment

• nat*re of abnorma%t e1g1 beed%ng. ref1 to dens%t ;• {oat%on " e#$ of abnorma%t ;• {e3tent " s%e" e#$ of abnorma%t ;• %!e &robems e1g1 aess%b%%t for s*rger ;

Using f8R' in investigating brain function• detets e/e of o3genat%on of t'e bood "meas*res 'anges %n bood 2o+

+%t'%n bra%n " e# ;• {%nreased 2o+ " more o3gen " e#$ s*ggests %nreased at%/%t " e# ;• st*d bra%n at%/%t reated to {st%m*% " tas!s " e#$ ;

-T vs 8R'• %dea of om&arat%/e %mage ar%t (%mage reso*t%on {'%g'er %n K8I " o+er %n

CT$ " K8I oAers more deta%);• CT t'erefore an on %dent%f {arger " ma%n$ str*t*res " K8I an %dent%f

smaer str*t*res " e# ;• 8eferene to t%ss*e %dent%ed " e# ;

• K8I *ses {rad%o +a/es " magnet% ed$. CT *ses V0ras " e# ;• Idea of bot' g%/e {,D " D$ %mages ;• %m%tat%on of K8I or CT (noisy need to keep still not so good %or people

;ith metal implants pacemakers CT re% to sa%ety aspects o% ?rays) ;• %dea of %mages for bot' are at one &o%nt %n t%me ;• ref to om&arat%/e ost of *se (K8I more e3&ens%/e t'an CT);

f8R' better than -T• /%e+ bra%n at%/%t d%ret " e# ( K8I %dent%es at%/e areas b greater bood

2o+. greater o3gen *&ta!e. &resene of more o3'aemogob%n %n t'eseareas) ;

• %dea of see bra%n at%/%t o/er a &er%od of t%me (see %n rea t%me. #*otes

g*res s*' as fK8I ta!es *& to - %mages a seond or mo/%ng %mage. CT %sst% %mage ) ;

• safer as does not *se V ras ;• no need to *se s&e%a des ;

(ow f8R' shows activity of brain• %dea t'at fK8I an ao+ bra%n at%/%t to be seen %n rea t%me ;• %dea t'at fK8I *ses {rad%o +a/es " magnet% ed$ ;• %nrease s*&& of o3genated bood %n at%/e areas " e# ;• t'at {re2ets"does not absorb$ fK8I s%gnas " e# ;• %dea of seen as a +'%te area ;

Tumor appears white in scans• %dea t'at t*mo*r t%ss*e d%Aers from bra%n t%ss*e ;• deta% of eAet on san e1g1 {energ so*re " magnet% ed " rad%o +a/es "

e#$ {absorbed " bo!ed " e#$$ ;• 8ef to d%Aerene %n bood s*&& ;

(ow 8R' used to investigate brain tumors• %dent%at%on of oat%on " e# ;• s%e of t*mo*r " e# ;• t&e of t*mo*r " e# ;• referene to {bood /esses " e#$ ;


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• %dea of mon%tor%ng treatment or gro+t' of t*mo*r ;+unction of cerebral hemispheres T'%n!. earn. fee emot%ons. &ersona%t. ab%%t to see. memor ;; (ACCEPT speech decision making problem sol&ing intelligence controls &oluntarybeha&iour %orming associations (combining in%ormation %rom rest o% corte)$$


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.4 /rains- genomes and medicineTransfer of D*A to bacteria to produce )8:

• referene to {restr%t%on enme " endon*ease$ ;• to *t gene o*t of an%ma DN4 ;• %dea of am&%at%on *s%ng DN4 &omerase (%n PC8) ; (enmes) o&en

&asm%d ;

• (same endon*ease) to &rod*e Xst%! ends "desr%&t%on " at seeted basese#*ene ;

• H bonds formed bet+een bases at Xst%! ends ;• %gase ;• to o%n gene to &asm%d " e# ;• referene to {&'os&'od%ester " e#$ bond ;

$tructure of modied plasmid• (sma) {%re "e#$ of DN4 ;• onta%n%ng bater%a (s*r/%/a) genes and {&rote%n " an%ma$ gene ;• mar!er gene " desr%&t%on g%/en ;

%hy )8 plant is used rather )8 bacteria to produce protein for human@

• %dea of eas%er to manage gro+t' e1g1 do not need ster%e ond%t%ons ;• %dea t'at %t %s safer (t'an bater%a) ;• %dea of more &rote%n an be made "e# ;• bater%a ma not 'a/e orret am%no a%ds to ma!e &rote%n " e# ;• %dea t'at %t o*d &rod*e ed%be dr*gs ;• %dea t'at &ants 'a/e %ntrons"bater%a do not so gene does not need

mod%f%ng ;• %dea t'at %t %s 'ea&er ;

Risks of )8:• %dea of gene transfer to ot'er {s&e%es " e#$ ;• %dea of onse#*ene of transfer e1g1 res%stane to &est%%de " ant%b%ot%s.

s*&er+eeds ;• %dea of &oss%be 'armf* eAets from genes e1g1 b%o'em%a 'anges to

s*bstanes t'at o*d at as aergens. ong term eAets of ons*m%ng ;• %dea t'at benet fo*sed on de/eo&ed o*ntr%es " on/erse ;• %dea of r%s! reated to *se of /%ra /etors ;• %dea of eAet on organ% farmers ;• %dea of eAet on nat%/e &o&*at%ons of t'e organ%sm e1g1 transfer of added

gene. om&et%t%on. red*t%on of &o&*at%on ;Transcription factor

• referene to {&rote%n " 'ormone " e#$ ;• reg*ates " s+%t' on " at%/ates " b%nds to &romoter reg%on " e# ;• a gene " aee " m8N4 snt'es%s " e# ;

8aking )8:• referene to {restr%t%on enme " named e1g1$ ;• %dea t'at gene %s remo/ed from DN4 ;• dea of a /etor %s needed e1g1 /%r*s *sed " (m%ro) &%&ette %net%on. gene

g*n. m%ro&roet%e. %&osome. &asm%d ;• %dea t'at gene %nor&orated %nto { DN4 "genome$ of t'e organ%sm ;• red%t named enme *sed to %nor&orate gene e1g1 %gase ;

(uman )enome


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a t'e {DN4 " genes " e#$ of (t'e '*man s&e%es) ;


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2thical implication of analysis of human genome• %dea of d%sr%m%nat%on e1g1 %ns*rers m%g't 'a/e aess to a &ersons DN4 "• %dea of +'o de%des +'et'er a &erson %s tested "• %dea of need for ondent%a%t "• e3&ens%/e med%a treatments m%g't be restr%ted " e# ;

(ow does human genome pro5ect help to develop drugs•

%dea t'at (H*man 9enome Proet) %dent%es aee reated to &art%*ard%sease e1g1 m*tant aee. aberrant aee ;• %dea t'at dr*g targets t'%s aee ;• aee an no onger e3&ress %tsef " e# ;• %dea of dr*g &re/ent%ng transat%on ;• %dea t'at s*' a dr*g %s more eAet%/e ;

(ow drug produced by human genome pro5ect cause melanoma to shrink only a few months

• meanoma %s aner on es &rod*%ng mean%n;• %dea t'at dr*g aAets e3&ress%on of t'e aee ;• %dea t'at &rote%n not &rod*ed ;•

%dea t'at (meanoma) es !%ed ;• %dea t'at (meanoma) es do not d%/%de ;• %dea t'at t'e are re&aed +%t' norma bod es ;• t'ro*g' m%tos%

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Short Notes on A2 Biology