Sin and the Calvinists

Mentzer Book Page i Wednesday, June 19, 2002 1:24 PM

Habent sua fata libelli

Mentzer Book Page ii Wednesday, June 19, 2002 1:24 PM

Sin and the

alvinistsMorals Control and the Consistoryin Reformed Tradition

C

Edited byRaymond A. MentzerVolume 32Sixteenth Century Essays & Studies

Copyright © 1994, 2002 Truman State University PressAll rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sin and the Calvinists : morals control and the consistory in the Reformed

tradition / edited by Raymond A. Mentzer

p. cm. — (Sixteenth century essays & studies : v. 32)

Includes bibliographical references and index

ISBN 0-940474-34-4 (alk paper) ISBN 1-931112-18-5 (paperback)

1. Reformed Church—Europe—Discipline. 2. Church Discipline—

History—16th century. 3. Christian Ethics—Europe—History—16th

century. I. Mentzer, Raymond A. II. Series.

Body set in Stone Serif 10/13

Cover art and title page by Teresa Wheeler

No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any format by any means, elec-

Nonic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage

or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Body type in Stone

Serif 10/13. The paper in this publication meets or exceeds the minimum requirements of the

American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48

(1984)

01Front Matter Page iv Wednesday, June 19, 2002 4:38 PM

Contents

Introduction

Raymond A. Mentzer

vii

Chapter 1 The First Calvinist Divorce

Robert M. Kingdon

1

Chapter 2 Reform and Supervision of Family Life in Germanyand the Netherlands

Heinz Schilling

15

Chapter 3 “The Great Difficulties One Must Bear to FollowJesus Christ”: Morality at Sixteenth-Century Nîmes

Philippe Chareyre

63

Chapter 4 Marking the Taboo: Excommunication in FrenchReformed Churches

Raymond A. Mentzer

97

Chapter 5 Social Discipline in Scotland, 1560-1610

Michael Graham

129

Chapter 6 The “Kirk By Law Established” and Origins of “TheTaming of Scotland”: Saint Andrews, 1559-1600

Geoffrey Parker

159

About the Contributors 199

Index 201

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Sin and the Calvinists

vi

Albrecht Dürer,

Adam and Even in Paradise,

ca. 1510

Mentzer Book Page vi Wednesday, June 19, 2002 1:24 PM

vii

vii

Introduction

Raymond A. Mentzer

he disciplinary dynamics within the Reformed churches of preindus-trial Europe have been the focus of considerable recent scholarship.

Historians recognize that the Reformation was far more than the transfor-mation of theological tenets or the introduction of new modes of prayerand liturgical practice. It also involved a careful reordering, delimitation,and supervision of the community. Toward this end, Calvinists every-where set extremely high standards of comportment, which they thencompelled through a kind of disciplinary tribunal known variously as theconsistory, kirk-session, or presbytery. The pastors and lay persons servingas elders and deacons met weekly to supervise the religious life of thecommunity. They had primary responsibility for ecclesiastical administra-tion, social welfare, and above all, morals control. The elementary role ofthe consistory, kirk-session, or presbytery has made it the object of intenseinterest as much for what its workings reveal about Protestant culture asfor what it can tell us about early modern society in general. Yet thenature, scope, and effect of the endeavor have not been established in anyadequate or precise fashion.

The Calvinist definition and subsequent enforcement of goodbehavior are clearly areas where comparative analysis seems appropriateand helpful. How do the offenders who appeared before the Genevan con-sistory compare, for instance, with their fellow delinquents in the GermanRhineland, the Netherlands, the French provinces, or Scotland? In whatways does the hierarchy of misdeeds vary from one part of Europe toanother? How did the pastors and elders go about punishing offendersand inculcating a sense of moral responsibility? Where did they tend toconcentrate their effort? What was the relationship of this undertaking tothe interests and authority of the state?

The six essays presented in this collection introduce the rich possi-bilities for historical research. Their geographic scope generally corre-sponds to the spread of Calvinism in western Europe, extending from

T

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Sin and the Calvinists

viii

Geneva to Germany, the Netherlands, France, and Scotland. They examinea variety of subjects and suggest a number of methodological approaches,while maintaining a focus on the Reformed consistory. Several contribu-tions explore the many complex issues surrounding marriage and familylife. Robert Kingdon discusses the first Calvinist divorce action, whichoccurred at Geneva in the mid-1540s. This sensational case suggests theinitial framework by which adultery, and later desertion, became groundsfor dissolution of the marriage bond with right of remarriage in Calvin’sGeneva. Heinz Schilling broadens the discussion of these issues in asweeping examination of Reformed control over marriage and family lifein the neighboring communities of Emden and Groningen from the mid-sixteenth through the early nineteenth centuries. Both German andDutch Calvinists developed “modern” standards for marriage. Schilling’sextensive quantitative analysis, supplemented with narrative materials,makes plain the topography of the presbytery’s supervisory endeavor toavert marital strife, discourage separation or divorce, root out concubi-nage, foster harmonious households, prevent child neglect, and regulatesexuality. Finally, all these actions took place within the context of long-term cultural change.

Philippe Chareyre furnishes a broad portrait of consistorial activityat the southern French town of Nîmes. He focuses on the consistory’sefforts to strengthen family cohesiveness, pacify the congregation, andbring an end to profane distractions. The results were mixed, particularlywhen the pastors and elders challenged popular traditions and time-hon-ored social exchanges. The use of excommunication by the consistories atNîmes and nine other French towns and villages is the subject of my owncontribution. It discusses the reasons behind exclusion from Commun-ion, the rituals for reintegration, and the ways in which people acceptedand internalized the structure of discipline.

Drawing on a rich database of nearly forty-six hundred cases fromrural as well as urban kirk-sessions, Michael Graham surveys the disciplin-ary offensive during the first half-century of the Reformation in Scotland.The findings, above all the preponderance of sexual misdeeds, are surpris-ing when set alongside the data from Germany, the Netherlands, andFrance. Graham views this apparent preoccupation with sex as a sign ofthe Kirk’s early weakness. Only later, when the ministers and eldersenjoyed a stronger position, did they gradually turn to the chastisement ofSabbath breach, “superstitious” religious practices, neighborly disputes,and the like.

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Introduction

ix

The concluding essay by Geoffrey Parker is a case study of the kirksession at St. Andrews. He stresses the deliberate yet firm acceptance ofchurch discipline, and the growth of a close beneficial relationshipbetween ecclesiastical and civil authorities. Again, the incidence of sexualwrongdoing dominates the overall pattern. And in what was surely aunique Scottish touch, the ministers and elders sentenced the worst mis-creants to the precarious “stool of repentance.”

It must also be said that national differences and regional variations,despite their importance, should not obscure the striking commonalitiesin the Calvinist attempt to discipline the community. The convergenciesand affinities affirm the fact that, amid diverse localized circumstances,the Calvinist tradition displayed a remarkable unity of purpose and proce-dure. The development underscores the strongly international characterof Calvinism and the adaptability of its polity and institutions.

Finally, I would like to thank a number of people for their assistancein the planning and preparation of this volume. Geoffrey Parker first sug-gested the collection, and provided encouragement throughout. StephenBurnett prepared a fine translation of Heinz Schilling’s article. MiralGamradt and Richard Wojtowicz helped to design and produce the moreintricate of the many tables and graphs. Mary Bolhuis clarified manydetails regarding Reformed belief and practice. The individual contribu-tors, however, deserve the most credit, for in the end this project is theirs.

Mentzer Book Page ix Wednesday, June 19, 2002 1:24 PM

Albrecht Dürer,

Husband Trampling His Cheeky Wife

Mentzer Book Page x Wednesday, June 19, 2002 1:24 PM

About the Contributors

Philippe Chareyre is maître de conférence at the University of Pau.

Michael Graham is Professor of History at the University of Akron.

Robert M. Kingdon is Hilldale Professor emeritus of History, University ofWisconsin-Madison

Raymond A. Mentzer is the Daniel J. Krumm Family Professor in ReformationStudies at the School of Religion, University of Iowa.

Geoffrey Parker is Robert A. Lovett Professor of Military and Naval History,Yale University.

Heinz Schilling is Professor of History at the Humboldt University, Berlin.

Mentzer Book Page 199 Wednesday, June 19, 2002 1:24 PM

201

Index

A

Abandonment, 37Aberdeen, 132, 139, 142Abuse, marital, 2Administration, 176Adultery.

See also

Fornicationof Benoite Ameaux, 4–5, 8and civil law, 6consequences of, 105–109as grounds for divorce, 25, 45in Nimes, 72–73punishment for, 4–5, 10, 11, 54, 102at Saint Andrews, 179–180

Ameaux, Benoite, 1, 3–11Ameaux, Pierre, 1, 3–11Announcements, marriage, 29, 70Anstruther Wester, 137–142

passim

Apostasy, 108–110Appearance, 86–87

B

Baduel, Claude, 63Banishment, 66, 76, 181, 182Banning.

See

ExcommunicationBanns, marriage, 29, 70Baptism, 120Bédarieux, 100–126

passim

Behavior, control and modification of, 85–86, 99

Betrothaland breach of promise, 50, 68–70(

Truwe

), 18–20practices for, 24–25

Béza, Theodore, 12–13Bigamy, 47–48, 72Black, David, 187, 190Blasphemy, 116Bonivard, François, 7

Book of Discipline

, 159, 168first, 130, 135second, 132

“Bouquet” dance, 88Breach of promise, 50, 68–70

Brothels, 75–76Bruce, Robert, 187Burial, 151Business regulation, 80

C

Calvin, Antoine (brother of John), 11Calvin, John

and the Ameaux, 7, 10criticism of, 4and Genevan Consistory, 2–3influence in Scotland, 161–162

Canon law, 6Canongate, 151, 154Capitalism, 141Caracciolo, Marquis Galeazzo, 12Card playing, 7Carnival, 94Castelmoron, 100–126

passim

Catholicismand Reformed marriages, 110, 113and religious dissent, 145–148in Scotland, 173, 175view of marriage, 25–26

“Celebration,” marriage, 70Champerault, Aimé, 9Charivaris, 93–94Children

and disciplinary cases, 38disobedience of, 52illegitimate, 72–74, 181neglect of, 51, 52, 56

Christmas, 148Church burial, 151Church courts, 1–2, 134, 146

creation of, 163development of, 170inequities in, 168–169levels of, 163–164limitations of, 168and magistrates, 167obedience to, 184–185as peacemakers, 152–155secular support for, 165–170

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202

Church offices, 116Church/state relations, 29, 33, 165–170City councils, 5, 10, 20–21Civil law, 6Clandestine marriage, 49Clothing, 86–87Colleges, 93Comedies, 92Communion.

See also

Excommunica-tionexaminations, 144–145list of participants, 98mandatory participation, 143–145regulation of, 98and settlement of quarrels, 154

Community, Christian, 161–163Company of Pastors, 12Concubinage, 46, 48–49, 72Confession, 8Consanguinity, 20–22Consistories.

See also

Kirk sessions; Presbyteriesarbitration of disputes by, 84control by, 90, 95excommunication by, 97–128of Geneva, 2, 5judicial role of, 83–85, 95limits of powers, 126–127of Nimes, 63–66, 68–69, 86–89proliferation of, 3roles of, viii, 119–120

Constans, Bernard, 111–112Consummation, 50Continence, 20, 26Contributions, 116Contumacy, 114Cosmetics, 86–87Courts

church.

See

Church courtsreferrals by 163–164royal, 146secular, 5, 10

Coutras, 100–117

passim

Criminal cases, 111, 182–183Customs, social.

See

Social customs

D

Dancingconsequences of, 113dangers of, 88and musical instruments, 89as paganism, 113penalties for, 108prohibitions against, 88–90on Sabbath, 141–142as a social obligation, 89

De la Mar, Henri, 9Deacons, 65Death, 82, 151Defamation, 80Desertion, 12Diary of James Melville, 173–174Dick, Janet, 164–165Discipline

decrease in , 190development of, 157general trends in, ixinequalities in, 168–169offenses, 176–178, 190procedures of, 42role of, 55–56social, 134–135subjects of, 151–153

Discipline of the Reformed Churches of France

, 101–102, 109–110Disputes, 83–85Dissent, 145–147Divorce, viii, 1–13, 44–46

views of, 45Béza's writings on, 12–13Calvinist views of, 25–26prevention of, 45in Emden, 22–23jurisdiction over, 37justification for, 45petitions for, 1secular control over, 22–23

Dowry, 7–8Dress, 86–87Drinking, 116–117Duels, 81–82Dundonald, 138–152

passim

11MENTZER.index Page 202 Wednesday, June 19, 2002 2:43 PM

Index

203

E

Economics, 8, 39–40Education, 51, 144Elders, 28, 65, 161Emden, 18–23, 28, 32–59, 175Entertainment, 88–95“Espousals,” 70Eucharist.

See

CommunionExcommunication, viii, 97–128

views of, 114–115and baptism, 120for breach of promise, 50consequences of, 99–100, 121and criminal offenses, 111for dancing, 88frequency of, 104–105, 125–127gender differences in, 123–125imposition of, 103and judicial rights, 120–121for marital discord, 42in the medieval church, 114–115in Nîmes, 66as penitence, 109public, 110–111purposes of, 127–128reasons for, 102–103, 105–109,

111–112, 115–117.

See also

individ-ual transgressions

rules for, 101–102in Scotland, 156–157secular support for, 120–121for sexual misconduct, 75–76significance of, 117–118social consequences of, 121–123temporary and full (major and mi-

nor), 102–105temporary (lesser or minor), 109for upsetting social order, 94voluntary, 119

Executions, 155

F

Familiesconflicts within, 53and morality, 67–78

Families (

continued

)offenses against, 38ordering of, 18–26, 78privacy for, 57relationships within, 77–76

Farces, 91–93Fashion, 86–87, 117Feuds, 152–153Fidelity, marital, 54, 56–57, 72Fife.

See

Saint AndrewsFinances, 116Fines

for Sabbath violation, 142–143for sexual offenses, 180, 181for violations of church policies,

152

A First Book of Discipline

, 163Fornication.

See also

Adultery; Sexand Benoite Ameaux, 4–5, 9consequences of, 105–109penalties for, 181and public penance, 122–123in Scotland, 168

G

Gambling, 116Game playing, 90–91, 95, 116, 142Ganges, 100–122

passim

Gender differencesin family conflicts, 51, 53in excommunication, 123–125in marital discipline, 33, 37–38in Reformation Geneva, 12in social disputes, 78–79

Geneva, 1–13, 63–64, 175–176Groningen, discipline at, 23–29, 31, 33

H

Hair styles, 86–87Hamilton, Robert, 186Healing, 149–150Heresy, 108Hodo (Haudeau), Daniel, 40–41Honor, 77

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I

Illicit marriage, 49–50Incest, 21In-laws, 21, 52–53

Institutes of the Christian Religion

, 101Instruction, 144Instruments, musical, 89

J

Judicial rights, 120–121Judicial torture, 8

K

Kirk sessions, 129–157.

See also

Consis-tories; Presbyteriesestablishment of, 133–134functions of, 132lack of, 130peacemaking by, 152–155attendance at, 174–175role of, 163and sexual offenses, 137spread of, 131

Knox, John, 129–130, 162–163

L

Law, civil, 6Legal briefs, 6Litigation, 1–2Lord’s Supper.

See

Communion

M

Magic, 116–117, 149–150, 155–156Magistrates, 167Makeup, 86–87Marital discipline

in Emden, 29–38and gender differences, 33, 37–38prevalance of, 38reasons for, 57–58

Marriageabuse in, 2attitudes toward, 55Banns, 29, 70

Marriage (

continued

)“celebration” of, 70clandestine, 49and consanguity, 20–22and the consistory, 69discord in, 41–44, 57and divorce, 1–13economics of, 8establishment of, 18–20and excommunication, 50, 115,

120, 124fidelity within, 72importance of, 33, 37intimacy in, 39litigation of, 1–2of mixed faiths, 110, 113modernization of, 27, 54–55at Nîmes, 68–71ordinances concerning, 18–24parental consent for, 25, 169the pulpit and, 70purposes of, 68, 73reformulation of, 15–16registration for, 26regulation of, 20–21, 23–24, 28–29and remarriages, 1–2, 11sacramental character of, 17, 25–26in Scotland, 138–139secular control over, 23–24secularization of, 16–17separation in, 42sexual fidelity within, 54, 56standards of, 28supervision of, 27–29uncompleted, 115, 139views of, 25–26violence in, 39–44, 71

Mary, Queen of Scots, 129–130, 173Masquerades, 94Mass, 113, 117Mauget, Guillaume, 63Medicine, 149–150Melville, Andrew, 186–187, 189, 190Melville, James, 159–160, 173–174, 186,

191Men.

See

Gender differencesMental illness, 4, 10

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Index

205

Meyrueis, 101–125

passim

Monifieth, 137–152

passim

Montauban, 100–126

passim

Moral order, 66–67, 111–112, 161Morals, reformation of, 191–192Musical instruments, 89

N

Nîmes,63–96, 100–126

passim

, 175

O

Oath of innocence, 179Offices, ecclesiastical, 116Order.

See

Moral orderOrdinances, 22–23, 140

P

Pacification, social, 78–85Paganism, 113Parades, 94Parents, 51–53, 69Parliament, Scots, 166Pastors, 28, 65Patronage, 168–169Peacemaking, 152–155Penance, 121–123, 144–145, 147, 149,

150, 153, 156Penitence, 109Pietism, 38, 51–52, 56–58Pilgrimages, 149–150Playing cards, 3, 7Plays, 91–93Pont-de-Camarès, 101–122

passim

Popery.

See also

Apostasy; Catholicism, 108, 113–114, 124

Population, 137Pregnancy, 178Presbyteries.

See also

Consistories; Kirk sessionsdefinition of, 17discipline by, 42establishment of, 132, 134and family life, 39–44functions of, 134

Presbyteries (

continued

)registers of, 17responsibilities of, 29, 33

Prostitution, 74–75Public order, 78Pulpit, 70Punishments, 76, 183

Q

Quarrels, 79–80consequences of, 105–107, 112penalties for, 153–154in Scotland, 152–153

Quirinus, 39–40

R

Rebellion, 108, 114Reconciliation, 7–8

by the consistory, 83–85of marriage partners, 13through communion, 118

Recordkeeping, 97–98Referrals, 163–164“Reformation Day,” 172Reformation of morals, 191–192Registers, 17, 131–133Regulation

business, 80of the Christian community, 99of marriage, 20–21, 28–29

Religious dissent, 145–147Religious instruction, 144Remarriage, 1–2, 11Repentance, 5, 121–123Rights, judicial, 120–121Roman civil law, 6Rothiemay, 152Royal legislation, 96

S

Sabbathbreach of, 142, 183–184, 190enforcment of, 173preservation of, 139–143violation of, 140–143

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Sacrament of marriage, 25–26Saint Andrews, ix, 140, 159–192

administration at, 176increase of discipline in, 186–189population of, 160–161recordkeeping in, 170–171"Reformation Day" in, 172session of, 131–157

Saint-Amans, 101–124

passim

Saint-Gervais, 101–125

passim

Scotland, 129–157, 191–192Scripture, 92Secular control, 76Secular courts, 5, 10Secular relations with church, 29, 33,

165–170Secular support, 174Separation, marital, 2, 44–46Sermons, 5Servants, 73–74Session, 145Sex.

See also

Adultery; Fornicationand Christian love, 4, 9and marriage, 56regulation of, ix, viii

Sexual activity, 105–108, 112.

See also

Adultery; Fornication

Sexual discipline, 33, 37, 53–54, 56Sexual misconduct, 73, 178–182,Sexual offenses

decrease in, 138, 190punishment of, 76, 138, 188–189at Saint Andrews, 178–182in Scotland, 137–139

Sexual scandals, 164–165Sin, 42, 58Sins of omission, 143Slander, 182–183"Social coexistence," 33Social customs

change in, 66–67control of, 96obligations within, 89, 90ordering of, 93, 97

Social discipline, 134–135Social pacification, 78–85State/church relations, 29, 33, 165–170

Stirling, 140–156

passim

, 175Stool of repentance, ix, 180–181Superstition, 148–149Suspension.

See

Excommunication

T

Torture, 8Tribunal, disciplinary, vii.

See also

Con-sistory; Kirk-session; Presbytery

Truwe

, 18–20

U

Universities, 189

V

Vanity, 86–87Violence

consequences of, 105domestic, 37by dueling, 81–82in the family, 77in marriage, 39–44, 71in Scotland, 152–153sources of, 79–80

W

War, 46, 47Winram, John, 172Witchcraft, 155–156, 182–183Women.

See

Gender differences“Words of the present tense,” 68–70

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