SOCIOLOGY REVIEWER NAMES TERMS & IMPT DEFINITIONS

LECTURE#1 – SOCIAL PERSPECTIVES Definition of Sociology:

The systematic study of the relationship between the individual and society and of the consequences of different types of relationships ( Berger,2007)

Is the systematic study of human society ( Macionis,2003)

Is the systematic study of social behavior and human groups (Schaefer,2005)

Sociology focuses on:

How social relationships influence people’s attitudes and behavior

How major social institutions affect us

How we affect other individuals, groups, and organizations

Origins of Sociology:

The rise of a factory-based industrial economy.

The emergence of great cities in Europe.

Political changes, including a rising concern with individual liberty and rights. (The French Revolution symbolized this dramatic break with political and social tradition.)

Founders of Sociology:

Aguste Comte

- System of Positive Polity, or Treatise on Sociology, Instituting the Religion of Humanity.

Emile Durkheim - The Division of Labor in Society - The Elementary Forms of

Religious Life - Suicide

Karl Marx - Das Kapital

Max Weber - The Protestant Ethic and the Rise

of Capitalism - The Sociology of Religion - The theory of Social and

Economic organization

Aguste Comte (1798-1857)

“The major goal of sociology was to understand society as it actually operates”

Positivism

Three-stage historical development: - The theological stage, in which

thought was guided by religion. - The metaphysical stage, a

transitional phase. - The scientific stage

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) - French

Studied the ties that bind the society together

Mechanical solidarity

- Traditional societies are united by social similarities

Organic solidarity - Modern societies are united by

interdependence Anomie

- Rapid social change leads to loss of social norms and produces many social problems

Karl Marx (1818-1883) - German

Involved in social change

“Social scientists should help improve society”

Struggle between owners and

workers Capitalist owners will oppress

ordinary people Eventually, people become

alienated People lose control over their lives

Max Weber (1864-1920) - German

Studied impact of industrialization on people’s lives

Supports value free studies and objective research

Rationalization Traditional societies emphasize

emotion and personal ties Modern societies emphasize

calculation, efficiency, self control Personal ties decline and people

become “disenchanted” Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) – British Society evolves over time in a similar

fashion to biological evolution. All of the parts of society are

interdependent He coined the term” the survival of

the fittest” and became known for “social Darwinism”.

The Sociological Perspective

The sociological perspective helps us to see general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals.

It allows or forces us to look beyond the outer appearances of our social

world and discover new levels of reality

It also encourages us to realize that society guides our thoughts and deeds — to see the strange in the familiar

Sociology also encourages us to see individuality in social context.

The Sociological Imagination

Provides the ability to see our private experiences and personal difficulties as entwined with the structural arrangements of our society and the times in which we live

Understand social marginality, the state of being excluded from social activity as an “outsider.”

“An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, and …the ability to view our society as an outsider might, rather than relying only on our individual perspective, which is shaped by our cultural biases (C. Wright Mills)

Theory

A statement of how and why specific facts are related. The goal of sociological theory is to explain social behavior in the real world.

Theories are based on theoretical paradigms, sets of assumptions that guide thinking and research.

3 Theoretical Perspectives

Structural-Functionalism perspective

Conflict perspective

Interactionist perspective

Structural-Functionalist Perspective

Parts of a social system work together to maintain a balance - Functions are actions that have

positive consequences - Dysfunctions are actions that

have negative consequences - Manifest functions are intended - Latent functions are unintended

A framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. - It asserts that our lives are

guided by social structures (relatively stable patterns of social behavior).

- Each social structure has social functions, or consequences, for the operation of society as a whole.

- Key figures in the development of this paradigm include Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, and Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton

Robert Merton’s 3 concepts of social function: - Manifest functions, the

recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern

- Latent functions, largely unrecognized and unintended consequences and

- Social dysfunctions, undesirable consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society.

The Conflict Perspective

Society is held together by who has power at a moment in time - Power allows some to dominate

others

- Dominance leads to conflict - Conflict and change are

inevitable - Conflict holds society together as

new alliances are formed and others fail

Social-Conflict Paradigm

A framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change.

Sociologists attempt not only to understand society but also to reduce social inequality

Key figures in this tradition include Karl Marx, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Wright Mills

Weaknesses: - It ignores social unity based on

mutual interdependence and shared values.

- Because it is explicitly political, it cannot claim scientific objectivity.

- Like the structural-functional paradigm, it envisions society in terms of broad abstractions.

The Symbolic Interaction Perspective

Individuals construct the nature of their social world through social interaction - Social life is possible only

because humans can communicate through symbols

- All human communications take place through the perception and interpretation of symbols

- How people define situations is important

- There is a general consensus on how situations are defined

- We do not respond directly to reality but to the symbolic meanings we attach to the real world

Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm

A framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals.

symbolic-interactionism has a micro-level orientation; it focuses on patterns of social interaction in specific settings.

Key figures in the development of this paradigm include - George Herbert Mead - Erving Goffman - George Homans - Peter Blau

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism attempts to explain more clearly how individuals actually experience society. However, it has two weaknesses: - Its micro-orientation sometimes

results in the error of ignoring the influence of larger social structures.

- By emphasizing what is unique, it risks overlooking the effects of culture, class, gender, and race.

LECTURE #3 – CULTURE Culture

It is defined as the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors and even materials, hairstyles, etc. (Nyden,1993)

Is the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. (Giddens, 2005)

Is a way of life. (Tischler, 2008) Components of Culture

Symbols - anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who shared culture

Language - a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another

Values and Beliefs - culturally defined standards by which people assess desirability, goodness, and beauty, and that deserve as broad guidelines social living

Norms - a rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members

- Folkways – norms that are not strictly enforced

- Mores – norms that are believed to be essential to core values and we insist on conformity

Laws - These are formalized norms enacted by people vested with legitimate authority

Taboo - a strong social prohibition (or ban) relating to any area of human activity or social custom that is sacred and or forbidden based on moral judgment, religious beliefs

Dietary restrictions (Halal)

Sex

Nudity

Profanity 2 kinds of Mores

Positive Mores - refers to the behavior, which must and ought to be done because they are ethically and morally good

Negative Mores - refers to societal prohibitions on certain acts which must not be done because they are not only illegal

How is culture transmitted?

Characteristics of culture

Organized

Transferable

Universal

Varied

Product of Human Creativity

Adaptive

Relative

Learned

Symbolic

Continuous

Borrowed

Stable yet dynamic Culture is learned and acquired

Culture is learned and acquired not instinctive

acquired through the senses and from experience

may be acquired through imitation, conditioning

Culture is shared and transmitted

transmission through ideas

passed on to generations using language and other symbolic means of com

Culture is social

it’s a group product

it’s social due to man’s natural tendency to socialize

Culture is ideational

Man forms ideas and uses them to assign meanings to his environment and experiences

Culture gratifies human needs

Culture’s provision to satisfy biological and sociological needs of people i.e. food, clothing, shelter, protection, love, security, sex, etc.

The patterns of culture continue to persist if they continue to persist if they continue to satisfy man’s needs.

Culture tends toward integration

elements or traits that make up culture are (customs) mostly adjusted to or consistent with one another

Integration implies that the person equally embraces ethnic as well as dominant culture.

Culture is adaptive

culture is dynamic

Culture change over time

The culture of any society is the people’s adjustment to the various conditions of life which include their physical, social, and supernatural environment.

Culture is cumulative

Through the ages, the people of any given place are able to retain certain features of their culture that are significant in their relationship and interaction with their fellow humans.

Assimilation - A process in which an individual entirely loses any awareness of his/her previous group identity and takes on the culture and attitudes of another group. Types of Culture

Material Culture - refers to the concrete and tangible things that man creates and uses

Nonmaterial culture - ways of using material objects as well as customs,

beliefs, government, ideas patterns of communication, laws, techniques, lifestyle, and knowledge

Functions of Culture

Serves as trademark or special feature that distinguishes one society from another.

It brings together, contains, and interprets values of a society in a more or less systematic manner.

It provides social solidarity.

Serves as the dominant factor in establishing the social personality

It provides meaning and direction of his existence.

Cultural Variation

Subculture - segment of the society that shares a distinct pattern of mores, folkways and values that differs from the pattern of the larger society

Counterculture - a subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture.

Culture shock - the feeling of surprise, disbelief and disorientation that people experience when they encounter cultural practices different

Cultural Variability

Cultural Universal - meaning that every culture has the same customs but it varied how they execute and perform such customs

Attitudes toward Cultural Variation

Enthnocentrism - the tendency to assume that one’s own culture are superior to all others

Cultural Relativism - the viewing of people’s behavior from the perspective of their own culture

Xenocentrism - the belief that the products, styles, or ideas of one’s society are inferior to those that originate elsewhere

Culture Lag - inability of a given society to adapt to a culture immediately

Other Symbolic Uses of Culture

Culture of Poverty - refers to the learned ways of life of the poor, a vicious cycle of deprivation and want transmitted from one generation to another

Culture of Opulence - refers to the ways of life of the rich and the famous in their world of glitz and glamour

Culture of Corruption - refers to the established patterns of illegally amassing wealth and obtaining power or concessions in the government or private office

Pop Culture - refers to the popular ways, practices and interests of contemporary society

Culture of Silence - refers to the individual or group attitude to keep silent response to authority

LECTURE #4 – DEVIANCE Deviance – violation of norms, It is not the act itself, but the reactions to the act, that makes something deviant Relativity of Deviance

Deviance is defined within a group’s framework.

What is deviant in one group may not be in another

What causes a person to be deviant?

Biological - medicalization of deviance, a physical illness

Psychological – personality disorder

Sociological - socialization into deviance (social perspectives)

Physiological/Biological Theories

Most physiological theories argue that particular individuals are more prone to deviance than others because of their genetic make-up

Genetically inherited characteristics either directly cause or predispose them towards deviance

Cesare Lombroso

one of the first to link crime to human biology

argued that criminals were throwbacks to an earlier and more primitive form of human being

identified a number of genetically determined characteristics which were often found in criminals

- Large jaws - High cheekbones - Large ears - Extra toes and fingers - Extra nipples - Insensitivity to pain

Mesomorphs (i.e. stocky, rounded body type) tend to be more active and aggressive and are therefore more likely to commit crime (Sheldon & Glueck) Genetic Predispositions

Alcoholism

Suicide

Mental Illness

Other deviant and criminal behavior XYY Theory

Based on studies of inmates

“super-male”

Problems with XYY Theory

Violent and criminal behavior Problems with the physiological approach

Lomboso’s research was carried out amongst inmates in Italian prisons

- he was studying very poor people whose physical development had been affected by poverty, poor nutrition etc.

Also, not everyone who commits crime ends up in prison

Any association between physical characteristics and deviant behavior can be explained in other ways

Psychological Theories

Psychological theories see the deviant's sickness as lying in mental processes

John Bowlby explained deviance in terms of a child’s upbringing

- If a child was deprived of motherly love during the early years, a psychopathic personality could develop

Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis has lead some psychologists to argue that crime can results from an imbalance between different parts of the mind- unconscious consisting of irrational thoughts and feelings causes us to commit deviant acts Problems with Psychological Theories

Sociologists often dismiss available psychological explanations of deviance because psychological theories often neglect social and cultural factors

Psychoanalytic theories are criticized for being unscientific

Functions of Deviance:

promotes solidarity

affirms cultural values and norms

teaches normal behavior by providing examples of rule violation

Offers society’s members an opportunity to rededicate themselves to their social controls.

Promotes Solidarity

take for granted one another

meaning of their social interdependence

reawakens their group attachments

it represents a threat to the moral order of the group

Affirms Cultural Values and Norms

focuses people’s attention on the value of the group

needed to define and support morality

without periodic violations of the norms , it would become less clear and thus less strongly held

The deviant act focuses people’s attention on the value of the group. Deviance is needed to define and support morality.

Teaches Normal Behavior

It helps teach society’s rules by providing illustrations of violation

Knowing what is wrong is a step toward understanding what is right

Symbolic Interaction Perspective

Differential Association Theory

Self-Esteem Theory

Control Theory

Labelling Theory Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland)

argues that people learn to be deviant when their associates favour deviance more than they do conformity

Self-Esteem Theory

Suggest that people choose deviance or conformity depending on which will do the most to enhance their self-esteem.

Control Theory

Our inner controls involve morals.

Our outer controls consist of people who influence us not to deviate (e.g., parents).

When these controls are weak deviance results

Argues deviance occurs when individuals lack the ties to conventional society that are necessary

Labeling Theory

Labels become a part of our self-concept, they set us on paths that propel us into or divert us from deviance.

Labels open and close doors of opportunity.

Functional Theory Perspective

Deviance is natural and functional for society.

Deviance clarifies moral boundaries and affirms norms.

Deviance promotes social unity

Deviance promotes social change Types of Strain Deviance

Conformists - are generally considered to be persons whom believe both in the established cultural goals of any given society as well as the normative methods of attaining those goals. A self-assured and successful investor would be a primary example of a conformist under Merton's theory. Ritualists - are persons who do not believe in the established cultural goals of his contemporary society but yet believe in, and abide by, the "correct" behaviors necessary to fulfill or at least pay lip service to that same cultural goal. A middle-management worker who cares little for wealth or influence but continues to participate Innovators - are persons whom accept the cultural goals of a society but reject the conventional methods of attaining those goals are known as. A drug dealer, a thief, a

pornography artist, all of these typologies could in many ways be seen as innovative Retreatists - typically reject both the established cultural goals as well as the traditional means of attaining that goal – a somewhat dark and somber attitude but one many persons are possessed of. A true nihilist might be an example of a retreatist. Rebels - not only reject the established cultural goals as well as the normative means of attaining those goals; but they also substitute a new schema of goals and acceptable means of attaining those goals individually. A revolutionary, political activist or even a punk or extreme metal musician may fulfill the role of rebellion against the norm. Anomie (Durkheim)

A situation where the norms of a society are unclear or no longer applicable to current conditions.

Durkheim believed that it was a major

Cause of suicide in industrialization.

Strain Theory (Robert Merton)

Suggests that deviance occurs when culturally-approved goals cannot be reached by culturally-approved means

Conflict Theory Perspective (deviance = power struggle)

proposes that competition and class conflict within society create deviance

Those at top use power to create

laws to maintain social inequality

Laws are often instruments of oppression.

The powerful are more able to bypass the court system.

Forms of Social Deviation

Crimes - Acts that are subject to legal or civil penalties

Types of Crime

1. Street Crime - Murder -Rape -Robbery Assault

2. Professional Crime -Burglary -Safecracking -Hijacking of Cargo -Pick pocketing -Shoplifting

3. White Collar Crime - Illegal acts committed in the course of business activities, often by affluent, “respectable” people.

4. Organized Crime - Secret, conspiratorial activity that generally invades law enforcement.

5. Political Crime - The abuse of a government or political office of position

Social control

Refers to social processes used to minimize deviance from social norms

is the forces and processes that encourage conformity, including self- control, informal control and formal control

Types of Social Control Self Control - Occurs because

individuals internalize the norms and values of their group

Informal Social Control - Self-restraint exercised because of fear of what others will think

Formal Social Control -Administrative sanctions such as: fines, expulsion, and imprisonment

Conclusion

Sociologists have looked at the available physiological and psychological explanations for deviance and believe that they do not tell the whole story

Sociologists therefore want to look at broader explanations for crime & deviance

Sociological explanations are influenced by the different perspectives

LECTURE 5v2 – SOCIALIZATION Socialization

The lifelong process in which people learn the attitude, values, and behaviors appropriate for members of a particular culture. (Schaefer, 2005)

Refers to the lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and learn culture. (Macionis,2003)

The role of Socialization Nature vs Nature

I. Social Environment: The Impact of Isolation

A. Feral Children B. Isolated Children C. Institutionalized Children

II. The Social Development of the Self, Mind, and Emotions

A. Charles H. Cooley: concluded that human development is socially created – that our sense of self develops from interaction with others. He coined the term “looking-glass self” to describe this process. The Steps:

1. we imagine how we look to others

2. we interpret other’s reactions

3. we develop a self-concept

A favorable reflection in the “social mirror” leads to a positive self-concept, while a negative reflection leads to a negative self-concept.

B. George H. Mead: He agreed with Cooley, but added that play is critical to the development of a self. In a play, we learn to take the role of others: to understand and anticipate how others feel and think.

1. children are first able to take only the role of significant others ; as self develops, children internalize the expectations of other people, eventually the entire group

2. Stages of self development

- imitation (mimic-gestures, words)

- play (starts in age three - Cinderella)

- games (involves in a team game and must learn the

- role of each member of the team)

C. Jean Piaget: The Four Stages a child goes through in learning

1. The sensorimotor stage ( 0-2):understanding is limited to direct contact with the environment

2. The preoperational stage ( 2-7):children develop the ability to use symbols which allow them to experience things w/o direct contact.

3. The concrete operational stage (7-12): reasoning abilities become much more developed- understand numbers, causation, and speed but have difficulty with abstract concepts such as truth.

4. The formal operational stage ( 12 +): capable of abstract thinking, and

can use rules to solve abstract problems

Children pass through these stages at different speeds; children everywhere go through them in the same order. An individual’s cognitive development can be limited by social experiences.

D. Sigmund Freud: The Three Elements of Personality

1. The Id: (inherited drives for self-gratification) which demands fulfillment of basic needs such as attention, safety, food and sex.

2. The Ego: ( in normal people) balances between the needs of the id and the demands of the society

3. The Superego: (the social conscience) we have internalized from social groups, giving us feelings of guilt or shame when we break rules, and feelings or pride and self-satisfaction when we follow them.

E. Erik H. Erikson: 8 Stages of Development

1. Stage 1- Infancy o the challenge of

trust (vs mistrust) o from birth -18

months

o establishes a sense of trust that the world is a safe place

2. Stage 2- Toddlerhood o the challenge of

autonomy( vs doubt and shame)

o learn new skills to cope with the world in a confident way

o failing to gain self-control leads children to doubt their abilities

3. Stage 3- Preschool o the challenge of

initiative ( vs guilt) o 4-5 years old o experience guilt

at failing to meet the expectations of parents and others

4. Stage 4- Preadolescence o the challenge of

industriousness (vs inferiority)

o 6-13 years old o children enter

school o make friends o they feel proud of

their accomplishment

5. Stage 5- Adolescence o the challenge of

gaining identity ( vs confusion))

o during teens years

o struggle to establish their own identity

o want to be unique 6. Stage 6- Young Adult

o the challenge of intimacy (vs isolation)

o to form and maintain intimate relationships

7. Stage 7- Middle Adulthood o the challenge of

making a difference (vs self-absorption)

o middle age o focus is to

contribute to the lives of others( family, at work and larger world)

8. Stage 8- Old Age o The challenge of

integrity ( vs despair)

o Near the end of our lives

o people hope to look back on what they have accomplished with a sense of integrity and satisfaction

Agents of Socialization

1. Family - experiences with the family have a life-long impact on us laying down a basic sense of self, motivation, values, and beliefs

2. School - serves many manifest / latent functions like teaching skills and values

3. Peer Groups - next to the family , peer group is the most powerful socializing force in the society

4. Religion - influences morality but also about dress, speech, and manners

5. Mass Media - influence our attitude values, and other orientations of life

6. Workplace - is a major agent socialization agent among adult, matching of values and attitude

Social Interaction

I. Levels of Sociological Analysis A. Macrosociological

Perspective: 1. Social Structure: refers to

the patterned relationships between people that persist over time. Major components: culture, social class, social status, roles, institutions, and groups

Culture refers to a group’s language, beliefs, values, behaviors, and gestures.

Social Class is based on income, education, and occupational prestige

Social Status refers to the positions that an individual occupies

Ascribed Status are positions an individual either inherits at birth or receives involuntary later in life

Achieved status are positions that are earned, accomplished, or involve at least some effort or activity on the individual ‘s part.

Roles are the behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status

Groups consists of people who regularly and consciously interact with

one another and typically share similar values, norms, and expectations.

Social Institutions are society’s standard ways or meeting its basic needs (family, religion, law, politics, economics, education, science, medicine, and military)

II. Microsociological Perspective:

Social Interaction in Everyday Life

1. focus on face-to-face social interaction or what people do when they are in the presence of one another.

2. interested in symbols 3. Dramaturgy is an analysis of how

we present ourselves in everyday life (drama or stage)

LECTURE #6v2 – SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Social Stratification - defined as a system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy Class System - is a social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence mobility Social mobility - Is the movement up or down in the social class ladder

Estate System

feudalism

Required peasants to work on land leased to them by nobles in exchange for military protection and other services.

Marxian Theory of Stratification

Developed by Karl Marx

In which social stratification was explained primarily in economic terms.

Max Weber view of Stratification

He identified three analytically distinct components of stratification.

3 Ps property prestige

power Class - people who have a similar level of wealth and income. Status group - refers to people who have the same prestige or lifestyle, independent of their class positions. Power - is the ability to exercise one’s will over others. Social stratification is universal Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore claimed that stratification is inevitable

a) society must make certain that its position are filled;

b) some positions are more important than others;

c) the more important positions must be filled by the more qualified people;

d) to motivate the more qualified people to fill these positions, society must offer them greater rewards.

Gaetano Mosca argued that every society will be stratified by power for 3 reasons

a) society cannot exist unless it is organized, thus, there must be politics to get the work of society done;

b) politics results in inequalities of power because some people take leadership positions and others follow;

c) it is human nature to be self-centered, thus, people in position of power use their positions to bring greater rewards to themselves.

Conflict theorists stress that conflict is the basis of social stratification

a) Every society has only limited resources to go around, and in every society group struggles with one another for those resources.

b) The dominant group takes control of the social institutions.

c) Groups “within” the same class compete for scarce resources, resulting in conflict between many groups.