0 -'

A DICTIONAKY

CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES.COMPRISING THE HISTOEY, INSTITUTIONS, AND ANTIQUITIES

OF THE CHEISTIAN CHURCH, FROM THE TIME OF THEAPOSTLES TO THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.

BY VARIOUS WRITERS.

EDITED BY

WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.,

SAMUEL CHEETHAM, M.A.,PKOFESSOK OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY IN KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON.

IN TWO VOLUMES.VOL. I.

ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.

L O N D O N : .JOHN MUEEAT, ALBEMAELE STEEET.

1875.The right of Translation is reserved.

LIST OF WEITEESIN THE DICTIONAEIES OF CHEISTIAN ANTIQUITIES

AND BIOGEAPHY.

UNIFORM WITH THE PRESENT WORK.

DICTIONARY OF CHEISTIAN BIOGEAPHY, L1TEEATUEE,SECTS, AND DOCTRINES. By VARIOUS WRITERS. Edited by WM.SMITH, D.C.L., and HENRY WAGE, M.A. Vols. I. to III. Medium 8vo.31s. Qd. each. (To le completed in Four Volumes.)

LOXEON : riUKTKb BY VLLUAM CLOWES AKD SOKS, LIMWl'D, STAMFOKD STREETAND CHARING CROSS.

INITIALS.

0. B.

H. BY.

J. BY.

E. W. B.

0. W. B.

H.B.

W. B.

H. B.

1. B.

T. R. B.

B. .3.

Eev. CHURCHILL BABINGTQN\ BiD., F.lyS\Disney Professor of Archaeology in the University of

Cambridge; late Fellow of St. John's College.Eev. HENEY BAILEY, D.D.,

Warden of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury, andHonorary Canon of Canterbury Cathedral; late Followof St. John's College, Cambridge.

Eev. JAMES BARMBY, B.D.,Principal of Bishop Hatfield's Hall, Durham.Eev. EDWARD WHITE BENSON, D.D.,

Chancellor of Lincoln Cathedral; late Fellow of TrinityCollege, Cambridge.

Eev. CHARLES WILLIAM BOASE, M.A.,Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford.

HENRY BRADSE.AW, M.A.,Fellow of King's College, Cambridge; Librarian of tho

University of Cambridge.Eev. WILLIAM BRIGHT, D.D.,

Canon of Christ Church, Oxford; Eegius Professor ofEcclesiastical History in the University of Oxford.

The late Eev. HENRY BROWNE, M.A.,Vicar of Pevensey, and Prebendary of Chichester Cathedral.

ISAMBARD BEUNEL, D.C.L.,Of Lincoln's Inn; Chancellor of the Diocese of Ely.

THOMAS EYBURN BDCHANAN, M.A.,Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford.

Eev. DANIEL BUTLER, M.A.,Eector of Thwing, Yorkshire; late Head Master of the

Clergy Orphan School, Canterbury.a 2

iv LIST OF WRITERS.

INITIALS. NAMES.

J. M. C. Eev. JOHN MOORE CAPES, M.A.,of Balliol College, Oxford.

J. G. C. Eev. JOHN GIBSON CAZENOVE, M.A.,late Principal of Cumbrae College, N.B.

C. Eev. SAMUEL CHEETHAM, M.A.,Professor of Pastoral Theology in King's College, London

and Chaplain of Dulwich College; late Fellow o:Christ's College, Cambridge.

E. B. C. EDWARD BYLES COWELL, M.A.,Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Cambridge.

J. LI. D. Eev. JOHN LLEWELYN DAVIES, M.A.,Eector of Christchurch, Marylebone ; late Fellow o:

Trinity College, Cambridge.C. D. Eev. CECIL DEEDES, M.A.,

Vicar of St. Mary Magdalene, Oxford.W. P. D. Eev. WILLIAM P. DICKSOX, D.D.,

Eegius Professor of Biblical Criticism, Glasgow.S. J. E. Eev. SAMUEL JOHN EALES, M.A.,

Head Master of the Grammar School, Halstead, Essex.J. E. Eev. JOHN ELLERTON, M.A.,

Eector of Hinstock, Salop.E. S. FF. Eev. EDMUND S. FFOULKES, B.D.,

Late Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford.

A. P. F. The Eight Eev. ALEXANDER PENROSE FORBES, D.C.L.,Bishop of Brechin.

W. H. F. Hon. and Eev. WILLIAM HENRY FREMANTLE, M.A.,Eector of St. Mary's, Marylebone ; Chaplain to the Arch-

bishop of Canterbury.J. M. F. Eev. JOHN M. FULLER, M.A.,

Vicar of Bexley.C. 1). G. Eev. CHRISTIAN D. GINSBURG, LL.D.W. F. G. The late Eev. WILLIAM FREDERICK GREENFIELD, M.A.,

Master of the Lower School, Dulwich College.A. W. H. The late Eev. ARTHUR WEST HADDAN, B.D.,

Eector of Barton-on-the-Heath and Honorary Canon ofWorcester Cathedral; formerly Fellow of TrinityCollege, Oxford.

E. H. Eev. EDWIN HATCH, M.A.,Vice-Principal of St. Mary Hall, Oxford.

LIST OF WRITERS.

IKITIALS.

B.S. BENJAMIN SHAW, M.A.,Of Lincoln's Inn; late Fellow of Trinity College, Cam-

bridge.Eev. EGBERT SINKER, M.A.,

Librarian of Trinity College, Cambridge.Eev. I. GREGORY SMITH, M.A.,

Eector of Great Malvern, and Prebendary of HerefordCathedral; late Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford.

JOHN STUART, LL.D.,Of the General Eegister-House, Edinburgh.

Eev. WILLIAM STUBBS, M.A.,Eegius Professor of Modern History, in the University of

Oxford; Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford.Eev. CHARLES ANTHONY SWAINSON, D.D.,

Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the Umversity ofCambridge, and Canon of Chichester Cathedral; lateFellow of Christ's College, Cambridge.

Eev. EDWARD STUART TALBOT, M.A.,Warden of Keble College, Oxford.

E. St. J. T. Eev. EICHARD ST. JOHN TYRWHITT, M.A.,Late Student and Ehetoric Lecturer of Christ Church,

Oxford.Eev. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A.,

Canon Eesidentiary and Precentor of Lincoln Cathedral;Chaplain to the Bishop of London.

Eev. BROOKE Foss WESTCOTT, D.D.,Canon of Peterborough ; Eegius Professor of Divinity in

the University of Cambridge; late Fellow of TrinityCollege, Cambridge.

Eev. HENRY WAGE, M.A.,Chaplain of Lincoln's Inn, and Professor of Ecclesiastical

History, King's College, London.Eev. GEORGE WILLIAMS, B.D.,

Eector of Eingwood, Hants ; late Fellow of King's College^Cambridge.

Eev. JOHN WORDSWORTH, M.A.,Prebendary of Lincoln; Examining Chaplain to the Bishop

of Lincoln; late Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford.W. A. W. WILLIAM ALDIS WRIGHT, M.A.,

Trinity College, Cambridge.Eev. EDWARD MALLET YOUNG, M.A.,

Assistant Master of Harrow School; Fellow of TrinityCollege, Cambridge.

Eev. HENRY WILLIAM YULE, B.C.L., M.A.,Eector of Shipton-on-Oherwell, and Vicar of Hampton

Gay, Oxon.

E.S.

I. G. S.

J. ST.

C. A. S.

E. S. T.

E.V.

W.(sometimes

B. F. W.)

H. W.

G.W.

J. W.

E. M. Y.

H. W. Y.

PEEFACE.

THIS Work is intended to furnish, together with the ' Dictionary ofChristian Biography, Literature, and Doctrines,' which will shortlyfollow, a complete account of the leading Personages, the Institu-tions, Art, Social Life, Writings and Controversies of the ChristianChurch from the time of the Apostles to the age of Charlemagne.It commences at the period at which the ' Dictionary of the Bihle'leaves off, and forms a continuation of it: it ceases at the age ofCharlemagne, because (as Gibbon has remarked) the reign of thismonarch forms the important link of ancient and modern, ofcivil and ecclesiastical history. It thus stops short of what wecommonly call the Middle Ages. The later developement of Bitualand of the Monastic Orders, the rise and progress of the greatMendicant Orders, the Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, theHagiology and Symbolism, the Canon Law, and the Institutionsgenerally of the Middle Ages, furnish more than sufficient matterfor a separate book.

The present Work, speaking generally, elucidates and explainsin relation to the Christian Church the same class of subjects thatthe ' Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities' does in referenceto the public and private life of classical antiquity. It treats ofthe organization of the Church, its officers, legislation, discipline,and revenues; the social life of Christians; their worship andceremonial, with the accompanying music, vestments, instruments,vessels, and insignia; their sacred places; their architecture andother forms of Art; their symbolism ; their sacred days and seasonsthe graves or Catacombs in which they were laid to rest.

We can scarcely hope that every portion of this wide and variedfield has been treated with equal completeness ; but we may ventureto assert, that this Dictionary is at least more complete than anyattempt hitherto made by English or Foreign scholars to treat inone work the whole archaeology of the early Church. The great

X PREFACE. PREFACE. xi

work of Bingham, indeed, the foundation of most subsequent books to Usuard. In the case of the Eastern Church, we have takenon the subject, must always be spoken of with the utmost respect; from the calendars of Byzantium, of Armenia, and of Ethiopia,but it is beyond the power of one man to treat with the requisite those names which fall within our chronological period. Thisdegree of fulness and accur iy th^ .ole of so vast a subject; alphabetical arrangement ^ ' " ,virtua"y constitute an index to theand there is probably no branch of Christian archaeology on which principal martyrologies, in addition to supplying the calendar,much light has not been thrown since Bingham's time by the dates of events which are fixedas is not uncommonly the case innumerous scholars and divines who have devoted their lives to ancient records by reference to some festival. The names ofspecial investigations. We trust that we have made accessible persons are inserted in the vocabulary of this Work only withto all educated persons a great mass of information, hitherto only reference to their commemoration in martyrologies or their repre-the privilege of students with the command of a large library. sentations in art, their lives, when they are of any importance,

In treating of subjects like Church Government and Eitual it being given in the Dictionary of Biography.is probably impossible to secure absolute impartiality; but we are Eeferences are given throughout to the original authorities onconfident that no intentional reticence, distortion or exaggeration which the several statements rest, as well as to modern writers ofhas been practised by the writers in this work. repute. In citations from the Fathers, where a page is given without

It has been thought advisable not to insert in the present work reference to a particular edition, it refers for the most part to thean account of the Literature, of the Sects and Heresies, and of standard paginationgenerally that of the Benedictine editionsthe Doctrines of the Church, but to treat these subjects in the which is retained in Migne's Patrologia.' Dictionary of Christian Biography,' as they are intimately con- At the commencement of this work, the Editorship of that por-nected with the lives of the leading persons in Church History, tion which includes the laws, government, discipline, and revenues ofand could not with advantage be separated from them. the Church and the Orders within it, was placed in the hands of

It has not been possible to construct the vocabulary on an Professor Stubbs; the education and social life of Christians in thoseentirely consistent principle. WThere a well-recognized English of Professor Plumptre; while the treatment of their worship andterm exists for an institution or an object, that term has generally ceremonial was entrusted to Professor Cheetham; all under thebeen preferred as the heading of an article. But in many case? general superintendence of Dr. William Smith. As the work pro-obsolete customs, offices, or objects have no English name; f.jd cteded, however, a pressure of other engagements rendered it impos-in many others the English term is not really co-extensive with the sible for Professors Stubbs and Pluinptre to continue their editorshipLatin or Greek term to which it seems at first sight to correspond, of the parts which they had undertaken; and from the end of theThe word Decanus (for example) has several meanings which are not letter C Professor Cheetham has acted as Editor of the wholeimplied in the English Dean. In such cases it was necessary to work, always with the advice and assistance of Dr. William Smith,adopt a term from the classic languages. Cross-references are given In conclusion, we have to express our regret at the long timefrom the synonyms or quasi-synonyms to the word under which any that has elapsed since the first announcement of the work. Thissubject is treated. The Councils are placed (so far as possible) delay has been owing partly to our anxious desire to make it asunder the modern names of the places at which they were held, a accurate as possible, and partly to the loss we have sustained bycross-reference being given from the ancient name. In the case of tne deatn of two of our most valued contributors, the Eev. A. Wthe Saints' Days, the names of the Western saints have been taken Haddan and the Eev. W. B. Marriott,from the martyrology of Usuard, as containing probably the mostcomplete list of the martyrs and confessors generally recognized inthe West up to the ninth century; the occurrence of these namesin earlier calendars or martyrologies is also noted. In the letters Aand B, however, the names of Saints are taken principally from the' Martyrologium Eomanum Yetus,' and from the catalogues whichbear the names of Jerome and of Bede, without special reference

DICTIONARYOF

CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

AA AND n AAEON

"D

A and (a, (See Rev. xxii. 13.) Of thesembolic letters the w is always given in theinuscular form. The symbol is generally com-ned with the monogram of Christ. [Moisro-1AM.] In Boldetti's Osservazioni sopra i cimiteri,3. Rom. 1720, fol. tav. iii. p. 194, no. 4, it is

. und, with the more ancient decussated mono-am, on a sepulchral cup or vessel. See alsoe Rossi (Inscriptions, No. 776), where the letters

are suspended from the arms ofthe St. Andrew's Cross. They Iare combined more frequently ;with the upright or Egyptianmonogram. Aringhi, JRom.Subt. vol. i. p. 381, gives anengraving of a jewelled cross,with the letters suspended

' chains to its horizontal arm, as below. Andie same form occurs in sepulchral inscriptions

in De Rossi, Inscr. Chr. Rom.t. i. nos. 661, 666. See alsoBoldetti, p. 345, and Bottari,tav. xliv. vol. i.

The letters are found, withor without the monogram, inalmost all works of Christianantiquity; for instance, right

id left of a great cross, on which is no form oren symbolic Lamb, on the ceiling of the apse' St. Apollinare in Classe at Ravenna, circ. A.D.'5. They were worn in rings arid sigils, eitherone, as in Martigny, s. v. Anneauz, or with^e monogram, as in Boldetti, \ns. 21-31, 30-33.i coins they appear to be first used imme-ately after the death of Constantine. Therliest instances are an aureus nummus of Con-antius (Banduri, v. ii. p. 227, Numismata Imp.ymanorum, &c.); and another golden coin bear-g the effigy of Constantine the Great, with theords " Victoria Maxima." Constantine seemsit to have made great use of Christian em-ems on his coin till after the defeat of Lici-us in 323, and especially after the buildingConstantinople. (See Martigny, s. v. Numis-

itique.)The use of these symbolic letters amounts toquotation of Rev. xxii. 13, and a confession ofith in our Lord's own assertion of His infinityCHRIST. ANT.

and divinity. There is one instance in Martial(Epig. v. 26) where A, Alpha, is used jocularly(as A 1, vulgarly, with ourselves) for " chief" or" first." But the whole expression in its solemnmeaning is derived entirely from the words ofRev. xxii. 13. The import to a Christian isshewn by the well-known passage of Prudentius(Hymnus Omni .flora, 10, Catiiemerinon, ix. p.35, ed. Tubingen, 45) :" Corde natus ex parentis ante mundi exordium,

Alpha et Ii cognominatus, ipse fons et clausula,Omnium quae sunt, fuerunt, quaeque post futura sunt."

The symbol was no doubt much more frequentlyused after the outbreak of Arianism. But it ap-pears to have been used before that date, from itsoccurrence in the inscription on the tomb raisedby Victorina to her martyred husband Heracliusin the cemetery of Priscilla (Aringhi, i. 605).It is here enclosed in a triangle, and united withthe upright monogram. See also another in-scription in Fabretti (Inscr. antiq. explicate,Rom. 1699, fol.), and the cup given in Boldettifrom the Callixtine catacomb, tav. iii. no. 4, atp. 194. From these it is argued with apparenttruth that the symbol must have been in usebefore the Nicene Council." No doubt, as a con-venient symbolic form of asserting the Lord'sdivinity, it became far more prominent after-wards. The Arians certainly avoided its use(Giorgi, De Monogram. Christi, p. 10). It isfound on the crucifix attributed to Nicodemus(Angelo Rocca, Thesaurus Pontificiarum, vol. i.153, woodcut), and on a wooden crucifix of greatantiquity at Lucca (Borgia, De Cruce Vetiterna,p. 33). For its general use as a part of themonogram of Christ, see MONOGRAM. It will befound (see Westwood's Palaeographia Sacra) in thePsalter of Athelstan, and in the Bible of Alcuin;both in the British Museum. [R. St. J. T.]

AARON, the High Priest, commemorateda Boldetti: " Quanto alle lettere A and

2 ABACUCMiaziah 1 = March 27 (Cal. EtMop.). Depositionin Mount Hor, July 1 (Mart. Bedae, Hieron.). [O.J

ABACUO. (1) Habakkuk the Prophet, com-memorated Jan. 15 (Martyrologium Rom. Vetus,Hieron., Bedae).

(2) Martyr at Eome under Claudius, A.D. 269,commemorated Jan. 20 (Martyr. Rom. Vetus).

[C-]ABBA.

ABBAT. (Abbas or Abba [-atis], a&&s,&f)fia, in low Latin sometimes Abas, Ital. Abate,Germ. Abt, from the Chaldee and Syriac form ofthe common Semitic word for Father, probablyadopted in that form either b'y Syriac monks,or through its N. T. use.) A name employedoccasionally in the East, even so late as the 10thcentury, as a term of respect for any monks(Cassian., Collat, i. 1, A.D. 429 ; Reg. 8. Columb.vii., A.D. 609 ; Jo. Mosch., Prat. Spir., A.D. 630 ;Epiphan. Hagiop., De Loc. S3., A.D. 956 ; Byzant.auth. ap. Du Cange, Lex. Inf. Graec. ; Bulteau,Hist. Man. d'Orient, 819 : and, similarly, afipa-Swf, ajS/BaS/ffKiop, ^euS^/SjSa?, KAeirr(ij8/3as, foran evil or false monk, Du Cange, ib.) ; and some-times as a distinguishing term for a monk ofsingular piety (Hieron., in Epist. ad Gal. c. 4 ; inMatt. lib. iv. in c. 23) ; but ordinarily restrictedto the superior of a monastery, Pater or PrincepsMonasterii, elective, irremoveable, single, abso-lute. Eeplaced commonly among the Greeksby 'Apx^o-vopLT-ris [ARCHIHANDEITA], 'Kyov-/tei/os, or more rarely Koivofiiapxiis ; the firstof which terms however, apparently by a con-fusion respecting its derivation, came occasion-ally to stand for the superior of more monas-teries than one (Helyot, Hist, des Ordr. Man.i. 65) : extended upon their institution to thesuperior of a body of canons, more properlycalled Praepositus, Abbas Canonicorum as op-posed to Abbas Monachorum (e. g. Cone. Paris.A.D. 829, c. 37; Cone. Aquisg. II. A.D. 836.canon, c. ii. P. 2, 1 ; Chron. Leod.~) ; but variedby many of the later monastic orders, as e. g. byCarmelites, Augustinians, Dominicans, Servites,into Praepositus or Prior Conventualis, by Fran-ciscans into Gustos or Guardianws, by Camaldu-lensians into Major, by Jesuits into Rector : distinguished in the original Rule of Pachomius,as the superior of a combination of monasteries,from the Pater, Princeps, or Oeconomus of eachand from the Praepositi of the several families ofeach. Enlarged into Abbas Abbatum for the Ab-bat of Monte Cassino (Pet. Diac. Chron. Casin.iv. 60 ; Leo Ostiens., ib. ii. 54), who was vicar ofthe Pope over Benedictine monasteries (Privil,Nicol. I. Papae, A.D. 1059, ap. And. a Nuce adLeon. Ostiens. iii. 12), and had precedence overall Benedictine abbats (Privil. Paschal. II. Papae,A.D. 1113, in Bull. Casin. ii. 130; Chart. Loihar.Imp., A.D. 1137, ib. 157). Similarly a singleAbbat of Aniana, Benedict, was made by Ludov.Pius, A.D. 817, chief of the abbats in the empire(Chron. Farf. p. 671 ; Ardo, in V. Bened. c. viii.36) : and the Hegumenos of St. Dalmatius inConstantinople was, from the time of St. Dal-matius himself (A.D. 430), &pxtav or WOT?);)fj-ovaffTfipicov, Abbas Universalis or KafJoAi/cbs,Exarchus omnium monasteriorum in urbe regia( Cone. Constant, iv., A.D. 536, Act i. ; Cone.Epkes. iii. A.D. 431 ; and see Tillem., Mem. Eccl.xiv. 322 and Eustath. in V. Eutych. n. 18, Jo.

ABbAABBAT

Cantacuz. i. 50, Theocterictus in V. S. Nice^43, quoted by Du Cange). Transferred. 2; and so also cap. Quoniam Dist. Ixix.properly sometimes to the Praepositus or jforcing the episcopal benediction, from Gone.the lieutenant (so to say) of a monastery, paen. ii., A.D. 787, c. 14. So also Counc. ofSecundus or Secundarius (Reg.S. Bened. 65;alchyth, A.D. 785, c. 5 (monks to elect fromsee Sid. Apoll. vii. 17), the proper abbat (sir own monastery, or another, with consent ofcalled by way of distinction Abbas Major (f>hop), but Counc. of Becanceld, A.D. 694, andAquisgr. A.D. 817 c. 31). Transferred als,Cealchyth, A.D. 816 (bishop to elect abbat orcourse of time, to non-monastic clerical ojbess with consent of the " family"). Andas e. g. to the principal of a body of paivms occur accordingly, in both Eastern andclergy (i. the Abbas, Custos, or Rector, as Astern Pontificals, for the Benedictio re-guished from ii. the Presbyter or Cope/fa/wssctively of an Hegumenos, or of an Abbas, bothiii. the Sacrista; Ughelli, Ital. Sac. vii. 506, ^ nacJtorum and Canonicorum, and of an Abba-Cange); and to the chief chaplain of the kijsa (see also Theodor., Poenit. II. iii. 5, inemperor in camp under the Carlovingians, ^asserschl. p. 204, &c.; and a special form forCastrensis, and to the Abbas Curiae at YjP last named, wrongly attributed to Theodore,(Du Cange); and in later times to a partit Collier's Records from the Ordo Rom., andcathedral official at Toledo (Beyerlinck, jjth variations, in Gerbert). An abbat of anTheatrum, s. v. Abbas), much as the termempt abbey (in later times) could not resigndinal is used at our own St. Paul's; and tttllout leave ? tne PPe (c- Si Abbatem, Bonif.chief of a decad of choristers at Anicia, JH. in Sext. Deer. I. vi. 36); and was to beClericulorum (Du Cange) ; and later still to^16*! and blessed by him (Matt. Par. in an,abbat of a religious confraternity, as of St.57)- A qualification made in the Benedictineat Paris in 1350 and another "in 1362 (de, allowing the choice of a minority if theirsAdopted also for purely secular and civil offirre the sanius consilium, necessarily became aAbbas Populi at Genoa, and again of the Geiad letter from its impracticability. Bishops,in Galata (Jo. Pachym. xiii. 27), of GuiMwever' retained their right of institution if notMilan and Decurions at Brixia; and earlier.1011 JPam ' the 7th centoy (Cone.PatoKi, Clocherii, Campanilis, Scholaris, &**> AJX Jl33' c' 5 >5 and the Bishop offardorum (Du Cange); and compare

D'al0ns-sur-Marne so late as the time of St.(Purgat. xxvi.), Abate del Collegio. lWrn9ard^sL 58\. Sf howeYe,r> CMS'U"> y

f ,/' i i * i j a f fl. 2. The nomination by an abbat of his sue-in course of time by lay holders of monasl^ occurring sometimes in special cases (e.g.

under the system of commendation [ B r ' . and

&allowed under restrictions (Cone.

54], Abbas Protector Abbas Laicus, J,-^ ^ AJX 650j c. 12. Tneodor., Capit.

abbas, Abba- [or Abbi-] Comes, denominated ^ ^ C- 71j in Wasserschl. p. 151), was ex-

happy equivoque in some papal documents Atonal, and was to be so managed as not toIrreligiosus; and giving rise in turn to the^erfere with the general right of the monks.Legitimus or Monasticus (Serm. de Turnup

aiso the founder's like exceptional nominations,Quintin., ap. Du Cange), as a name for the &

e.g. those made by Aldhelm or Wilfrid. Theproper (sometimes it was the Decani, 0>terference of kings in such elections began as aAimoin. c. 42 ; and in Culdee Scotland iu.actice with the system of commendation; butparallel case it was a Prior) who took charf

r0yal foundations, and as suggested and pro-the spiritual duties. Lastly, perverted altogfpted by feudal ideas, no doubt existed earlier.in later days into a mock title, as Abbas ZoAe consent of the bishop is made necessary toJwoenum, Fatuorum, or again Abbas Bejat^ abbat's election, " ubi jussio Regis fuerit,'(of freshmen, or "Yellow Beaks," at the utf A.D. 794 (Cone. Franco/, c. 17). The bishopsity of Paris), or Cornardorum or Conardoru^s also to quash an unfit election, under thequally unruly club of older people elsewWjnedictine rule, and (with the neighbouringFrance^), until " in vitium libertas excidit etibats) to appoint a proper person instead (Regdignam lege regi," and the mock abbats a

4 ABBATbishops, although undiocesan (Baed., H. E., iii.4, v. 24). And clerical abbats (episcopal indeedfirst, in Ireland, and afterwards presbyteralsee Todd's St. Patrick, pp. 88, 89) seem to havebeen always the rule in Wales, Ireland, andScotland. In Ireland, indeed, abbats were soidentified with not presbyters only but bishops,that the Pope is found designated as "Abbatof Eome" (Todd's St. Patrick, 156). Most con-tinental abbats, however (and even their Prae-posiii and Decani) appear to have been pres-byters by A.D. 817. These officers may bestowthe benediction (" quamvis presbyter! non sint";Gone. Aquisgr., A.D. 817, c. 62). All were orderedto be so, but as yet ineffectually, A.D. 826 (Cone.Bom, e. 27). And the order was still needed,but was being speedily enforced by custom, A.D.1078 (Cone. Pictav. c. 7: " Ut abbates et decani[aliter abbates diaconi] qui presbyteri non sunt,presbyteri fiant, aut praelationes amittant").

A bishop-abbat was forbidden in a particularinstance by a Council of Toledo (xii., A.D. 681,c. 4), but permitted subsequently as (at first) anexceptional case at' Lobes near Lie'ge, about A.D.700, (conjecturally) for missionary purposes amongthe still heathen Flemish (D'Achery, Spicil. ii.730) ; a different thing, it should be noted, frombishops resident in abbeys under the abbat'sjurisdiction (" Episcopi monachi," according toa very questionable reading in Baed. H. E. iv.5), as in Ireland and Albanian Scotland, and inseveral continental (mostly exempt) abbeys (St.Denys, St. Martin of Tours, &c.), and both at thisand at later periods in exempt abbeys generally(Du Cange, voc. Episcopi Vagantes: Todd's -St.Patrick, 51 sq.); although in some of these con-tinental cases the two plans seem to have beeninterchanged from time to time, according as theabbat happened to be either himself a bishop, ormerely to have a monk-bishop under him(Martene and Durand, Thes. Nov. Anecd. i.Pref. giving a list of Benedictine Abbatial bishops;Todd, ib.~). In Wales, and in the Scottish seesin Anglo-Saxon England (e.g. Lindisfarne), andin a certain sense in the monastic sees of theAugustinian English Church, the bishop was alsoan abbat; but the latter office was here ap-pended to the former, not (as in the other cases) theformer to the latter. So, too, " Antistes et abbas,"in Sidon. Apoll. (xvi. 114), speaking of two abbatsof Lerins, who were also Bishops of Eiez. Pos-sibly there were undiocesan bishop-abbats inWelsh abbeys of Celtic date (Rees, Welsh SS.182, 266). Abbats sometimes acted as chore-piscopi in the 9th century: v. Du Cange, voc.Chorepiscopus. The abbats also of Catania and ofMonreale in Sicily at a later period were alwaysbishops (diocesan), and the latter shortly anarchbishop, respectively by privilege of Urban II.,A.D. 1088-1099, and from A.D. 1176 (Du Cange).So also at Fulda and Corbey in Germany.

We have lastly an abbat who was also exofficio a cardinal, in the case of the Abbat ofClugny, by privilege of Pope Calixtus II., A.D.1119 (Hug. Mon. ad Pentium Abb. Clun., ap.Du Cange).

The natural rule, that the abbat should bechosen from the seniors, and from those of themonastery itself (Reg. S. Scrap. 4, in Holsten.p. 15), became in time a formal law (Decret.Bonif. VIII. in 6 de Elect.Abbat to be analready professed monk ; Capit. Car. M. et Lud.

ABBATABBAT

Pii, i. tit. 81, " ex seipsis," &c., as above qti-Condi. Botom., A.D. 1074, c. 10): although " (Reg. Orient. 3, in Holsten. p. 89; Reg.S.\limitation to one above twenty-five years ied. 65), and in Spain at one time by theno earlier than Pope Alexander III. (Conc.iop (Cone. Tolet. iv. A.D. 633, c 61); one in ateran. A.D. 1179). In the West, howeveuedictine abbey, but in the East sometimesrule was, that " Fratres eligant sibi abb, one to be at home, the other superintendingde ipsis si habent, sin autem, de extrai monks abroad (Beg. Orient. 2, in Holsten.(Theodor., Capit. Dach. c. 72, in Wassersc39); and under the Rule of Pachomius one to151; and so also St. Greg., Epist. ii. 41, viii.b. subordinate house ; a system in some sensewhile in the East it seems to be spoken ofived, though with a very different purpose, inprivilege, where an abbey, having no fit t Priores non Conventuales of the dependentof its own, might choose a fi>oKovpirqs-idientiae, Cellae, &c., of a later Western Abbey;tonsured elsewhere (Leunclav. Jus Graeco-l (2) by that of Decani and Centenarii, electedp. 222). the monks themselves (Hieron. ad Eustoch.

Repeated enactments prove at once the nst. xviii.; Beg. Monach. in Append, ad Hieron.one abbat to one monastery, and (as time p. V.; Beg. passim; see also Baed. H. E. ii. 2),on) its common violation (Hieron. ad Rusticpngh whom the discipline and the work of theBeg. 8. Serap. 4, and Begulae passim; mastery were administered. He was limited alsoVenetic., A.D. 465, c. 8 ; Agath., A.D. 506, cm without by episcopal jurisdiction, more effi-57 ; Epaon., A.D. 517, cc. 9, 10 ; and so, intly in the East (Cone. Chalc., A.D. 451, cc. 4,East, Justinian, L. I. tit. iii.; De Episc. 1.39&c. &c.; and so Balsam, ad Nbmocan. tit. xi.,Balsamon ad Nomocan. tit. i. c. 20." Si nou.piscopis magis subject! monachi quam monas-mittitur alicui ut sit clericus in duabus eccliorum praefectis "), but in theory, and untilnee prasfectus seu abbas duobus monasj Hth century pretty fairly in fact, in thepraeerit "). No doubt such a case as tfest likewise (Beg. S. Bened.; Cone. Agath., A.D.Wilfrid of York, at once founder and Abt3, c. 38; Aurelian. i., A.D. 511, c. 19; Epaon.,Hexham and Ripon, or that of Aldhelm, i>. 517, c. 19; Herd. A.D. 524, c. 3; Arelat. v.,at once (for a like reason) of Malmesbury, Ft>. 554, cc. 2, 3, 5; and later still, Cone. Tull.,and Bradford, was not so singular as it \\ 859, c. 9; Botomag., A.D. 878, c. 10; Au-their case both intelligible and excusable, sfcm., A.D. 952, c. 6; and see also Greg. M.spirit of the rule obviously does not apply, Cist., vii. 12; x. 14, 33; Hincmar, as beforeto the early clusters of monasteries undented; and Cone. Paris. A.D. 615 ; Tolet. iv. A.D.Rule of St. Pachomius, or to the tens of )3; Cabitton. i. A.D. 650 ; Herutf. A.D. 673, c. 3,sands of monks subject to the govermnen&aed. H. E. iv. 5, among others, putting restric-e. g. St. Macarius or St. Serapion, or to the;Us upon episcopal interference). The Frenchsemi-hierarchical quasi-jurisdiction, possessions on this subject are repeated by Pseudo-already mentioned by the Abbats of St. Djtert in England (Excerpt. 63-65, Thorpe, ii.tius, of Monte Cassino, or of Clugny, ani6, 107). Cassian, however, in the West, fromBenedict of Aniana. Generals of Orders,e beginning, bids monks beware above all olmore compact organization of the whole t'o sorts of folk, women and bishops (De Instit.Order into a single body, belong to later tini'ereo5. xi. 17). And although exemptions, at first

The abbat's power was in theory paternal/rely defining or limiting episcopal power, bu1absolute" Timeas ut dominum, diligas u| time substituting immediate dependence upontrem " (Reg. S. Macar. 7, in Holsten. p. 25 ;6 Pope for episcopal jurisdiction altogether, dieBegulae passim). See also St. Jerome. Evit grow into an extensive and crying evil untiact without his order was culpable (& time of the Councils of Rheims and of RomeBasil'). And to speak for another who hesiispectively A.D. 1119 and 1122, and of the selfto obey was itself disobedience (Reg. passing ordinances of the Cistercians (ChartThe relation of monk to abbat is describe*3*- in Ann. Cisterc. i. 109) and Premonstraa libera servitus (Beg. S. Orsies. 19, in Hopsia113, in the years A.D. 1119,1120, repudiatingp. 73); while no monk (not even if he flch privileges but with a sadly short-livecbishop, Baed. H. E., iv. 5) could exchangertue> and of the contemporary remonstrances onasteries without the abbat's leave (Beg. put- Bernard (Lib. 3 De Consul., and Epist. 7, 42not even (although in that case it was s'9 18); 7et they occur in exceptional casetimes allowed) if he sought to quit a laxe!Uch earlier- As e- 9- ^e adjustment of righta stricter rule (Reg. PP. 14, in Holsten. p.'tween Faustus of Lerins and his diocesan bisho]Gild. ap. MS. S. Gall. 243, pp. 4, 155); tf th* Co f ^ es'.c-.A;D- >56 &hl& Beindeed he fled from an excommunicated

5lred to tbe abbat

the jurisdiction over Ins la(Gild. ib. p. 155, and in D'Ach., Spicil. i. :.?,ks' an,d a veto against the ordination of anT i , ,f j i -V j * them, leaving all else to the oishop, MansIn later times, and less civilized regions, it .

n ' , . ., . A ^ojf j , T - I . - . L rt. i j? ' t1- 90/), a parallel privilege to Agaune (bfound necessary to prohibit an abbat from b. . '\ , , F - r r i . .* , ,, *n -i * * i,.,-',.

r,. , ,r, aurice in the Valais), at the Council of Chaloning or mutilating his monks (Lone. Jtru-^ ~~a , . ./'. ,. T, ,, ^&

_ . io\ nil i i >x>. o /y , and pnvileqia of Popes, as of HonoA.D. 794 c 18). The rule however andus L ^ 628^to Boybbi an/of'john IV. A.Dcanons of the Church, limited this absolute ptl to Luxeuil (see Marcu|f FormuL Hb. L^nd each Benedictine abbat, while bound ex > d Mabm ^ BgM^ ^ ^ n andto Keep St. Benedicts rule himself (e. g. ^

n_ 18)> Eyen e t monasterios in thAugustod. c.A.D._ 670) was enjoined also to,

t> .^ those immediately depending uponhis monks learn it word for word by heart (t,triarth) were subject to the visitatorial poweAquisgr., A.D. 817, cc. 1, 2, 80). He wasrregular Officiais caned Exarchi Monasteriorulimited practically in the exercise of his au*3alsam> in jy0moccm. i. 20 ; and a form in Gree(1) by the system of Praepositi or Priores, el(0ntificals for the ordination of an exarch, Husually by himself, but " consilio et voluntateMt^ Archierat., Pontif. Graec. observ. i. ad Edit

ABBAT 5ro Archimandrit. pp. 570, 587), exercised seme-mes through Apocrisiarii (as like powers of theshops through the Defensores Ecclesiarum); anden to visitations by the emperor himself (Justi-an, Novell, cxxxiii., cc. 2, 4, 5). The P.ule ^fachomius also qualified the abbat's power by auncil of the Majores Monasterii, and by a tri-unal of assessors, viri sancti, 5, 10, or 20, to as-st in administering discipline (Beg. S. Pack.67, in Holsten. p. 49). And the Rule of St. Bene-ct, likewise, compelled the abbat, while it re-rved to him the ultimate decision, to taketunsel with all the brethren (juniors expressly.eluded) in greater matters, and with the Seni-

res Monasterii in smaller ones (Beg. S. Bened. 2,The Rule of Columbanus gave him an un-

ualified autocracy.The abbat was likewise limited in his power

ver abbey property, and in secular things, by hisability to interfere in person with civil suits;

rhich led to the appointment of an Advocatus,ricedomnus, Oeconomus, Procurator (Cod. Can.fric. A.D. 418 (?), c. 97; Justinian, lib. i. Cod.it. 3, legg. 33, 42 ; Cod. Theodos. lib. ix. tit. 45,;g. 3 ; St. Greg. Epist. iii. 22; Cone. Nicaen. ii..D. 787, c. 11), revived with greater powersnder the title of Advocatus Ecclesiae. or Monas-?rii, by Charlemagne (Capit. A.D. 813, c. 14; andlOthar., Capit. tit. iii. cc. 3, 9,18, &c.); who fromco-ordinate, frequently proceeded to usurp an

xclusive, interest in the monastic revenues. Thebbat also was required to give account of thebbey property to both king and bishop, by theCouncil of Vern (near Paris) A.D. 755; while

neither abbat nor bishop separately could evenxchange abbey lands in Anglo-Saxon England,tut only by joint consent (Theodor., Poen. II. viii.6, in Wasserschl. p. 208).

Within the abbey and its precincts, the abbativas to order all work, vestments, services (Reg.S. Bened. 47, 57 ; Begulae passim); to award all>unishments, even to excommunication (Beg. S.Bened. 24; Leidrad., Lugdun. Arch., ad Car. M.ap. Galland., xiii. 390, restoring to the Abbat ofinsula Barbara, " potestatem ligandi et solvendi.uti habuerunt praedecessores sui;" Honorius III.ap. Dilecta, tit. de Major, et Obedientia, desiring

a neighbouring abbat to excommunicate refrac-tory nuns, because their abbess could not; and seeBingham), or to the use of the " ferrum abscis-sionis " (Beg. 8. Bened. 28). He \vas also to be ad-dressed as " Domnus et Abbas " (ib. 63). And while in the East he was specially commanded to eat withthe other monks (Reg. PP. 11, in Holsten. p. 23),the Rule of Benedict (56) appoints him a separatetable " cum hospitibus et peregrinis," to whichhe might, in case there was room, invite any monkhe pleased. The Council of Aix A.D. 817 (c. 27)tried to qualify this practice by bidding abbats" be content" with the food of the other monks,unless " propter hospitem;" and some monas-teries kept up a like protest in the time of PeterDamiani and Peter the Venerable; but it con-tinued to be the Western rule. He was orderedalso to sleep amonj his monks by the Councilof Frankfort A.D. 794 (c. 13). The abbat was spe-cially not to wear mitre, ring, gloves, or sandals,as being episcopal insigniaa practice growingup in the West in the 10th and llth centuries,and (vainly) then protested against by the Coun-cil of Poictiers A.D. 1100, and by St. Bernard(Epist. 42) and I eter of Blois (Epist. 90; and see

e ABBATalso Thorn. Cantiprat., De Apibus, i. 6; Chron.Casin. iv. 78). But a mitre is said to have beengranted to the Abbat of Bobbio by Pope Theodo-rus I. A.D. 643 (Bull. Casin. I. ii. 2), the nextalleged case being to the Abbat of St. Savianusby Sylvester II. A.D. 1000. A staff, however, butof a particular form, and some kind of stockings(" baculum et pedules "), were the special insig-nia of an abbat in Anglo-Saxon England in thetime of Theodore A.D. 668-690, being formallygiven to him by the bishop at his benediction(Poenit. II. iii. 5, in Wasserschl. p. 204). And thestaff was so everywhere. He was also to shave hisbeard, and of course to be tonsured {Gone. Bitu-ric. A.D. 1031, c. 7). His place of precedence,if an ordinary abbat, appears to have been finallyfixed as immediately after bishops, among prae-lati, and before archdeacons (see, however, Decret.Greg. IX., lib. ii. tit. 1, cap. Decernimus); butthe list of our English convocations from Arch-bishop Kemp's Eegister A.D. 1452 (Wilk. I. xi.sq.), though following no invariable rule, appearsusually to postpone the abbat and prior to thearchdeacon. In Saxon England, he shared in likemanner with the king (as did an abbess also) inthe " wer " of a murdered " foreigner " (Laws ofIne, 23; Thorpe, i. 117). The abbat also wasnot named in the canon of the mass (Gavant. inJSubr. Miss. P. iii. tit. 8 ; Macr. F.F., Hierolex, inCan. Missae), except in the case of the abbat ofMonte Cassino (Ang. a Nuce, in notis ad Leo.Ostiens. ii. 4). But an anniversary was allowedto be appointed for him on his death (e. g. Cone.Aquisgr. A.D. 817, c. 73). He was forbidden (aswere all monks, at least in France) to standsponsor for a child (Cone. Autissiod. A.D. 578, c.25; Greg. M., Epist. iv. 42), with a notable ex-ception, however, in England, in the case of AbbatRobert of Mont St. Michel, godfather to KingHenry II.'s daughter Eleanor (Rob. de Monte adan. 1161), or to go to a marriage (Cone. Autissiod.,ib.*); or indeed to go far from his monastery atall without the bishop's leave (Cone. Arel. v,A.D. 554); or to go about with a train of monksexcept to a general synod (Cone. Aquisgr. A.D.817, c. 59). He of course could not hold pro-perty (although it was needful sometimes to pro-hibit his lending money on usury, Pseudo-Egbert.Poenit. iii. 7, in Thorpe, ii. 199); neither couldhe dispose of it by will, even if it accrued to himby gift or heirship after he became abbat (Reg.PP. 2, in Holsten. p. 22); but if the heirshipwas within the 4th degree, he was exceptionallyenabled to will the property to whom he pleased(Justinian, lib. i. Cod. tit. de Episc. et Cler. c.33). Further, we find bishops and archdeaconsprohibited from seizing the goods of deceasedabbats (Cone. Paris. A.D. 615 ; Cabillon. i. A.D.650). And later wills of abbats in the West aresometimes mentioned and confirmed, but prin-cipally in order to secure to their abbeys pro-perty bequeathed to those abbeys (see Thomassin).Privileges of coining money, of markets and tolls,of secular jurisdiction, began certainly as earlyas Ludov. Pius, or even Pipin (Gieseler, ii. p. 255,notes 5, 6, Eng. Tr.). Others, such as of the titleof prince, of the four Abbates Imperil in Germany(viz., of Fuldaalso ex officio the empress'schancellorof Weissenberg, Kempten, Murbach),of the English mitred baronial abbats, and thelike, and sumptuary laws limiting the number oftheir horses and attendants,. &c., belong to later

ABBAT ABBAT ABBESS 7ic.; Ferraris; Helyot, Hist. des Ordr. Hon.; Her-og; Hospinian, De Monach.; Macri FF., Jliero-exie. ; Martene, De Antiq. Monach. Sitibus; Mar-;igny; Montalembert, Monks of the West; Tho-massin, De Benefic.; Van Espen.) [A. W. H.]

ABBATISSA. [ABBESS.]ABBESS. (Abbatissa found in inscript. of

A.D. 569, in Murator. 429. 3, also called Anti-stita and Majorissa, the female superior of a bodyof nuns; among the Greeks, 'Hyov^vrj, 'Apx'~

Archimandritissa, Justinian, Novell.,'Ayu,uas or mother, Pallad., Hist. Laus., c. 42, inthe time of Pachomius, Mater monasterii or moni-alium, see St. Greg. M., Dial. IV. 13 [where" Mater" stands simply for a nun] ; Cone.Mogunt. A.D. 813; Aquisgr., A.D. 816, lib. ii.).In most points subject to the same laws as ab-bats, mutatis mutandis;elective, and for life(triennial abbesses belonging to years so late asA.D. 1565, 1583) ; and solemnly admitted by thebishopBenedictio Abbatissae (that for an abbessmonasticam regulam profitentem, capit. ex CanoneTheodori Anglorum Episcopi, is in the Ordo Ro-manus, p. 164, Hittorp.); and in France re-stricted to one monastery apiece (Cone. Vern. A.D.755); and with Praepositae, and like subordinates,to assist them (Cone. Aquisgr., A.D. 816, lib. ii.cc. 24-26); and bound to obey the bishop in allthings, whether abbesses of Monachae or of Cano-nicae (Cone. Cabillon. ii. A.D. 813, c. 65); and sub-ject to be deprived for misconduct, but in thiscase upon report of the bishop to the king (Cone.Franco/. A.D. 794); bound also to give account ofmonastic property to both king and bishop (Cone.Vern., A.D. 755); entitled to absolute obedienceand possessed of ample powers of discipline, evento expulsion, subject however to the bishop (Cone.Aquisgr. A.D. 816, lib. ii.); and save only thatwhile an abbat could, an abbess could not, excorz municate (Honorius III., cap. Dilecta, tit. de Ma-jor, et Obedientia) ; neither could she give the veilor (as some in France appear to have tried todo) ordain (Gapitul. Car. M. an. 789, c. 74,Anseg. 71); present even at Councils in England(see ABBAT, and compare Lingard, Antiq. i.139 ; Kemble, Antiq. ii. 198 ; quoted by Mont-alembert, Monks of West, v. 230, Engl. Tr.).While, however, a bishop was necessary tcadmit and bless an abbat, Theodore ruled

unction. They were authorized in the B%-eputation of holding twelve abbeys at once), in England, although the rule did not becomepresbyters, and with the bishop's leave, to fl'0m the System ofcc. 30-42).

Interference by abbats with the ministryof parochial clergy could scarcely exist

from a different cause,commendation [COM-

fJlKNDA]; which began in the time of Charles

1743 Cone,

^ 31)

aPPrved_ ^ Conc-., A.D. 744 ; and

th(j kusib]ebats were presbyters themselves nor did it

object of t orarily employing monastic re-(as was naturally the case) reach the extremes for the pressing needs of warfare withwhich it was carried by the friars. We

SaracenS) SaxonSj or other heathens, care beinghowever, an enactment of Theodore (PocmY.l(.akentoi.eserve ellough to keep up the monas.16, in Wasserschl. p. 209), prohibiting a iatery pl.0per. The nobleman, or the king himself,i (* 1 _ _ _ _ . , 1 1 i _- i! ^ 1: * -I i i

thus raised, became titularlovingian times, accordingly,

much later and more detailed canon, of thmost of the great Frank and Burgundian noblesLateran Council (A.D. 1123), forbids abWand kings, and sometimes even bishops (e. g.impose penance, visit the sick, or admitHatto of Mainz, A.D. 891-912, who enjoyed the

tery from imposing penances on the laity, "who led the troops(haec libertas) proprie clericorum est." ^abbat. And in Car'

("ordiuatio monachi"Theodor., Poenit. II.'supplying the king with soldiers (see a shortin Wasserschl. p. 204). But encroachments llist by way of specimen in Gieseler, ii. p. 411,the episcopal office, as well as upon episcop* note 1, Eng. Tr.). In the East a like system ap-signia. gradually arose. Even in A.D. 448 a'1 pears to have grown up, although hardly fromwere forbidden to give owrooroAia (Cbrec. CWthe same origin, some centuries later ; John, Pa-tin.,corrected by Du Cange into eiriffr^ triarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the 12thcommendatory letters for poor, and see ConC' century, informing us that most monasteries inrelian. ii. c. 13, and Turon. ii. c. 6). But by his time were handed over to laymen (xapiura.-1123 it had become necessary to prohibit 2/capioi = beneficiarii), for life or for two or three-rally their thrusting themselves into episc descents, by gift of the emperors; while Balsamonoffices (Conc. Lateran. iv. c. 17). And we (ad Conc. Nicaen. c. 13) actually condemns himit actually asserted by Sever. Binius (in Cc for condemning the practice. Later abuses of theApostol. ap. Labb. Conc. i. 54e, on the autht kind in the West, as in the time of Francisof Bellarmine, De Eccles-. iv. 8), that two or" I. of France or of Louis XIV., need here be only" abbates infulati" might by Papal dispens" alluded to.be substituted for bishops in consecratin (Bingham; Bulteau, Hist. Mon. d'Orient; Dubishop, provided one bis'.iop were there; * Caage; Ant. Dadini, Ascetic. seuOrigg.Rei Monas-Innocent IV. in 1489 empowered an abba:

the Great speaks of sixty (Epist. iv. 11). Arabbess also was not to leave her monastery, inFrance, save once a year if summoned by theking with the bishop's consent to the king'spresence upon monastic business (Conc. Vern.A.D. 755 ; Cabillon. ii. A.D. 813, c. 57). Neitherwas she even to speak to any man save uponnecessary business, and then before witnessesand between the first hour of the day and

(Conc. Cabillon. ii. A.D. 813, cc. 55,56). For the exceptional cases of Anglo-Saxon,Irish, or Continental Irish, abbesses rulingover mixed houses of monks and nuns, seeABBAT. It was noted also as a speciallyWestern custom, that widows as well as virginswere made abbesses (Theod., Poenit. II. iii. 7, inWasserschl. p. 204). [A. W. H.I

8 ABBEYABBEY. [MONASTERY.]ABBUNA, the common appellation of th

Bishop, Metran, or Metropolitan, of Axum,Abyssinia, or Ethiopia, not a patriarch, but,the contrary, appointed and consecrated alwajhy the patriarch of Alexandria, and special]forbidden to have more than seven suffragabishops under him, lest he should make himseso, twelve bishops being held to be the lowescanonical number for the consecration of a patrarch. In a Council, if held in Greece, he occupied the seventh place, immediately after thprelate of Seleucia. (Ludolf, Hist. Ethioj.iii. 7.) [A. W. H.;

ABDELLA, martyr in Persia under Sapocommemorated Apr. 21 (Martyr. Rom. Vet.). [C.~

ABDIANTJS, of Africa, commemorated Jun3 (Mart. Hieron.). [C.]

ABDON, ABDO or ABDUS, and SENNENSEINES, or SENNIS, Persian princes, martyredRome under Decius, A.D. 250, are commemorateJuly 30 (Martyrologium Rom. Vet., Bedae, AdonisProper office in Gregorian Sacramentary, p. 116and Antiphon in the Lib. Antiphon. p. 704.

It is related (Adonis Martyrol. iii. Kal. Aug.that their relics were translated in the timeConstantino to the cemetery of Pontianus. TherBosio discovered a remarkable fresco, representing the Lord, seen from the waist upward emerging from a cloud, placing wreaths on the headof SS. Abdon and Sennen (see woodcut). This i

-JSCS

ABJUEATION ABLUTION

Abdon and Sennen. (Fiom the etery of Poiitianus.)

in front of the vault enclosing the supposedremains of the martyrs, which bears the inscrip-tion [DEPOsm]ONIS DIE. The painting is, inMartigny's opinion, not earlier than the seventhcentury. It is remarkable that the painter hasevidently made an attempt to represent the Per-sian dress. The saints wear pointed caps orhoods, similar to those in which the Magi aresometimes represented; cloaks fastened with afihula on the breast; and tunics of skin entirelyunlike the Roman tunic, and resembling thatgiven to St. John Baptist in a fresco of theLord's Baptism in the same cemetery of Ponti-anus (Bottari, Sculture e Pitture, tav. xliv.).Some account of the peculiar dress of Abdon andSennen may be found in Lami's treatise De Eru-ditione Apostolorum, pp. 121-166.

The gesture of the Lord, crowning the martyrs

for their constancy, is found also on the botgg; the heresiarchs, and their successors, past,'of early Christian cups [GLASS, CHRIST^, and future; he then enumerated thewhere He crowns SS. Peter and Pail,j.s received by them, and, having repudiatedother saints (Buonarruoti, Vasi Antichi^ singly and generally, he ended with makingxv. fig. 1, and elsewhere); and on coins o^ion of the true faith. (Bandinius, Monu-Lower Empire the Lord is not unfrequja jj. 109-111. But for the whole subject seeseen crowning two emperors. (Martigny, ,tene and Durand, De Antiquis Ecclesiae Riti-des Antiq. chretiennesJ] jl. liber iii. ch. 6; Abj. de levi et de vehementi,

ABEOEDAEIAN. The term " Hymmtf date. See Landon's Eccl. Die.) [D. B.]" Paean Abecedarius " is applied specially tiBLTJTION. A term under which varioushymn of Sedulius, " A solis ortus can|s Of ceremonial washing are included. The[ACROSTIC.] jcipal are the following: the washing of the

ABEECIUS of Jerusalem, fownW, as a preparation for unction in baptism,davpaTOvpybs, commemorated Oct. 22 | the washing of the feet, which in someByzant.). fes formed part of the baptismal ceremony

PTISM] ; the washing of the feet of the poorABGABTJS, King, commemorated Dee!xalte(i pei-Sons, which forms part of the cere-

(Cal. Armen.). [? Of Maundy Thursday [FEET, WASHING OF];ABIBAS, martyr of Edessa, commemoi'histral ceremony which preceded entrance to a

Nov. 15 (Gal. Byzant.). [rch [CANTHARUS; HOLY WATER]; and theA T>T-r>rvxT i- i i - X T hing of the priest's hands at certain pointsABIBON, invention of his relics at Jejhe cDeiebration of the liturgy [AQUAMANILE;

lem, Aug. 3 (Martyrol Rom. Vet.). [^ WAgmNG OT]< [C--,

ABILIUS, bishop of Alexandria (A.D. 86- _^Tr.XT , . .commemorated Feb. 22 (Martyrol Mom. T^0^0^. The crime of procuring abor-Maskarram 1 = Aug. 29 (Cal Ethiop.). f 1S

T\lttie> lf at a11' uey the imposition of hands. As, however, the civil law in which the crime is mentionei

mystery of the Chrism was but the Oriental ihout such connexion, is a sentence of Ulpianf Confirmation, the practice was substantiithe Pandects (Dig. xlviii. 8, 8, ad legem Cordentical. (On the question of Re-baptism, iam de Sicariis), where the punishmentIE-BAPTISM, BAPTISM.) Converts from tlared to be banishment. The horrible prevaMonophysites were received after simple coni'ce of the practice among the Romans of thion, and the previous baptism was supposedipire may be learned from Juvenal,ake effect " for the remission of sins," at ft was early made a ground of accusation b

moment at which the Spirit was imparted s Christians against the heathen. Tertulliahe imposition of hands; or the convert was Jounces the practice as homicidal. " Pre

united to the Church by his profession of faiition of birth is a precipitation of murder,St. Greg. Ep. 9, 61). A similar rule is tol. ix. Minucius Felix declares it to be pa:own by the Quinisext Council, canon 95, whiide.lasses with the Arians, the Macedonians, NoJhe Council of Ancyra (A.D. 314) having menians and others, to be received with the Chrisfled that the ancient punishment was penan

Paulianists, Montanists, Eunomians, z life, proceeds to limit it to ten years; anthers, are to be re-baptized; to be received* same space of time is given by St. Basil, whChristians, on their profession, the first day,idemns the practice in two canons, ii. andviii'atechumens the second, and after they hanging the character of the crime as committeeen allowed a place in the Church as heareUast both the mother and the offspring; anor some time, to be baptized. In all cases, twining to accept the distinctions drawn brofession of faith must be made by the pi- lawyers between the degrees of criminalitsntation of a libellus, or form of abjuration, T'ng with the time of the gestation, Th

which the convert renounced and anathematiz^ncil of Lerida (324) classes the crime witis former tenets. After declaring his abjur^nticide, but allows the mother to be receiveon not to be made on compulsion, from fear i Communion after seven years' penance evey other unworthy motive, he proceeded ^ en her sin is complicated with adultery. Tl

nathematize the sect renounced, by all i^&cil in Trullo condemns it to the peaauc

ABSTINENCE 9homicide. Pope Gregory III. in the next

ntury reverts to the ten years' penance, al-xough he differs from St. Basil in modifying thentence to a single year in cases where thelild has not been formed in the womb; this isased on Exod. xxi., and is countenanced by St.ugustine, in Quaestiones Exodi, in a passage in-orporated by Gratian.

There is thus abundant evidence that the crimeas held in extreme abhorrence, and punishedith great severity, as pertaining to wilfullurder, by the canons of the Church. By the"isigothic law (lib. VI. tit. iii. c. 1), the personrho administered a draught for the purposeras punished with death. [D. B.]ABEAHAM. (1) the patriarch, comme-

morated Oct. 9 (Martyrol Rom. Vet."). Also onhe 23rd of the month Nahasse, equivalent toAugust 16. (Cal. Ethiop.; Neale, Eastern Church,^ntrod. pp. 805, 815.)

(2) Patriarch and martyr, commemoratedTaksas 6 = Dec. 2 (Cal Ethiop.). [C.]

ABEAHAM, ISAAC, AND JACOB arelommemorated by the Ethiopic Church on the28th of every month of their Calendar. [C.]

ABEAXAS GEMS. [See ABRASAX in)ICT. OF CHRIST. BIOGR.]

ABEEHA, first Christian king of Ethio-a, commemorated Tekemt 4 = Oct. 1 (Cal

Ethiop.). ' [C.]ABEENUNTIATIO. [BAPTISM.]ABSOLUTION (Lat. Absolutio). (For Sacra-

mental Absolution, see ExOMOLOGESis.)1. A short deprecation which follows the

Psalms of each Nocturn in the ordinary officesfor the Hours. In this usage, the word " abso-lutio " perhaps denotes simply " ending " or " com-pletion," because the monks, when the Nocturnswere said at the proper hours of the night, brokeoff the chant at this point and went to rest(Maori Hierolexicon s. T.). In fact, of the "Ab-solutiones " in the present Roman Breviary, onlyone (that " in Tertio Nocturne, et pro feria iv.et Sabbato") contains a prayer for absolution,in the sense of a setting free from sin.

2. For the Absolution which follows the intro-ductory Confession in most Liturgies and Offices,see CONFESSION.

3. The prayer for Absolution at the beginningof the office is, in Oriental Liturgies, addressedto the Son : but many of these liturgies containa second " Oratio Absolutionis," at some pointbetween Consecration and Communion, which isaddressed to the Father. For example, that inthe Greek St. Basil (Renaudot, Lit. Orient, i. 81),addressing God, the Father Almighty (6 eds,6 flarfyp 6 HavroKparajp), and reciting the pro-mise of the Keys, prays Him to dismiss, remitand pardon our sins (&ves, &es, ff\yyyjjipi\(fovfifjuv). Compare the Coptic St. Basil (Ib. i. 22).

4. The word " Absolutio " is also applied tothose prayers said over a corpse or a tomb inwhich remission of the sins of the departed isentreated from the Almighty. (Maori Hiero-lexicon, s. v.) [C.]

ABSTINENCE. Days of abstinence, as theyare called, on which persons may take theirmeals at the ordinary hour, and eat and drinkwhat they please, in any quantity so that they

10 ABUNAabstain from meat alone, belong to modern times,Anciently, fasting and abstinence went together,as a general rule, formed parts of the same idea,and could not be dissevered. There may havebeen some few, possibly, who ate and drank in-discriminately, when they broke their fast, asSocrates (v. 22, 10) seems to imply; but ingeneral, beyond doubt, abstinence from certainkinds of food was observed on fasting days whenthe fast was over, " abstinentes ab iis, quae nonrejicimus, sed difFerimus," as Tertullian say;(j)e Jejun. 15). Thus it will be more properlyconsidered under the head of fasting, to whichit subserved. [E. S. F.]

ABUNA. [ABB0NA.]ABUNDANTIUS, of Alexandria, commemo-

rated Feb. 26 (Mart, ffieron.). [C.]ABUNDIUS. (1) Martyr at Rome under

Decius, commemorated Aug. 26 (Mart. Rom. Vet.et Bedae); Aug. 23 (Mart. Hieronym.).

(2) The deacon, martyr at Spoleto under Dio-cletian, Dec. 10 (Martyrol. Bom. Vet.). [C.]

ACACIUS, martyr, commemorated May 7(Cal. Byzant.). [C.]

ACATHISTUS (Gr. AK^O-TOS). A hymn ofthe Greek Church, sung on the eve of the fifthSunday in Lent, in honour of the Blessed Virgin,to whose intercession the deliverance of Constan-tinople from the barbarians on three several oc-casions was attributed. Meursius assigns itsorigin more especially to the deliverance of thecity from Chosroes, king of the Persians, in thereign of the Emperor Heraclius (626). It iscalled aicdOiffTOs, because during the singing ofit the whole congregation stood, while duringthe singing of other hymns of the same kindthey occasionally sat. (Suicer's Thesaurus, s. v.;Neale's Eastern Ch. Introd. 747 ; Daniel's CodexLiturg. iv. 223.)

Francis Junius wrongly supposed this use ofthe Acathistus to commemorate the journey ofMary and Joseph to Bethlehem, (Macri Hfcro-lexicon, s. v.)

The word Acathistus is also used to designatethe day on which the hymn was used. (SabaejTypicum, in Suicer, s. v.) [C.]

ACCENTUS ECCLESIASTICUS. One ofthe two principal kinds (accentus and concentus)of ecclesiastical music.

1. The consideration of this subject is encum-bered by an especial difficultythe popular, andnow all but exclusive application of the word" accent" to emphasis, stress, or ictus. Accent,however, claims and admits of a much widerapplication. Ben Jonsona speaks of accent asbeing " with the ancients, a tuning of the voice,in lifting it up, or letting it down,"a defini-tion not only clear and concise, but thoroughlyaccordant with the derivation of the word" accent," from accino, i. e. ad cano, to sing to.We are ail conscious of and affected by thevarieties of accentb (in this, its etymologicaland primitive acceptation) in foreign languagesspoken by those to whom they are native, aswell as in our native language spoken by fo-reigners, or (perhaps still more) by residents of

a English Grammar, 1640, chap. viil.

b " Est in dicendo etiam quidam cantus obscurior."

Cioero, Orat. 18, 51.

ACCENTUS ECCLESIASTIC^ACCENTUS ECCLESIASTICUS

parts of Great Britain other than our o\vtScottish, Irish, and various provincial

;gs," as is that still more essential uniformityare not so much the result of different Dressed in the term Common Prayer, withouttion (i.e. utterance of vowel sounds) asch, indeed, congregational worship would seemdifferent gradations in which the Scotcje impossible. " Accent," says Ornithoparcus,and others, " tune their voices." ith great affinity with Concent, for they be

2. The Accent.us Ecclesiasticus, called (thers : because Sonus, or Sound (the King ofdUs choraliter legendi, is the result of su(lesiastical Harmony), is Father to them both,attempts to ensure in Public Worship unjj begat one upon Grammar, the other uponof delivery consistent with uniformity of sick," &c. (He) "so divided his kingdome,delivered; so as, if not to obliterate, at jt Concentus might be chief Ruler over allhide individual peculiarities under the Vf'gs that are to be sung, as Hymnes, Sequences,catholic "use." It presents a sort of nfiphones, Responsories, Introitus, Tropes, andtween speech and song, continually inclij like : and Accentus over all things which arewards the latter, never altogether lea^; as Gospels, Lectures, Epistles, Orations,hold on the former ; it is speech, though phecies : For the functions of the Papaleattuned speech, in passages of average j.gdome are not duely performed without Con-and importance ; it is song, though alw^," &c. " Hence it was that I, marking howtinct and articulate song, in passages dejay of tnose Priests (which by the leave of themore fervid utterance. Though actually fned I will saye) doe reade those things theyonly in concluding or culminating phras'6 to reade so wildly, so monstrously, soAccentus Ecclesiasticus is always sufficiency (that the7 doe not onely hinder the de-chronous to admit of its being expressed ition of the faithful, but also even provokecal characters, a process to which no a1" to laughter and scorning, with their ill

ACCENTUS ECCLESIASTICUS 11accent is (1) immutabilis when a phrase is con-cluded without any change of pitch, i.e., when itis monotonous throughout; (2) it is medius whenon the last syllable the voice falls from thereciting note (technically the dominant) a third ;(3) grams, when on the last syllable it falls afifth; (4) acutus, when the " dominant," after theinterposition of a few notes at a l&wer pitch, isresumed; (5) moderatus, when the monotone isinterrupted by an ascent, on the penultimate, ofa second; (6) interrogativus, when the voice,after a slight descent, rises scale-wise on the lastsyllable. To these six forms other writers addone more, probably of more recent adoption;(7) the finalis, when the voice, after rising asecond above the dominant, falls scale-wise tothe fourth below it, on which the last syllable issounded. The choice of these accents or cadencesis regulated by the punctuation (possible, if notalways actual) of the passage recited ; each par-ticular stop had its particular cadence or cadences.Thus the comma (distinctio) was indicated and

(and such attempts have been repeatedljding)> resolved after the doctrine of Concenthas ever succeeded in subjecting pure spe(exPlam the rules of Accent > in as much as ii;

3. Accentus is probably the oldest, as it011^ t& a Mus^ian> that together with Con-tainly the simplest, form of Cantus EcdeA Ac(?n\^\ V* M?v vT8 if Like most art-forms and modes of ^esiasticallKingdome be established: Desiring

, . , i , ,-, , j ,, nt the praise of the highest King, to whom allwhich have subsequently commended thei * , . , ' , , , , ,

, , . j. j. f -L lour anc1- reverence is due, might duely beon their own acco ant to our sense of bes. j e Jgrewin_all likelihood out of a physical dit^ Xccentus Ecclesiasticus, or modus cho-The limited capacit) of the so-called nn>,.fer legendi^ must have beeu perpetuated byor speaking voice must have been ascerta^^

onlV; fol. many ageg< That the rulesa very early period; indeed its recognU

its appiication have been reduced to writingconfirmed by the well-known practice % iu comparatively modern times does not inof the ancient temple, theatre, or forum. \ ieast invalidate its claim to a high antiquity,rhetoricians, says Forkel, are, without exes the contrary, it tends to confirm it. Thatof the same way of thinking; and we maj^ch is extensively known and universally ad-their extant works, confidently conducted has no need of verification. It is onlyneither among the Greeks nor the Rom^en traditions are dying out that they begin topoetry ever recited but in a tone analog1 put on record. So long as this kind of reci-that since known as the accentus ecclesiastion was perfectly familiar to the Greeks andThe Abbe' du Bosd too has demonstrate^mans there could be no necessity for " noting "not only was the theatrical recitation (; not till it began to be less so were " accents "ancients actually musical" un veritable %e characters so called) invented for its pre-susceptible of musical notation, and eveBrvation,just as the " vowel-points " werestrumental accompanimentbut that alltroduced into Hebrew writing subsequently topublic discourses, and even their famine dispersion of the Jews. The force and accu-;uage, though of course in a lesser degre'cy of tradition, among those unaccustomed to,ook of this character. ie use of written characters, have been well

4. The advantages resulting from the efcertained and must be unhesitatingly admitted;ment of isochronous sounds (sounds whi'ieir operation has certainly been as valuable inthe result of equal-timed vibrations) wofl'usic as in poetry and history. Strains incom-;ome apparent on the earliest occasion, %rably longer and more intricate than those now

single orator was called upon to fill a;ceptcd as the ecclesiastical accents have beenauditorium, and to make himself intelligi'issed on from voice to voice, with probably but

:ven audible, to a large assembly. So, trifling alteration, for centuries, among peoplessimultaneous expression on the part of large-ho had no other method of preserving and'>ers, these advantages would at once makei-ansmitting them,elves felt. In congregational worship a u 6. The authorities for the application of thetechnically, a " unisonous ") utterance lantus Ecclesiasticus are, as we have said, corn-

seem as essential, as conducive to the dfaratively modern. Lucas Lossius/ a writermd order with which we are enjoined to frequently quoted by Walther, Kock, and other

" Die alten Sprach- und Declamations-Leb>re recent modes of bringing to anhren hinterlassenen Werken mit dem hochsten Gr.fid a phrase the earlier portion of which hadWahrscheinlichkeit schliessen, dass sowohl bei deeen recited in monotone. According to Lossius,chen als Eomern die meisten Gedichte mit keiner!

accompanied by the accentus immutabilis, acutus,or moderatus; the colon (duo puncta) by themedius; and the full stop (punctum quadratumante syllabam capitaleni) by the grams.

1. The following table, from Lossius, exhibitsthe several accents, in musical notation:

(1) IMMUTABIUS.

et o - pe - ra - tur vir - tu -1(3) GEAVIS.

in vo - bis:

Be - ne - di- cen - tur in(4) ACUTUS.

otn-nes gen-tes.(5) MODERATUS.

-*.-_n- *^ n ~~~ ~~z__^ u u

~ ^ ' il Q

Cum spi - ri - tu coe - pe - ri - tis mine, Cum fi-de - li,(6) IKTEEKOGATIVUS.

ex op-e-ri-bus le-gis an exau-di-tu fl-de - i?(7) FISALIS.

* s*:* at^^7

Ia - ni - ma me - a ad te De - us.

The examples given by Ornithoparcus are similarto the above, with two exceptions(5), the Mode-ratus, which in ' His Micrologus' appears thus:

als mit dieser Art von Gesang gesungen werdensi e Andreas Ornithoparcus, His Micrologus. Translated

Forkel, Allgem. Geschichte der Musik, ii, 153.Reflexions sur la Poesie, &c. y John Dowland. 1609. P. 69.f

Erotemata Musicae Practicae, 1590.

II - lu - mi - na - re Je - ru - sa - lem.And the Interrogativus, of which he says: " Aspeech with an interrogation, whether it have inthe end a word of one sillable, or of two sillables,or more, the accent still falls upon the last sil-lable, and must be acuated. Now the signs ofsuch a speech are, who, which, what, and thosewhich are thus derived, why, wherefore, when,how, in what sort, whether, and such like,"

12 ACCESS ACLEENSE CONCILIUM ACOEMETAE ACOLYTES 13

Un - de es tu? Quid est bo - mo?

Quantas ha-be - o in-i-qui- ta-tes etpec-ca-ta?" To these are joyned verbes of asking; aslaske, I seeke, I require, I searche, I heare, I se Mennas. It was composed of

\.cerra designated, in classical times, eitk0 mollks Of different nations, whom he dividedncense-box used in sacrifices; or a small altt0 six choirg) and arranged sothat one of themicense-burner, placed before the dead. (Siiould be always employed in the work of prayer)ict. of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s. v.)d prajse day and n\^ without intermission

ecclesiastical latinity also it designates 4 the year round- This wag their peculiar clia_

incense-box or an incense-burner; "cteristicand it has been copied in variousnuns, vel thuribulum, vel thurarium." (Piys elsewhere since thenthat some part oa Ducange's Glossary s. v. ' Acerna.') the house," as Wordsworth (Excurs. viii. 185;

It is used in the rubrics of the Gregoriaipresses it; was evermore watching to God.''amentary (Corbey MS.) in the office ioiexander having been calumniated for thinsecration of a church (p. 428); and inactice as heretical, he was imprisoned, bu

ffice for the baptism of a bell (p. 438)gajned his liberty, and died, say his biographerslatter in the form Acerna: " tune pon jn the reign of Theodosius the Greatmartyrs, A.D. 346, commemorated Nov. 2 (f also became theirs sooner or later to whicp \ nalesius (Ad. Evag. m. 19 and 31) adds a thir

^ ' unded by St. Bassianus. It may have beeACEPHALI [VAGI CLERICI ; Auiring to their connexion with Studius that the

ere led to correspond with the West. At aACLEENSE CONCILIUM (of Aclcs-ents, on the acceptance by Acacius, the patr

of the Oak," supposed to be Aycliifrch succeeding Gennadius, of the Henoticon sed an Abecedarian Psalm against the Do-Palmer's Treatise on the Church of Christ. P**, in imitation of the 119th, with the con-

. ,,,,.,-,., ,-. t response, " Omnes qui gaudetis de pace,AOONTTU8, of Rome, commemorat^ ^ j^^,, S25 (Mart. Mwrm.).

A peculiar use Of the acrostic is found inACEOSTIC. ('AicpoffTixis, a/cpoir, Office-books of the Greek Church. Each

a/cpoVrixoi', Acrostichis.) A composition, or series of TEOPARIA, has its ownwhich the first letters of the several linesstic> which is a metrical line formed of thethe name of a person or thing,attributed to Epicharmus.

The invent letters of the Troparia which compose the>n. To take the instance given by Dr. Neale

We find several applications of the A(;fonl

16 ACTOES AND ACTEESSES ADBIANUS ADULTERY ADULTERY 17

lian wrote the treatise already quoted speciallagainst it and its kindred evils of the circus anthe amphitheatre, and dwells on the inconsistency of uttering from the same lips the ameof Christian worship, and the praises of thgladiator or the mime. The actor seeks, againsthe words of Christ, to add a cubit to his staturby the use of the Cothurnus. He breaks thDivine law which forbids a man to wear ;woman's dress (Deut. xxii. 5). Clement oAlexandria reckons them among the thingwhich the Divine Instructor forbids to all Hifollowers (Paedagog. iii. c. 77, p. 298). In courseof time the question naturally presented itselfwhether an actor who had become a Christianmight continue in his calling, and the Christianconscience returned an answer in the negativeThe case which Cyprian deals with (Ep. 2, utsupra) implies that on that point there couldno doubt whatever, and he extends the prohibitionto the art of teaching actors. It would be betteto maintain such a man out of the funds of theChurch than to allow him to continue in such acalling. The more formal acts of the Church spokein the same tone. The Council of Illiberis (c.required a "pantomimus" to renounce his artbefore he was admitted to baptism. If he re-turned to it, he was to be excommunicated.The 3rd Council of Carthage (c. 35) seems tobe moderating the more extreme rigour of someteachers, when it orders that " gratia vel recon-ciliatio" is not to be denied to them any morethan to penitent apostates. The Codex Eccles.Afric. (c. 63) forbids any one who had been con-verted, " ex qualibet ludicra arte," to be temptedor coerced to resume his occupation. The Coun-cil in Trullo (c. 51) forbids both mimes and theirtheatres, and ras rl ffKt\viav op%^ succour the tempted, and pity thehumerum, et post tergum, designant es Polycarp to the Philippians (cap. xi.),donemque judicii." fW. fiaccount of Valens who was made presbyter

igst you, because he thus knows not theADAM AND EVE are commemorai. which was given him." This man had

he Ethiopic Calendar on the 6th day i into adultery (see Jacobson in loco). "Imonth Miaziah. equivalent to April 1. re exceedingly both for him and for hisArmenian Church commemorates Adam to whom may the Lord grant true repent-Abel on July 25. (Neale, Eastern Church, l>. Be ye therefore also sober-minded in this>p. 800, 812.) er, and count not such persons as your ene-

DATTPTTm or ATTDAPTTTq m ill' but as suffering and wayward membersDAUL1 Ub or AUDAClLb. (lUhem back, that you may save the one Bodyit Rome commemorated Aug. 30 (Jfo)u dL For SQ d>. ve'shall establish >om. Vet., Hwron.). Proper collects IB i "

gorian Sacmmentary (p. 127), and Antipl^' of Rome; unlike polycarR had no

.to.Antip/i. p. 70y. al example to deal with; his warnings are(2) Commemorated Oct. 4 (M. //*m.),fore ge^eraL In ^ .; 30 and ^ 6 ofADDEEBOUEN, COUNCIL near the ^ Ep., attributed to him, adultery is stig-

DERBURNENSE CONCILIUM), A.D. 705; o;:e(l among the foulest, and most heinousiver Nodder, or Adderbourn, in Wijtshii His exhortations and promises of forgive-

]nglish bishops and abbats, where a^riO- 7, 8, 9, 50) are likewise general, butree election of their abbat, after Aldl tenour leaves no doubt that he intended toeath, made by Bishop Aldhelm to the r a11 such sinners to repentance. The samef Malmesbury, Frome, and Bradford,

Wairations of remission to all penitents andarmed (W. Malm., De Gest. font. v. pars t)osing of evel7 bond by the grace of Christ,645, Mi

18 ADULTERY ADULTERYADTJI rppijv

pares the attitude of the Church towards back- I should perish and we be murderers; nasliders, especially towards the incontinent, with bringing up of children is the yery object','ough "uon concupisces," and in the samethat feeling which prompted the Pythagoreans to marriages." There are passages to therit Commodian {Instruct. 48) writeserect a cenotaph for each disciple who left their effect in the Ep. ad Diognd. c. 5, and Atl'Escam muscipuli ubi mors est longe vitate:school. They esteemed him dead, and, in pre- \Legat. pro Christian, (c. 33 al. 28), anj Jj?^"^ :^,^ fltmt ^^Bnnguine fuso*cisely the same way. Christians bewail as lost to these early apologists adduce a princip]. , ' , , , ,r< i j i j j i AV, i. j i j.1 j c j. .tnpare other passages on adultery of theGod and already dead, those who are overcome down amongst the ends _ of matrimony ^

Lactant_ ^ ^ |L 23 and E, ^ Qwith unclean desire or the like. Should such Anglican marriage - service. They no >

ffom_ 3? aL 31 aad later Qn Photiregain their senses, the Church receives them at utter the thought of their teilow Lnii igg_a remarkable compositionlength, as men alive from death, but to a longer in opposing to the licence of the age the j^nother safeguard from licentiousness wasprobation than the one converts underwent at parental instincts, and these are pei'K hi o-h valuation now set upon the true dignitvfirst, and as no more capable of honour and every age the most stringfent restraintswo^lall not oniy ag the help-meet of man butdignity amongst their fellows. Yet Origen goes adultery. _

a partaker in the Divine Image, sharing theon to state (59-64) the remedial power of Chris- The standard of contemporary Jewish pje hope, and a fit partner of that moraltianity. Taken together these sections paint a may be divined from the Dial, cum Tron jn which our Lord placed the intentionlively picture of the treatment of gross trans- cc. 134 and 141. The Rabbis taught th| essence of the married state. Clement ofgressors within and without the Christian fold, fulness of marrying four or five wives,,Xandria draws a picture of the ChristianOn the passage in his De Oratione, which sounds man were moved by the sight of beauty J-e and mother (Paedag. iii. 11, p. 250 Sylb.like an echo of Tertullian, see foot-note in Dela- example excused him,if he sinned, the[ Potter's Gr. marg.); of the husband andrue's ed., vol. i. 256. dent of David assured his forgiveness. tier, (Strom, vii. p. 741). Tertullian before

Christians might well shrink from what they Surrounding evils naturally deepened tl1; jn the last cap. ad Uxorem describes a trulysaw around them. Licentious impurities, count- pression upon Christians that they were ,-istian marriagethe oneness of hope, prayer,less in number and in kind, were the burning gers and pilgrims in the world, that thictice, and pious service; no need of conceal-reproaches, the pollution, and the curse of must be to keep themselves from being paint, mutual avoidance, nor mutual vexation ;heathendom. It is impossible to quote much on in other men's sins; to suffer not as evil;rust banished, a freeborn confidence, sym-these topics, but a carefully drawn sketch of but as Christians, and to use the Roman ihy, and comfort in each other, presiding overthem will be found in two short essays by Pro- St. Paul used it, for an appeal on occ%y part of their public and private existence,fessor Jowett appended to the first chapter of possible protection, but not a social rule, ^his language derives additional strengthhis Commentary on the Romans. They demon- the danger was Quietism; and they weren Tertullian's treatment of mixed marriages,strate how utterly unfounded is the vulgar accused of forsaking the duties of citiztjse contracted before conversion fall under 1notion that Councils and Fathers meddled un- soldiersaccusations which the Apologist, vii. 10-17 (cf. ad Uxor. ii. 2), yet theirnecessarily with gross and disgusting offences, ticulaiiy Tertullian and Origen, aEsequences were most mischievous. He tellsWith these essays may be compared Martial though with many reserves. The i(ad Scapulam 3) how Claudius Herminianus,and the Satirists, or a single writer such as thought that their prayers and exampltose wife became a convert, revenged himselfSenecaunus instar omniume. g. " Hinc de- the best of services ; they shunned sitt barbarous usage of the Cappadocian Chris-eentissimum sponsaliorum genus, adulterium," judgment on cases involving life and deis. A mixed marriage after conversion is a&c., i. 9 ; or again, iii. 16, " Nunquid jam ulla prisonment or torture, and (what is morey great sin, forbidden by 1 Cor. vii. 39 and 2repudio erubescit postquam illustres quaedam purpose) questions de pudore. On the act. vi. 14-16, and Tertullian ad Uxor. ii. 3ac nobiles foeminae, non consulum numero, of Christians to magistracy as early as tdemns those who contract it as " stupri reos "sed maritorum, annos suos computant ? et tonines, cf. Dig. 50, tit. 2, s. 3, sub fin., witltransgressors of the 7th Commandment,exeunt matrimonii causa, nubunt repudii ? . . . fred's notes. Traces of their aversion fnlressing his own wife, he proceeds to describeNunquid jam ullus adulterii pudor est, postquam business appear in some few Councils; e.serious evils to a woman. When she wisheseo ventum est, ut nulla virum habeat, nisi ut 56, excludes Duumvirs from public ittend worship her husband makes an appoint-adulterum irritet ? Argumentum est deformi- during their year of office. Tarracon. 4,it for the baths. Instead of hymns she hearstatis, pudicitia. Quam invenies tarn miseram, I bishops to decide criminal causesa rulsjs, and his songs are from the theatre, thetarn sordidam, ut illi satis sit unum adulterorum has left its mark on modern legislation, ern, and the night cellar. Her fasts arepar?" &c. In Valerius Maximus we hear a rally resulting from these influences,iered by his feasts. He is sure to objectsigh for departed moralsin Christian writers, higher and diffused tone of purity, (inst nocturnal services, prison visits, the kissfrom the Apologists to Salvian, a recital of the human laws, believers transcended thenueace, and other customs. She will have atruth, always reproachful, and sometimes half Diognet. 5, and compare Just. Apol. I. iculty in persuading him that such privatetriumphant. Moreover, as usual, sin became the with 15. He speaks emphatically of Jrvances as crossing and exsufBation, are notpunishment of sinJustin Martyr, in his first I numerable multitude who turned fromjical rites. To these and other remarks,

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Apology (c. 27 seq.), points out the horrible con-sequences which ensued from a heathen prac-tice following upon the licenca just mentioned.The custom of exposing new-born babes pervadedall ranks of society, and was authorized even bythe philosophers. Almost all those exposed, saysJustin, both boys and girls, were taken, reared,and fed like brute beasts for the vilest purposesof sensuality; so that a man might commit thegrossest crime unawares with one of his ownchildren, and from these wretched beings theState derived a shameful impost. Compare Ter-tull. Apologet. 9, sub fin. Happy in comparisonthose infants who underwent the prae or postnatal fate, described by Minucius Felix c. 30. ToLactantius (we may remark) are attributed thelaws of Constantine intended to mitigate theallied evils of that later age, cf. Milman (Hist.Christ, ii. 394). " We," continues Justin (c.29), " expose not our offspring, lest one of them

to Christian self-control. The causelesstullian adds the sensible arguments, thatallowed by law led to what Christ fore but the worst heathens would marrydigamy and adultery, while the latter 'istian women, and how then could believingby Him extended to the eye and the he'es feel secure in such hands ? Their hus-like manner, Athenagoras (Leg. pro C'ds kept the secret of their religion as aasserts that it was impossible to find a Cms of enforcing subjection; or, if dissatisfied,who had been criminally convictedandsed it for the day of persecution and legal-Christian is an evil-doer except he be a if murder. Their own motives were of the32, 33, al. 27, 28, that impurity of* kindthey married for a handsome litter,essentially adultery, and that even a'es, and tall attendants from some foreignunchaste thought may exclude from evfttry;luxuries which a faithful man, evenlife. He says, as Justin, that nurnber^ealthy, might not think proper to allowChurch were altogether continent; mimin. This being the early experience of thelived according to the strictest marris-rch, we are not surprised to find mixedAthenagoras goes so far (33 al. 28) adages forbidden in after times sub poemnounce against all second marriages, fofterii.who deprives himself of even a deceaseds cannot here pass over a history told bytaking another is an adulterer. Cl$u Martyr in his Apol. ii. 2, and repeatedAlexandria (Paedag. ii. 6) quaintly ^usebius iv. 17, respecting which the learnedthat " Non Moechaberis " is cut up by *ham has been led into a remarkable mis-

take, copied and added to by Wliiston in a noteon Antiq. xv. 7, 10. A woman married to avery wicked husband, herself as drunken anddissolute as the man, became a convert to thefaith. Thoroughly reformed, she tried to per-suade him by the precepts of the Gospel andthe terrors of eternal fire. Failing in her at-tempts, and revolted by the loathsome and un-natural compulsion to which her husband sub-jected her, she thought repudiation would bepreferable to a life of impious compliances. Herfriends prevailed upon her to wait and hope forthe best, but a journey to Alexandria made herhusband worse than before, and, driven to des-pair, she sent him a divorce. Immediately heinformed against her as a Christian; a blowwhich she parried by presenting a petition fordelay to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, whogranted her request. Upon this her husband,thirsting for revenge, accused her teacher inreligious truth, and had the satisfaction of seeingthree lives sacrificed in succession to his ven-

Bingham (xvi. 11, 6) cites the narrative as aninstance of a wife's being allowed by the Churchto divorce a husband on the ground of adultery.But the valuable writer, led perhaps by Gotho-fred (Cod. Theod. vol. i. p. 312) has here erred ina matter of fact, for Justin takes some pains toshow that the woman's grievance was not adul-tery at all. Fleury (iii. 49) has apprehendedthe truth with correctness and expressed it withdelicacy. The like case is discussed by an authorlong called Ambrose in his comment on 1 Cor. vii.11 (Ambros. op. ed. Benedict., torn. ii. appendixp. 133 E-F), and he determines that, under thegiven circumstances, a woman must separatefrom her h usband, but she must not marry again.The Imperial law also provided a remedy, God.Theod. 9, tit. 7, s. 3. It is certainly noteworthythat, in telling this brief tragedy, neither Justinnor Eusebius says a word against the wife's seek-ing relief from the heathen custom of divorce.Yet its license was condemned on all sides. Thefounder of the Empire strove to check it; and,had the aggrieved woman lived under the firstChristian emperor, that resource would havebeen denied her. Clearly, circumstances justi-fied the wife, but it would seem natural to havementioned the danger of doing wrong, whilepleading her justification. We, in modern times,should say that such cases are exceptional, andthe inference from silence is that similar wicked-ness was not exceptional in those days, and wastreated by the Church as a ground of divorce;a mournful conclusion, but one that many factsrender probable, e.g. the Imperial law abovecited.

From these antecedents our step is brief tolaws for the repression of incontinency. Thenatural beginning was for each community tofollow simply the example of St. Paul (1 Corv. and 2 Cor. ii.), but, as converts multiplied,became necessary to prescribe definite tests orepentance which formed also the terms of reconciliation. Such rules had for one object thegood of the community, and in this light everyoffence was a public wrong, and is so lookedupon by canon law at this day. But penitencehad a second objectthe soul's health of theoffenderand thxts viewed, the same transgres-sion was treated as a moral stain, and censured

C 2

20 ADULTERYaccording to its intrinsic heinousness, or, in fewwords, the crime became a sin. This idea, nodoubt, entered into the severe laws of Christianprinces against adultery, and is an indication ofecclesiastical influence upon them. Framers ofcanons had in turn their judgment acted uponby the great divines, who were apt to regulatepublic opinion, and to enforce as maxims of lifetheir own interpretations of Scripture. Some-times the two characters met in the same per-son, as in the eminent Gregories, Basil, andothers; but where this was not the case, theo-logians commonly overlooked many points whichcanonists were bound to consider.

Church lawgivers must indeed always haveregard to existing social facts and the ordinarymoral tone of their own age and nation. Theymust likewise keep State law steadily iii mindwhen they deal with offences punishable in civilcourts. That they did so in reality, we learnfrom the Greek Scholia; and hence, when divorceis connected with adultery (particularly as itscause), the Scholiasts trace most canonicalchanges to foregoing alterations in the laws ofthe Empire. The reader should reproduce in hismind these two classes of data if he wishes toform a judgment on subjects like the present.We have called attention to the license whichtainted prae-Christian Borne. Of the Christianworld, homilists are the most powerful illustra-tors, but the light thrown upon it by canons isquite unmistakable. The spirit prevalent at theopening of the 4th century may be discernedfrom its Councils, e.g: Gangra; one object ofwhich (can. 4) was to defend married presbytersagainst the attacks made upon them; cf. Elib. 33,and Stanley's account of the later 1 Nic. 3 (EasternGh. 196-9). Gangra, 14, forbids wives to deserttheir husbands from abhorrence of married life ;9 and 10 combat a like disgust and contempt ofmatrimony displayed by consecrated virgins,and 16 is aimed against sons who desert theirparents under pretext of piety, i.e. to becomecelibates, something after the fashion of " Cor-ban." An age, where the springs of home lifeare poisoned, is already passing into a morbidcondition, and legislative chirurgeons may beexcused if they commit some errors of severity indealing with its evils. But what can be said ofthe frightful pictures of Roman life drawn, some-what later, by Ammian. Marcell. xiv. 6; xxvii. 3;and xxviii. 4; or the reduced copies of them inGibbon, chaps. 25 and 31, to which may be addedthe fiery Epistles of Jerome (passim), and thecalm retrospect of Milman (Hist, of Christ, iii.230, seq.) ? Can any one who reads help reflect-ing with what intensified irony this decrepitage might repeat the old line of EnniusMulierem: quid potius dicam aut verius quam mulierem ?Or can we feel surprised with violent efforts atcoercing thos