SP 210 NASAs Space Transportation System Development Dr. Lance
Erickson Slide 2 Early STS Development Apollo (1960-1973)
Completion of the ambitious Apollo project left NASA without a
launcher or crew flight vehicle Saturn V was too expensive to
continue its use as a launcher Saturn V was too expensive to
continue its use as a launcher Apollo capsule was to small to use
as a crew vehicle Apollo capsule was to small to use as a crew
vehicle Something else was needed Slide 3 Early STS Development
Possible configurations included: Conical capsules (Apollo, Gemini,
Mercury) Conical capsules (Apollo, Gemini, Mercury) Lifting bodies
Lifting bodies Winged vehicles Winged vehicles Earlier plans from
the 1950s and 1960s included several lifting body prototypes NASA
and the USAF worked together on several manned space flight vehicle
projects Slide 4 Early Development First manned reentry vehicles
Mercury, Gemini, Apollo capsules Small, symmetrical, conical
capsules without wings Small, symmetrical, conical capsules without
wings Could not carry cargo Could not carry cargo Could not fly
large crews Could not fly large crews Had only small lift (L/D) =
short reentry range Had only small lift (L/D) = short reentry range
Slide 5 Early Development Lifting bodies had been researched for
subsonic and supersonic flight, but not hypersonic operations
(above Mach 5) X-23 and X-24/B lifting bodies were research
vehicles and considered candidates for the new shuttle concept
Slide 6 Early Development HL-10 with B-52 Drop Plane Slide 7 Early
Development First manned reentry vehicles X-15 was not usable as a
crew reentry vehicle (small capacity, limited to Mach 5) - but did
have gliding capability Slide 8 Early Development First manned
reentry vehicles X-20 was a possible prototype, but was a USAF
project A choice was made to use a winged vehicle NASA could carry
more cargo and crews NASA could carry more cargo and crews USAF
could use it as a reconnaissance vehicle USAF could use it as a
reconnaissance vehicle Slide 9 Early Development Earliest winged
vehicles V-2 derivative known as A-4b was first supersonic winged
rocket (shown on right) Concept originated in WW-II Von Braun also
had begun planning the Amerika Bomber, the A-9, A-10 and
heavier-lift launchers Slide 10 Early Development Earliest winged
vehicles Sangers skip bomber Proposed by Sanger as an advanced
weapon for the Nazis Modified versions were later proposed by
Europeans/French for crew flight vehicles (Sanger II, Silverbird)
Slide 11 Early Development Earliest winged vehicles Soviet
antipodal skip bomber Proposed for a intercontinental bomber based
on rocket-launched winged vehicle Concept was similar to Sangers
Slide 12 Early Development The Decision NASA began planning
development on their new Space Transportation System in 1968 As the
1960s came to a close, Apollo budgets were turning down, and the
Congressional budget was shrinking The decision was made over
several years to combine efforts with the USAF for a universal
cargo and crew launcher Required a serious compromise by NASA on
the basic design. The result was the development of a Winged
vehicle with a large cargo capacity Slide 13 Early STS Development
The Decision Two possibilities existed for the final configuration
1. Winged spacecraft reentry orbiter launched on an existing
expendable booster (Titan, Saturn V) 2. Large winged vehicle with
its own propulsion assisted by a separate booster Slide 14 Early
Development 1. Winged spacecraft reentry orbiter launched on an
existing expendable booster (Titan, Saturn I/V) Slide 15 Early
Development 2. Large winged vehicle with its own propulsion
assisted by a separate booster Slide 16 Early Development USAF
Requirements Congressional funding was a challenge for NASAs new
programs including the STS The Space Transportation System had to
satisfy both NASAs and the USAFs needs The USAF wanted a large
payload capacity in a winged vehicle The STS also had to be
versatile, and reduce launch vehicle costs Slide 17 Early
Development Resulting design concept STS had to be winged with a
cross-range capability of 1,100 nautical miles (USAF requirement)
STS had to be winged with a cross-range capability of 1,100
nautical miles (USAF requirement) Cargo capacity was to be 60,000
lb (USAF req.) Cargo capacity was to be 60,000 lb (USAF req.) Cargo
volume had to be 60 x 15 (USAF req.) Cargo volume had to be 60 x 15
(USAF req.) Entire vehicle had to be reusable (NASA/budget req.)
Entire vehicle had to be reusable (NASA/budget req.) STS had to
reduce launch costs (NASA/budget req.) STS had to reduce launch
costs (NASA/budget req.) In addition, the STS was expected replace
all expendable launchers (Titan, Atlas, Delta) Slide 18 Early
Development Resulting design proposal Congressional proposals in
1970 by NASA included the basic STS conceptual features Winged
orbiter, with a large cargo and crew capacity Winged orbiter, with
a large cargo and crew capacity Budget advantages were in the
projected STS operating costs Reusable vehicle Reusable vehicle
Replacement of all expendable launchers improved launch cost and
efficiency Replacement of all expendable launchers improved launch
cost and efficiency Payload costs to LEO would be reduced to make
space exploration more reasonable Payload costs to LEO would be
reduced to make space exploration more reasonable Slide 19 Early
Development Resulting design proposal Budget advantages were in the
projected STS operating costs Launch rate of approximately 50-55
per year Launch rate of approximately 50-55 per year Projected
reduction in payload costs to low-Earth orbit (LEO) from $10,000/lb
to $100/lb Projected reduction in payload costs to low-Earth orbit
(LEO) from $10,000/lb to $100/lb Slide 20 Early Development STS
proposal Expendable booster replacement would save NASA and the
Federal Government money over the life of the STS Slide 21 Early
Development STS proposal Slide 22 Early Development STS proposal
Cost comparisons were provided for three class variations 1. Winged
glider launched on and expendable booster 2. Large-payload orbiter
on reusable booster 3. Large-payload orbiter on a flyback booster
Slide 23 Early Development STS proposal Slide 24 Early Development
STS proposal circa 1970 Class 1 vehicles would be simple orbital
vehicles that could be launched within a decade and supply limited
space access Class II were more advanced lifting-body vehicles with
greater capacity that would become operational in 1978 Class III
vehicles were the most advanced and included scramjet capability
that would be ready by 1982 Slide 25 Early Development STS proposal
circa 1971 NASA developed a four-phase development program for
aerospace contractors to bid for Phase A Advanced studies Phase B
Project definition Phase C Vehicle design Phase D Vehicle
production and operations Slide 26 Early Development STS proposal
circa 1971 A new proposal for three classes of STS vehicle designs
in Phase A was created a year later (unrelated to previous classes)
Class I - Reusable orbiters using expendable booster like the Titan
III or the Saturn IB. Emphasis on cost and design for this group
was primarily on the orbiter structure Class II - Included an
orbiter without a booster, but with external fuel tanks that would
be discarded Class III - Flight elements were to be fully reusable
which represented the highest cost and most difficult design Slide
27 Early Development Phase A proposal for the three STS class
designs circa 1971 McDonnell McDonnell Slide 28 Early Development
Phase A proposal example for the STS Class III design circa 1971
Martin-Marietta Slide 29 Early Development Phase A proposal example
for the STS Class II design circa 1971 Chrysler Corp. Chrysler
Corp. Slide 30 Early Development Concepts Slide 31 Slide 32 Slide
33 Slide 34 Slide 35 Slide 36 Slide 37 Slide 38 Early Development
Phase C/D The vehicle design and development phases C and D were
combined between 1972 and 1976, while contractors were competing to
build the four major components on the STS. The primary contracts
would be: Orbiter/reentry vehicle Orbiter/reentry vehicle External
tank External tank Reusable boosters Reusable boosters Orbiter main
engines Orbiter main engines Slide 39 Early Development Final
configuration In 1976, NASA managers finalized the STS
configuration using one of the partially- reusable Class II
concepts developed at the Marshall Space Flight Center, called
MSC-040C Congress mandated: Single, expendable external fuel tank
Single, expendable external fuel tank Reusable solid rocket
boosters Reusable solid rocket boosters Slide 40 Early Development
Final configuration - MSC-040C Slide 41 Early Development STS
contracts NASA awarded the development and construction contracts
for the STS in 1977 Orbiter/reentry vehicle Rockwell International
Orbiter/reentry vehicle Rockwell International External tank
Lockheed-Martin External tank Lockheed-Martin Reusable solid rocket
boosters Morton- Thiokol Reusable solid rocket boosters Morton-
Thiokol Orbiter main engines Rocketdyne Orbiter main engines
Rocketdyne Slide 42 Early Development Design hurdles - Orbiter
Aluminum orbiter frame and large payload stipulated by USAF
required a light-weight insulation covering Ablation coating could
not be used (too heavy, poor insulation properties) Ablation
coating could not be used (too heavy, poor insulation properties)
Reinforced carbon-carbon used on leading edges for highest reentry
temperatures Originally developed for the X-20 Originally developed
for the X-20 Light-weight silica fiber tiles were developed
specifically for the Orbiter More than 20,00 had to be individually
fabricated and hand- fitted More than 20,00 had to be individually
fabricated and hand- fitted Slide 43 Early Development Design
hurdles External Tank Light-weight aluminum tank had to have a
monocoque single-surface design Tanks served as structures Tanks
served as structures Largest fuel tank ever constructed for a
launcher Aluminum alloy Aluminum alloy Tank structure had to
transfer thrust loads from boosters and Orbiter engines Extremely
light-weight Extremely light-weight Rigid, strong Rigid, strong
Entire tank had to be covered with insulation layer to prevent ice
buildup Liquid fuel and oxidizer tanks exposed to the outside
environment since it was a skin-stringer monocoque design Liquid
fuel and oxidizer tanks exposed to the outside environment since it
was a skin-stringer monocoque design Slide 44 Early Development
Design hurdles Solid Rocket Boosters Boosters had to be
transportable from manufacturing site in Utah to Kennedy Space
Center in Florida Fabricated in four motor sections Fabricated in
four motor sections Transported by rail Transported by rail
Assembled and tested at KSC Assembled and tested at KSC Largest
thrust solid rocket boosters ever built Boosters had to be reusable
High-thrust required movable (articulating) nozzle Independent
hydraulic system Independent hydraulic system Composite ablator
needed to make nozzle reusable Composite ablator needed to make
nozzle reusable Floatation devices required for ocean recovery
Slide 45 Early Development Design hurdles Space Shuttle Main
Engines First high-thrust, reusable liquid fuel engine Thrust
regulation from 65%-100% High-performance turbopumps had to be
developed for cryogenic fuel (liquid hydrogen/LH2) and oxidizer
(liquid oxygen/LOX) Testing procedures had to offer high
reliability for first flight Slide 46 STS Testing Orbiter tests
Structural tests began with structural model and wind tunnel model
testing First full-scale tests were made on the first mockup called
Pathfinder Used for loading, balance, and lift tests Used for
loading, balance, and lift tests Enterprise Orbiter was built for
structural mockup for aerodynamic tests Slide 47 STS Testing Scale
Mockup Orbiter tests Structural tests began with structural model
and wind tunnel model testing First full-scale tests were made on
the first mockup called Pathfinder Used for loading, balance, and
lift tests Used for loading, balance, and lift tests Enterprise
Orbiter was built for structural mockup for aerodynamic tests Slide
48 STS Testing Wind Tunnel Slide 49 STS Testing Challenger Test
Frame Slide 50 STS Testing Orbiter tests B-747 was converted to use
for Orbiter aerodynamic tests Enterprise was used for aerodynamic
flight testing Called Aerodynamic and Landing Tests (ALT) Taxi and
runway loading Taxi and runway loading Flight aerodynamics
including areosurface operations Flight aerodynamics including
areosurface operations Manned drop tests from 30,000 Manned drop
tests from 30,000 Approach and landing tests from 19,000-26,000
Approach and landing tests from 19,000-26,000 Slide 51 STS Testing
- Enterprise Slide 52 STS Testing Orbiter tests Taxi tests Three
simulations were run on 15 February, 1977 Max speeds of 89, 140 and
157 mph Max speeds of 89, 140 and 157 mph Taxi and runway loading
Taxi and runway loading Captive-inert flights Flown without an
Orbiter crew on five flights in February and March of 1977 Flown
without an Orbiter crew on five flights in February and March of
1977 Stability, performance, control, flutter and buffeting of the
combined vehicles Stability, performance, control, flutter and
buffeting of the combined vehicles 287 to 474 mph 287 to 474 mph
Slide 53 STS Testing Enterprise and SCA #1 Slide 54 STS Testing
Orbiter tests Captive-active flights Three missions flown in June
and July of 1977 Three missions flown in June and July of 1977
Altitude to 30,300' and speeds to 311 mph Altitude to 30,300' and
speeds to 311 mph Free flights Five flights between August and
October of 1977 Five flights between August and October of 1977
Most complex in the series of subsonic aerodynamic and operational
tests Most complex in the series of subsonic aerodynamic and
operational tests Used to evaluate the Terminal Area Energy
Management (TAEM) autoland approach capability and the MSBLS
microwave landing system Used to evaluate the Terminal Area Energy
Management (TAEM) autoland approach capability and the MSBLS
microwave landing system Slide 55 STS Testing Slide 56 Slide 57
Slide 58 Slide 59 The End
