Soft Systems Training

8/2/2019 Soft Systems Training

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Running head: SST

Impact of Soft Systems Thinking (SST) upon Intellectual Capital of the Organization

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Table of Contents

Impact of Soft Systems Thinking (SST) upon Intellectual Capital of the Organization .. .3

Introduction .......................................................................................................... 3

Defining SSM ......................................................................................................... 3

Soft Systems Methodology .................................................................................... 4

Project Management (PM) and Systems Thinking .................................................. 5

Model on constant improvement and collaborative learning ..................................8

Conclusion & Recommendations ........................................................................... 9

Further Research ................................................................................................ 12


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Impact of Soft Systems Thinking (SST) upon Intellectual Capital of the Organization

Introduction

Software is a by-product of human activities, which often include problem solving

capabilities, cognitive aspects, and social interaction. The simple overall software development

process can be characterized as a set of activities comprising system analysis, design, coding,

testing, and maintenance. Logically these are separate tasks which when coupled together enable

software construction and operation. Each of these tasks also requires that the individuals involved

have a particular set of skills which may not necessarily be common across all activities (Atwater,

Kannan & Stephens, 2008, pp.9).

The psychological hypothesis that not everyone can perform all tasks effectively implies

that personality traits play a critical role in the performance of people executing the same task.

Although the field of software psychology was fashioned many decades ago, it has been neglected

due to the complexity of human nature and difficulty in effectively assessing its impact on software

development. In our society today, the software industry has become a major employer and the

specialties within software development are as diverse as those in any other profession.

Software development job descriptions (either on- or off-line) normally divide required

skills into two broad categories; technical requirements and non-technical requirements.

Defining SSM

SSM was developed through the work of researchers from Lancaster University in the

1970s, who found that the methods adopted through well-established "hard" systems approaches


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were inadequate to address ill-structured, complex, real-world problems faced in management

situations. This led to four key ideas that resulted in the development of the first seven-step version

of SSM. The four key ideas were:

1. In every situation of AR that the researchers undertook people were endeavoring to

take purposeful action.

2. There were many interpretations or worldviews of a declared purpose of a system.

3. It was not possible to develop a definite model. However, using a variety of models

as an organized learning system helped debate and accommodate the various views

about the situation.

4. Any course of action that was then arrived at through this process has to be both

desirable and feasible for the people involved in the situation.

Soft Systems Methodology

Governments all around the world are confronted with enormous challenges such as

climate change and an ever growing complexity with regard to the elaboration of corresponding

societal policies. Public organizations play a vital role in providing aid to government and in

developing as well as realizing societal projects (Crawford, Costello, Pollak & Bentley, 2003,

pp.443).

If these public entities find themselves in a messy or even wicked situation, which prevents

them from developing an effective response to future tasks and challenges, they first have to

understand this problem situation in order to improve their own organizational design.

Furthermore, they have to be able to constantly monitor and control current as well as future

problematic situations so as to improve and learn in an ever changing complex environment.


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The development of SSM started when the founder, Peter Checkland and his colleagues,

learned that the systems engineering approach could not be applied to complex management

situations. The development of SSM can historically be separated into four different parts: 1972

blocks and arrows, 1981 seven stages, 1988 two streams and 1990 four main activities

(Gareis & Huemann, 2000, p.709).

The four main activities as can be explained as follows: the starting activity is concerned

with the finding out about a problem situation which incorporates cultural as well as political

aspects (1). Informed by this first step, relevant purposeful activities are modeled (2) which are

then used for a structured debate about desirable and feasible change (3). The objective of the

debate is to find accommodations between conflicting interests which enable action to be taken in

the situation (4) so as to improve the situation. These four main activities (1)-(4) form a learning

cycle which is best carried out by the people within the problem situation and ideally is a never-

ending process.

Project Management (PM) and Systems Thinking

Project Management (PM) is one of the growing disciplines within organizations since

their activities are increasingly wrapped up in projects. However, PM constitutes a rather young

research discipline which lacks a strong theoretical basis and set of guiding concepts. PM is too

complex to be explained in one unified theory. With regard to systems thinking, PM research

focuses on the hard systems approaches, thus emphasizing quantitative techniques in planning,

scheduling and control.

PM thus tends to adopt a problem solving rather than a problem structuring approach.

Research in PM maintains a functionalist, instrumental view of projects as well as organizations,


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thus embodying the scientific achievements of operational research. The use of soft systems

thinking in a project-based environment is of particular interest as the PM domain is still

dominated by a mainly positivist paradigm. The difference between hard and soft systems thinking

is, according to Checkland (1999), which in hard systems thinking is assumed to be the world and

in soft systems thinking the process of coping with the world (Greenwood & Levin, 2007).

The fundamental differences between hard and soft systems thinking are that hard systems

thinking assumes that people are passive observers of the system, it reflects a philosophy of

ontology (i.e. that what exists can be represented), it promotes the goal of optimizing the system

and is based on well-defined specifications whereas soft systems thinking assumes that people

actively construct and interpret elements of the system, it reflects a philosophy of epistemology

(i.e. how people know and understand), it focuses on improving the system and is based on vague

specifications thus dealing with ill-defined or ill-structured problems. Although enlarging the

applicability of systems thinking to ill-structured problems or messes, interpretive applied systems

thinking, such as SSM, has nevertheless been criticized for its difficulty with regard to achieving

compromise or the problem that decisions are taken by powerful people in their own interests.

Critical systems thinking is the third way in the epistemological battle between positivism

and interpretivism which has died down and is now in a period of stability. Critical systems

thinking, which is a relatively new development in management science, is based on the belief that

social systems are oppressive and unequal. Systems thinking should thus concentrate on the issues

of inequality of the participants (Hancock, 2010).

This coincides in a way that different scholars regard project failure as being based on

strategic, social and behavioral factors rather than technical problems which is manifested in

processes of resistance in organizations. The importance of understanding group processes in


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organizations and how individuals are involved in these processes which bring us to the theory of

complex responsive processes of relating.

This theory is a promising strand with regard to PM research since it is about how human

beings interact and learn and how their interactions evolve. Current research regarding complex

responsive processes of relating in organizations is a possibility for understanding the complexity

of social interaction which puts people and their behavior at the forefront of the investigation. This

provides an overview of the evolution of existing PM literature and identifies gaps such as the

interaction between PM and organizational power and politics.

Creative holism is necessary so as to cope with interconnected problem situations which

are described as messes. A major difference exists between tame, messy as well as wicked

problems. Tame problems have linear causal relationships and mostly lead towards single solutions

(Jackson, 2009, pp.24).

The body of knowledge in PM responds favorably to this type of problem. Messes on the

other hand are systems of problems, characterized by high levels of systems complexity, which call

for a different approach since they cannot be solved in isolation. The domain of systems thinking is

used to sort out messes by examining patterns of interaction between the different parts (Jackson,

2006, pp.647).

PM introduced programme and portfolio management so as to attempt to deal with this

type of problem. Wickedness is characterized by high levels of behavioral complexity, that is, the

extent to which there is diversity in the opinions, mental models, and values of the key decision-

makers. None of the current PM literature or techniques helps to resolve these issues. Behavioral

and dynamic complexities interact thus forming wicked messes which require high-level skills

such as facilitative or systems thinking skills.


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Model on constant improvement and collaborative learning

The new design based on systems thinking will bring about many changes in the way that

work is designed and managed. These rather hard factors have to be complemented by a constant

monitoring and control of the soft factors such as communicative interaction or information

exchange. SSM has proved to be a good means for the inquiry into a problematic situation. It

started with the clarification of the transformation process, which was then written down in the

following root definition: an organization owned and staffed system, which investigates in the

organizational structure, processes as well as attitudes, by means of SSM models, incorporating

PM capabilities, in order to constantly and collaboratively improve and learn in an ever changing

complex environment (Cooke-Davies, Cicmil, Crawford & Richardson, 2007, pp.50).

The core of CATWOE is the pairing of the transformation process and the Weltanschaung

which makes it meaningful. The W for the proposed activity model is that collaborative learning

can improve efficiency. For psychological reasons, SSM models are normally drawn by hand since

this acknowledges the models' role as pragmatic devices, not definitive once-and-for-all

statements.

The model gives equal weight to individual members of the organization as well as to the

different departments and their contributions to the overall organizational goals. This corresponds

with the critical/pluralistic paradigm that is based on the belief that social systems are oppressive

and unequal. This is particularly important since the study has revealed that one department is

promoted by the leader of the organization more than the others and that people are not treated

equally which creates problems with regard to relationships and communication as well as

information (Crawford, Costello, Pollak & Bentley, 2003, pp.443).


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Consequently, the model will be used for an ongoing intervention so as to constantly

improve the organization. With regard to the human level, the intervention, through the creation of

the learning cycle, is regarded as one of the main PM capabilities vital for the further development

of the organization. The further process should equally consider other problem structuring methods

such as strategic options development and analysis and strategic choice approach, etc. so as to be

able to decide on the right method for the problem or situation at hand.

PM, as a multidisciplinary domain, plays a decisive role in addressing the human level and

can provide the necessary means for managing the project-oriented organization in the twenty-first

century, eventually abandoning the command and control paradigm and putting emphasis on

learning in complex social systems.

Conclusion & Recommendations

The SSM approach has proved to be very useful for investigating the problematic situation

of the project-oriented public organization. The activation of the learning cycle was and still is

feasible as well as desirable but is jeopardized by politics and power. Consequently, the

intervention has not yet brought about major changes within the organization but has revealed a

multitude of insights and a valuable methodological approach.

The learning process shows that, especially with regard to PM, other perspectives such as

the functionalist view have to be taken into consideration. There is a need for managers, i.e. critical

systems practitioners, to act as holistic doctors who have a range of methodologies, methods and

treatments at their disposal to solve organizational as well as societal problems (Gareis &

Huemann, 2000, p.709).


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The study clearly demonstrates that the design and management of work is very much

dependent on the willingness and collaboration of management as well as on their beliefs,

perspectives and readiness to change. The findings reveal that there is a need for leaders in the

public domain to better understand complex social systems as well as their behavior which calls

for some kind of adaptation within the educational system (Jackson, 2006, pp.647).

The necessity to break with the traditional authoritarian management style so as to foster

learning and constant improvement is also an important constituent. The new design and

management of work based on systems thinking allows for more participation and engagement on

the part of the employees, e.g. in the decision-making process, which is particularly important for a

project-oriented organization.

The approach is based on constant improvement and collaborative learning which calls for

particular methods and methodologies such as SSM. Modern PM in this design is given an

important role since it assembles the strategic, operational as well as human level within a

particular socio-political system using a systems thinking approach.

Nevertheless, since hard and soft systems thinking can work together, the discipline of PM

should further develop towards an equal appreciation of the two which emphasizes a critical

systems thinking approach (Jackson, 2009, pp.24).

The investigation suggests that although the theory of complex responsive processes of

relating is in opposition to systems thinking, the insights gained with regard to communicative

interaction and issues, such as shadow themes or anxiety, demonstrate its usability in the quest for

a greater understanding of processes between organizational members.

This implies that its further use in studies linked to soft systems PM can lead to new

insights. The investigation revealed the importance of power relations and their impact on the


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development of the whole organization which supports the use of this theory in PM research

(Bredillet, 2004, pp.3).

Given the importance of the project-oriented public organization and its close connection to

government, the acquisition of new PM capabilities and high-level skills, such as systems thinking,

will allow to better cope with dynamic and behavioral complexity within the organization as well

as the complex housing system.

The new organizational design based on constant improvement and collaborative learning

constitutes the foundation for adequately addressing tame, messy, and wicked problems and will

thus help in the resolution of societal problems within the country. The small size of the country

makes it possible to observe the further use of methods and methodologies for problem structuring

as well as their influence on public policy and the public services. Continuous research can provide

a helping hand or a new avenue for government in approaching organizational as well as societal

problems (Atwater, Kannan & Stephens, 2008, pp.9).

Over a period of time trend of global software industry is constantly growing and the main

reason for this growth is increase in the supply and demand of software as well as cost reduction.

The term global software industry has broad meanings across the world. Software development can

means having development sites at various parts of the world as well as employing people from

various parts of the world to carry out software development activities.

The result of this global software development activity gives rise to the concepts of

software outsourcing, and virtual teams. The global software industry hires people from different

part of the world having different cultures and norms. When people interact the complexity of

work relationship has an impact on the productivity.


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Cultural issues can make or break an offshore project. Keeping in view the increasing shift

in out sourcing and virtual team development it is worth investigating up to what extent different

cultures consider soft skills while hiring a new employee (Bredillet, 2004, pp.3).

Specific studies concerning soft skills and software development profession have been

sporadic and often incidental, which highlights the initial motivation of this work. Moreover, no

concrete work has been reported in the area of soft skills and their demand as a part of job

requirement sets in diverse cultures.

The major contribution of this work is to provide an opportunity to empirically understand

and investigate non-technical job requirements (soft skills) in diverse cultures for different

software development roles.

Further Research

Software development is a global enterprise with development teams composed of

individuals from a variety of countries and cultural backgrounds. The dynamics of how these

diverse individuals operate within the development team is an issue that has been generally ignored

by researchers and professionals. Soft skills are usually overlooked in the software development

profession because the relationship between software development activities and soft skills is

extremely complex to investigate.

Typically programmers work independently on their assigned module thus requires the

ability to work independently but also participates in a larger group in case working on large-scale

software thus also requires the ability to be a part of a team. We observed a high demand of

communication skills only whereas there is moderate demand for interpersonal skills, analytical


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and problem solving, team player, organizational skills and ability to work independently. A

software tester's job is very critical, they target to find bugs in the software and communicate it.

Thus, analytical and problem solving skills, along with communication skills are high

desirable. Organizational skills are also essential because testing is always carried out in steps from

unit to module and from module to integration and it further leads to system. Software testers

always use innovative ways to find bugs.

We observed only communication skills in high demand whereas there is a moderate

demand for analytical and problem solving, and organizational skills. The least required soft skills

for software testers we observed are team player, interpersonal skills, ability to work

independently, fast learner, innovative and creative and open and adaptable to changes

Nevertheless, it has been worthwhile studying which soft skills are required by the software

industry and which are overlooked and how the dynamics of this relationship work across different

cultures. This survey provides vital information in the form of descriptive statistics about soft skills

requirements in different regions of the world.

We concluded that the answer to the research questions of this study that in the cases of

designer, programmer and tester, substantial similarity exits in the requirements of soft skills

whereas only in the case of system analyst dissimilarity was presented across different cultures.

Overall, we conclude that cultural differences do not have a major impact on the choice of soft

skills requirements in hiring new employees.

It is important to highlight here that it is not the objective of this work to empirically

investigate or show that culture has an impact on the job performance or analyzing which soft

skills are more suitable to which software development role. It is also beyond the scope of this

work to investigate the importance or significance of soft skills and up to what extent the


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employers weigh soft skills while hiring a new employee. Whereas, in this work we attempt to find

whether the requirements of soft skills changes across culture or remains similar for different

software development roles.


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