I Jri: I

When used in this publication. "tre." "hlrn." "hi.s." and '"ncen" represntboth the masculine and feminine genders unXess others-ise srarcd-

Field ManualNo'31-24

*FM 37-24HEADOUARTERS

DEFARTMENT OF THE ARMYWashington, DC, 6 July 1982

SPECIAL FORCES AIR OPERATIOruS

users of this publication are encouraged to recommend changes andsubmit comments for its improvement. Comments should be keyed to thespecific page, paragraph, and line of the text in which the change isrecommended. Reasons will be provided for each comment to insureunderstanding and complete evaluation. comments should be preparedusing DA Form 2028 (Recommended changes to Publications and tslankForms) and forwarded direct to:

CommandantUS Army Institute for Military AssistanceATTN: ATSU-TD.TLFort Bragg, North Carolina 28307

*This publication supersedes TC 31-2G3, 16 June 1979.

FOREWORD

Joint unconventional -warfare (uw) operations,-by their very nature, arecharacterized by hazardous environments and

"b"aitio"". The abiliiy ioconduct successful air entry into an unconventional warfare operationalarea (uwoA), and subsequently to resuppry, conduct recovery operations,a.nd exfiltrate, depends on thorough missionplanning, training, rehearsals,timely and accurate intelligence, operational secu"ritv (opSEC), coordi-nated air support, and precise timing and execution.

commanders and trainers at all echelons should use this manual inconjunction with Army Training and Evaluation program (ARTEp) gt-101, Airborne Special Forces Group.

"t.r

SPECIAL FORCES AIR OPERATIONSTable of Contents

ForewordCHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

PurposeScope

CHAPTER 2 PRE-MISSION PREPARATIONGeneral .,Pranning consideratio;;:. ::::::::. ::::::: ::::::::: ..... .'.2Blind lnfiltrations.

..........3Selection of Equipment

. . .. . .. .. ..3

Preparation of Equipment . . . . .

_. .. .... ..4Packing and Rigging

.. .. ....4Control Procedures ,..,..,..4Ground Assembly procedures

, .. ,.4Mission Aborts

. ......4En Route Evasion and Escape plan. .

. ., ..4Training . .. .. . .sRehearsals

..........sBriefbacks .....s

OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES . ..,.,7

General .......2

lnitial Entry Report . ........2

Mission Requests .,..,...,.7

Mission Confirmation Message .... ,. .. ..2

Ground Delays . .. .. . ,g

Weather Decision .... ......8Aborts,/Cancellations

. .. .. ..9Early/Late Arrival at Objective ..........9Rescheduled Air Missions....

.....9Debriefing

. .. ..8RECEPTION COMMITTEES ...

.....9GeneralFunctions.

.2

CHAPTER 3

.9,9

CHAPTER 4

Organization

llt

Table of Contents (Cont)CHAPTER 5 AIRBORNE OPERATIONS

Generar " '. .. 1 1Missions........-',?:l{:;i;;"il;;;;;; -.... .. . .;irn?rltration and Resupplv.

-.

.,...12

s::*ili#:x:ff'A:',':,'#1,'11,,;;;; : i,CHAPTER' ;ffi:,:;J.,Ji::::: : 18

General -

" ...,24Selection

. .. .. .. . . .,

.

IypesofDropZones- " """"""24computing the Releas ":'l' " " '24Markins point (staiic i,;; il;;;rr.) . ....i3Authentication... ....,' ..3oStatic Line DZ Markinr

.j. ... " '.3211,y,1, ii"-,;1;;;1flff11,",i?j;;;;: ,-.: . .i3DropZone Reports

.

..._.^,,,v rdrrern ........34

CHAPTEB' Kffi;;,J::]... 34...35Introduction ... ....36.""*ill:;:l?;;;r;;;,;;;;;;,;;ii;; .I .. 3BgX'tr[;ffi.';ff:Gro."ilffi;#';;;;i t-i'".':"^:1*'-!''iai'gion";''.....'......... " ""'44Message pickuozr^"*--

.......Ae,","rrr"

pickup Zones.

;il:J:',:::: ,. ,'

50. ......53

Plar ':".... 64,",ilJln

^";.;;;;;;;; .

.

n""llJ,T"n"e oriented .......:.....,.. ....64,"rr"", ......... ........64TrriJ9h"" Training . ... .

. .. .. ..64APpEND,xo ,.r.**n:J: ::::-:;: :t33AppENDrxB. RE,'RTSAND REouEsTs. .......66APPENDIX C. colvroern r,

-^ -. -, ... .... 68APPENDIX C. CONVERSION TABLES....

.ADDtrr.lnrvAPPENDIX D.GLOSSARY

..... 80. .84

tv

MOON PHASES.

88

This manual is a guide for Special Forces(SF) commanders, staffs, and operationaldetachment personnel in planning and con-ducting air operations. It provides tech-niques and procedures for air operations insupport of unconventional warfare (UW).These techniques and procedures may also beapplied to the other SF missions of special

This manual covers planning considerationsand operational guidelines for cohducting airoperations. You will find information on-_

Pre-mission preparation, including re-hearsals and briefbacks.

Significant actions, considerations, anddecisions that can determine the success of amission.

ODUCTION

PU R POSEoperations (SO) and foreign internal defense(FID). They provide a base from which unitprocedures may be developed to cope with aspecific mission or area requirement.

Additionally, this document establishes acoordinated and eommon planning base forunits participating in joint operations.

SCOPEUse of indigenous assets.Types of airborne rnissions to support UW

operations, including types of air drops.Drop zones and markings.Landing zones.Equipment used in the various air opera-

tions.Training requirements.

GENERAL_

Detailed mission planning is vital to insurethe mission is carried out with success. It isalso very important to the survival of theoperational element. This planning is con-ducted by the tasked operational"elementthat receives help from an area specialistteam (AST). The supporting air,/naval com-mander, navigator, and,/or electronic war-fare officer may aid the element during theplanning phase.

Upon receipt of the mission tasking, the

element selected to carry out the mission ismoved into isolation at the Special ForcesOperational Base (SFOB)/forward opera-!io1al base (FOB). There the element receivesits initial mission briefing. The items coveredin this briefing will allow the operationalele-ment to complete the detailed pLnning. Itwill be presented to the SFOBTFOB com_mander. Staff specialists, such as intelli_gence, weather, communications, providehelp as required.

PLANNING CONSIDERATIONSOperations Security. OPSEC is a com-mand responsibility. Commanders mustinsure OPSEC is considered in all staffeffortg, including intelligence, communica-tion-electronics, logistics, administration,and maintenance, in order to provideT3ILtum protection for an operation.OPSEC must be integrated throughtut everySpecial Forces mission-from iiitial plan_ning through postexecution stages_to keepthe enemy from learning:

THE PLAN-how, when, where, andwhy we will do something.THE EXECUTION-how, when,where, and why we are doing it.

THE AFTER-ACTION_how, when,where, and why we did it.2

OPSEC consists of four main categories ofsecurity measures-

_

Signal security (SIGSEC), which in_cludes communications securitv' tCOnASpCland electronics securitv (ELSEb).

Physical security.Information security.Deception.

All are interrelated and must be consideredsimultaneously for each operation. See ARs530-1 through 530-4 for operations security.Mission. The mission may require rapiddeployment into the operational area therebydictating the most expeditious method forinfiltration. In other cases, however, missionsuccess may depend on maintaining secrecy

Iand rapid execution is of secondary im_portance.T? an ep o rtatio n. The tran sportation meansselected for the delivery,/recovery depend onthe specific needs of the mission. This selec-tion is also based on the capabilities,/limita_tions and availability of the mission supportplatform.Diatanee, The distance to and from theobjective area must be considered. For infil-trations, it is the distance from the departurearea to the objective area. For exfiltrations, itis the distance from the objective area to therecovery area.Intelligetwe.

Enemy Situation. The enemy threat_his capabilities, disposition, """o"ity -"u-sures, and air detection/defense systems_

affects the means selected for delivery/re-covery.o Terrain. Land formations must be con-sidered in selecting the method of infiltration/exfiltration. Terrain affects the selection of

altitudes, approach and exit routes, landingareas for mission aircraft, drop zones, andbeach landing sites. Air infiltiation routesthat provide terrain masking are desirable instatic line parachute operati,ons.

o Weather. Seasonal weather conditionsaffect infiltrations,/exfiltrations. Factors tobe considered are temperature, precipitation,visibility, clouds, and wind. ff para_SCUAetechniques are used, high surface winds andtheir effect upon surfconditions or periods ofreduced visibility may prohibit tire use ofparachutes, inflatable boats, or surface,/sub-surface swimming as entry,/recovery tech-niques. These same conditions generallyfavor land infiltration/exfiltration. Theadverse weather aerial delivery system(AWADS) reduces the impact of welther as alimiting factor for air infiltrations.

o Astronomical Conditions. periods ofsun-rise and sunset, moon phase, moonriseand moonset, and periods of twilight must beselected to favor air operations.

,n rSrcesera-ivesvred,nalr.It)tD-,u-ide

of

m-C)

This technique is used in parachute opera-tione onto unmarked drop zones wijhoutassistance from a reception committee. Blindinfiltrations are normally limited to anddepend on favorable astronomical andweather conditions in the objective area. Thenavigator of the supporting aircraft will com-pute the release point (Rp) for the drop. Thistechnique would also be employed whln:

BLIND INFILTRATIONS

SELECTION OF EOUIPMENT

Special Forces elements are operating in aunilateral role, e.g., operations agiinstselected targets without the suppoJ of aresistance force.

The enemy situation prevents normalmarking and recognition signals.A resistance force of sufficient potentialrequiring support is known to be in thu .r"u,but no prior contact has been established.

The selection of accompanying equipment/supplies to be carried on the initiat infiltra_tion should be based on:- The need for security.

The enemy threat.The size of the resistance force andsituation in the UWOA.The means of transportation selectedand method of insertion.

The distance, terrain, and signal propa-gation conditions.

The weight and bulk of equipment to becarried by the operational element.

Communication equipment compati-bility.Equipment availability.Potential for external resupply.

,4:

PREPARATION OF EOUIPMENTThe reliability of equipment in the field takes in preparing the equipment for trans-depends primarily upon the care the unit portation and its use.

PACKING ANDThe nature of aerial delivery requires thatequipment be packaged to withstand thelanding shock. Equipment and supplies arepacked and rigged in appropriate air deliverycontainers that have a cargo capacity of b00pounds or less. Four bundles, each weighingup to 600 pounds, can be dropped at speeds up

CONTROL PROCEDURESRecognition signals are formulated for emer-gency abort, ground assembly, and contactprocedures. Rehearsals are conducted toinsure a complete understanding of recogni-tion sign4ls and their use. Electronic equip-

RIGGINGto 250 knots indicated air speed (KIAS) fromthe Combat Talon aircraft. To allow rapidclearance of the drop zone, the contents ofeach container are further packaged in man-portable units of approximately 50 poundseach. See TM 57-220 for instructions relativeto padding and packaging equipment.

ment used in assembly and recognition procedures should be carefully checked beforedeparture to insure proper functioning andadequate power sources.

must provide enough concealment to allowpersonnel to remain undetected until suchtime as they can be recovered.

An alternate assembly point must fill thesame criteria as the primary but should belocated 5 to 8 kilometers (2.7 to 4.3 nauticalmiles) from the drop zone (DZ).

ABORTSAbort the entire mission and return tothe SFOB/FOB.

Abort the primary reception site andproceed to a preselected alternate dropzone and conduct a blind infiltration.

AND ESCAPE PLANsurvivability of the aircrew and the SpecralForces element in case of emergency evacua-tion of the plane over or in hostile areas.

GROUND ASSEMBLY PROCEDURESEach member of the operational element is

thoroughly briefed on assembly points andon actions each member is to take.

The primary assembly point is referencedto an easily recognized terrain feature located200 to 300 meters (656 to 894 feet) from thereception site. The primary assembly point

MISSIONThe decision to proceed with or to abort themission due to the lack or improper display ofidentification markings/authentication sig-nals is the joint responsibility of com-manders concerned and will be stated in theoperation order. There are two courses ofaction available:

EN ROUTE EVASIONA vital part of pre-mission planning is the

development of a viable en route evasion andescape (E&E) plan. Such a plan enhances

4

oceforeand

fuomapid!s ofnan-rndsrtive

lto

ndop

ralla-

The mission commanders concerned arejointly responsible for:Checking all factors bearing on surviva-

bility.Devising an E&E plan that provides the

best chance ofsurvival in view ofthe hazardsinvolved and the mission objectives.

Thoroughly briefing all mission mem-bers prior to departure.

Each mission will present unique, peculiarproblems, but the following are basic con-siderations:

Joint E&E planning should focus on thatportion of the mission from the initial pene-tration of enemy-controlled territory to theobjective,

Joint E&E plans should be based on twophases:

Phase one-that portion of flight fol-lowing entry into the hostile zone wherepersonnel survival is the only consideration.

The senior ranking survivor takes charge. Hemust consider prior E&E planning and anyexperience or expertise gained from survivorpersonnel in order to survive, evade, andescape in the hostile environment.

Phase two-that portion of the flightthat is close to the objective and will permitthe Special Forces element to pursue its mis-sion with a reasonable chance of success. Thesenior Special Forces survivor will proceedwith the assigned rnission if enough of histeam members have survived and are able.The senior aircrew survivor must then choosea course of action for aircrew survivors thatwill not interfere with the assigned mission.

The aircraft crash site and the aircraftflight path prior to ground contact must beavoided to preclude discovery by hostileforces responding to the crash or detectionreports.

lowuch

the,beical

Sfecial Forces training is usually sufficientto conduct any means of infiltration,/exfiltra-tion. However, it is not anticipated that allmembers of a selected operational elementwill be equally proficient in a given skill ortechnique at any given time. Should areas bediscovered in which weaknesses exist, addedemphasis is placed on such areas. A properlybalanced training program will produce a

proficient team member. Special trainingprograms are required to attain and main-tain proficiency for:

Military free-fall (MFF) parachutinC. (FM31-19)

Insertion/extraction techniques.Survival, evasion, resistance, and escape.(FM 21-76)

TRAINING

R EH EARSALS

B RIEFBACKS

Rehearsals are the best means for determin-ing flaws in procedures or errors in planning.Thorough coordination of all proced.ures to beused is essential. The exact type aircraft thatwill be used for infiltration should be used fortraining when possible. Rehearsals should be

conducted under terrain, astronomical, hydro-graphieal, and meteorological conditionsclose to those to be met on the operation. Themore eomplex the procedures, the greater theneed for rehearsals.

When mission planning is complete, the oper-ational element gives a briefback of the entire

mission to the initial briefing staff. This letsthe staff determine if the operational element

5

has considered and has properly used theinform ation given during ir," i"iiilr rril.io.,briefing. ?he briefbr"r,- rrinii, "iilo"rrrr; o,goals:It. Iets the commander and his staffjuclgc if the operational

"l;;;";l;""aayfor the mission.

It lets the commander and his staffsuggest changes in the mission, asrequired.

(See appendix B, FM 81-22 for briefbackformat.)

6

staffl, ag

back OP

GENERALThe operational guidelines discussed beloware required to insure complete accord andagreement between the SFOB/FOB andoperational elements. Although these

Infiltration into the UWOA is not completeuntil the initial entry report is received at theSFOB/FOB. This report is sent as soon ag

MISSIONDeployed operational elements must under-stand that the SFOB/FOB requires reactiontime to process mission requests. The support-ing air unit must acknowledge confirmation/denial through the SFOB/FOB before mis-sion launch can be effected. The SFOB/FOB

guidelines are not all encompassing, they doaddress those actions,/decisions that aresignificant to operations.

INITIAL ENTRY REPORTpossible after infiltration, regardless ofwhether contact has or has not been madewith the resistance.

REOUESTSthen sends the mission confirmation mes-sage. Therefore, the deployed detachmentsmust submit mission requests as far inadvance of the requested mission time aspossible.

MISSION CONFIRMATION MESSAGEAs soon as possible after the mission requesthas been confirmed, the SFOB/FOB willsend the mission confirmation message,usually by blind transmission broadcast(BTB), to the deployed operational element.The operational element will acknowledgereceipt as soon as practicable. If the opera-

tional element does not positively acknowl-edge receipt, the SFOB /FOBwill decide ifthemission is to be executed or canceled. If adecision cannot be reached, the matter will bereferred to the Commander, Joint Unconven-tional Warfare Task Force (COMJUWTF),for final resolution.

7

GROUNDPlanned mission route will determine thelength of delay which can be incurred anastill meet the established time_on_target

WEATHERThe commanders of the SFOB/FOB and thes-upporting air unit will jointly makethe finaldecision on operatiorrA a"tuys or w;ather

DELAYS(TOT). In the event departure is delayed andthe route can be safely altered to arrive ontime, the mission should be executed.

DECISIONcancellations based on existing weatherminimums.

When a mission is aborted/canceled while enr-out9, the supporting aircraft will return tothe launch base or a designated alternate.The Special Forces commarrder will attemptimmediate contact with the SFOB/FOB for

EARLY/LATE ARRIVAL AT OBJECTIVE

ABORTS/CANCELLATIONS

DEBRIEFING

further orders. Following emergency reeov_ery, the commander of the supporting air_craft will be responsible for the safety-of ailpersonnel.

area will proceed to the alternate site, as spec-ified in the mission confirmation message.

AIR MISSIONSsions. Ifdelay provisions are not prescribed,a new mission request must be submitted.

Missions not accomplished due to early orlate arrival at/over the primary objective

RESCHEDULEDMissions not accomplished for any reasonwill be rescheduled under the deliy provi_

.

Debriefing is the means of getting informa-tion from team members by intelrogation.Teams are debriefed as soon as possibie afterrecovery.

Ideally, debriefing should be conducted bypersonnel from the headquarters originatinithe mission.

Team members give specific informationobtained as a result of the mission. At thesame time, personnel doing the questioningget information on sightings or observationsthat appear unimportant to team members.

Formal reports are prepared by the inter_rogators based on the information obtained.

I

and,on

;her

ec-

ov-dr-all

Once established in the UWOA, SpecialForces will organize, train, ana sup-e"viseindigenous reception committees to conduct

GENERAL

FUNCTIONS

ORGANIZATION

future air reception operations. Indigenousassets may also be trained to assist inrecovery operations.

4

)Dleala

r-

L

?he reception eommittee-Provides operational security.Emplaees/operates the marking system.Maintains surveillance of the receptionsite before and after each operation.Recovers incoming personnel/supplies.

Moves supplies to designated distribu_tion points or cache sites.

Sterilizes the reception site to maintainsecrecy, to preelude compromise of themission, and to insure the success offuture operations.

?he reception committee is normally organ-ized into five parties for air reception opera-tions. Small reception committees may com-bine the functions of two or more parties; e.g.,the command and marking pu"ti".

-uy b"combined.

Comm.a,nd Party-Includes the receptionco-mmittee leader (RCL), the Special Forcesadvisor, radio operators, and

--uaa"rg""a.

o Controls and coordinates all committeeactions.

o Provides medical support when neces-sary.

Marhing Party-Size is governed by thetype marking system to be used.

o Emplaces/operates the marking system.o Assists in recovering personnel,/supplies.o Assists in sterilizing the site.

9

Seeurity Party.o Prevents or delays enemy interference.o Normaly includes

"" i";;-;;; outersecurity element. The inner et"*".rt -i" ptr""a

around the perimeter of the """"ptio"'"it" toconduct delaying,zhotding r"ti;;;: ii;e oute"erement sets up outposts, roadblocks, and

::3:l sites along approach routes to stopZceray enemy movement.. Y.y be increased by members of theauxiliary to provide

"u"""i[.""" ,'"j girruinformation on enemy activities,/mor"_"rrt.and to-conduct limited ai"""rir""ii

^ii)"Urtambushes.o Provides security during transfer ofpersonnel/supplies from the r"""ptior,

"it"".!:2?'! Partv-size is governed by theschecluled number of incoming personneland/or supply bundles. a"

" *i?riir"rn, t*"persons should be assigned fo" ur"h paiacfru-tist,/bundle.

o Recovers, guides. and delivers incoming

personnel/bundles to the collection point.o Is placed from the desired impacipoint

along^the length of the aisp""sio-, putt""rr.Specific members,/groups ur" -r"rii"ed totrack the descent of eachparachutisiTsupptvbundle to insure immediate ,""o""", u"apreclude loss during darkness. --r.,

o Po.sitions a separate recovery detail at[ne exrt end of the DZ to track and locateparachutist,/supply bundles. tfris aeiait atsoserves to determine the aircraft,s exact line offlight and to facilitate u

"*""p oi-iie oZshould the delivery be disrupt"a-oiiori.'o Employs a signal system that precluaes

undue noise or movement.-

o fs responsible for sterilizing the receptionsite.

Traneport Party.o Includes part of, or all members of, the

command, marking, and recovery parties.. .

o Mg-ves supplies received to dlsig;ateddistribution points or cach" iit"*.

10

Dtn.tolyrd

iorfZ

atte

ONS1e

B.

dt,

UW air operations are characterized by pene-tration flights into hostile or politically sensi-tive areas to infiltrate, resupply, and exfil-trate Special Forces operational elements.Missions are normally flown during the

hours of darkness during a proper moonphase (see hppendix D) or period of limitedvisibility. Air support may be provided fromUS or Allied resources, depending on air-u aft / air crew availability and capability.

GENERAL

MtsstoNsAppropriate air missions to support UW

operations are:Infiltration, resupply, and exfiltration.Recovery and/or search and rescue(sAR).Message pickup and delivery.Surveillance and reconnaissance (visual,

photographic, and electronic).Airborne radio retransmission.Close air support or interdiction within

assigned capabilities.Diversionary tactics.Psychological operations (PSYOP) loud-

speaker/leafl et sorties.UW aircraft missions arefurther character-

ized by:Unescorted single aircraft missions fly-

ing at minimum clearance altitude (MCA)

(below 152 meters (500 feet)) and at night,depending on the moon phase. (For the C-130Combat Talon, moon phase is not a limitingfactor.)

Frequent course changes (doglegs) enroute to and departing from the drop zone.

Flight on a predetermined track from theinitial point (IP) to the drop zone.

Arrival at the drop zone within a desig-nated time limit, track, and drop altitude.

Delivery conducted at drop altitudesbetween 15 and 380 meters (50 and 1,250 feet),as determined by the capability of thedelivery system, technique used, parachuteperformance characteristics, and terrainlimitations. MFF missions will normallyrange fuom 762 to 7,620 meters (2,500 feet to25,000 feet).

11

Making drops on an Rp that has beencomputed and marked by a reception com-mittee or on an Rp that has been determinedby the navigator for drops o., ,rrr"rk"J OZ..The drop is normally executed during asingle pass over the DZ-

Maintaining track, altitude, and airspeed (power settings) for a designated dis-tance and time to avoid compromisingthe DZafter the drop has been made

Sorties that are planned to overfly boththe primary and alternate DZs. Wheniondi-tions prevent the aircraft from using theprimary DZ,itwill proceed to the alternite inan attempt to accomplish the infiltration.Air-landed delivery missions whenUWOAs expand and come under.o-u d"g"*"

of friendly control. Landings are normallymade on a straight-in approach to the land-ing zone (LZ) from the Ip..

Fixed-wing gunship close air support orinterdiction operations.The following paragraphs emphasize those

aspe_cts of air operations that are unique tothe Special Forces mission:

Planning considerations.Infiltration and resupply.Types and methods of aerial resupply.Airdrop containers.How to select, mark, and operate drop

zlnes, landing zones, message pickup zones(PZ), and recovery zones (RZ).Fixed-wing gunship operations.

PLANNI NG CONS!DERATIONSSuccessful airoperations depend on thoroughair mission planning, preparation, and coor-dination. Pre-mission planning must includejoint preparation and briefing between theaircrew and the deploying operational ele-ment. Each group must know the sequence ofevents and what it is to do under both normalan-d emergency conditions. This will assureefficient and harmonious mission comple-tion and survival. planning, preparation,and coordination must consider:Personnel. The number of personnel to beinfiltrated, their traini.rg, urd the amount ofequipment to be carried may be limitingfactors that impact on how th" op"r"iionalelement will infiltrate. A need for specialskills may call for use of nonorganic assetswhose physical starnina ,ra ""uprbititiu.may also be limiting factors. Availability ofsupporting forces and special equipmentitems must also be considered.Aircraft. The type aircraft selected for amission is based on its capabilities /li.mita_tions and its availability io fulfill sfecificmission requirements.D.eliuery Sysferns. Ihe type and method ofair-to-ground delivery aepena on the specificneeds of the mission. planning and coordi_nation must be thorough and normallyrequire much lead time. planners should keepthe following in rnind:

12

High altitude drops need special equip_ment and may limit cargo loads.

DZ inteligence must be acquired for thesuppor'ting air unit to accurately figure offsetaiming points when using AWADS aircraft.^ Programing and navigational planningfor an instrument meteorological conditions(IMC) mission are more time consuming anddemanding than for a visual drop.Security. Security is of prime importancebecause of the visibility of reception opera-tions and the vulnerability of Special Forces/indigenous assets engaged in these opera-tions. Observable operational patterns andunclassified activities may give receptionsite information to the enemy. These actionsmust be avoided. Also use proper counter_intelligence measures. Using area DZs andbeacons,/transponders will greatly enhancethe safety of reception op"r"iiorrr.-EneTU Air Defenses. If at all possible, donot- choose reception sites where the aircraftwillhave to fly directly over or near enemyair defense or detection systems. Identifica_tion of such systems requires close coordina-tion with intelligence personnel.W eather and. Astronomical Conditione.Seasonal weather conditions in the opera-tional area, such as ground fog, mist, iraze,smoke, and low-hanging cloud clutter, mayhinder pilot sighting of the visual ground

illvnd-

;or

,aeto

marking pattern and authentication signals.High surface winds eause excessive winddrift of jumpers,/cargo containers. parachutedrops may therefore not take place. Weatherminimums are set by the COMJUWTF.

Appropriate periods of sunrise and sun-set,.moon phase, moonrise and moonset, andperiods of twilight must be selected that willfavor the mission.Airdrop Containera. Equipment/suppliesmay be packed and rigged in appropriateairdrop containers to be dropped as doorbundles or by other approved types/methodsof airdrop. This permits the parachutist tojump unencumbered by excess equipment butmay result in the loss of equipment if thecontainers are not recovered.-

Airdrop containers should be used onlywhen an adequate reception committee isassured or in low-level drops (lb2_zlgmeters(500-700 feet)) where dispersion is not aproblem.-

The operational element commanderdecides whether to use or not to use doorbundles for infiltration.^

High altitude (up to 7,620 meters ( 25,000feet)) resupply methods are now under develop_ment and include the A-TA, A_zL, A-22, aid.A-23 systems. These systems are 1 year to Byears from completion.Reception Committees. The presence of areception committee influenceJ the amountof accompanying equipment as well as follow-up automatic, emergency, or on-call resupply.Sterilization of the reception site and dis-posal of air items are less of a problem thanwhen conducting a blind drop.Jump Proeedures. The supporting missionaircraft commanderznavijato" *'itt deter_mine and compute the Rp for blind infiltra-tions. The drop will be made on a computedair release point (CARp) or on a visiblepreselected release point..

When a visual ground release point mark-rng system is used, the pilot will align hisaircraft l1t!u proper track in order ti passover the RP. When conditions are consideredsafe for the drop to take place, the pilot will11r"" 9" the green light to tell the jumpmasterthat the aircraft is nearing the de;ig;aa ianZon track and at proper altitude, urd thut ull

conditions are safe to jump. The jumpmasterwill give the go signal when the aircraft isaligned with the release point marker.Safety.

o Personnel and Cargo Containers.Personnel and cargo containers can be

dropped on the same pass over the DZ. Exitsignals and timing must be rehearsed untilall operators are thoroughly cognizant ofthedangers involved due to entanglement. Ontactical infiltrations, the container Ioad isdropped first, followed immediately by thepersonnel.

o Electrical High Tension Lines.Electrical high tension lines will be no

closer than 1 kilometer (1/2nautical mile) oneither side ofand from the aircraft approachend of the DZ, and.2 kilometers (1 nauticalmile) from the aircraft exit end.

High tension lines constitute no majorhazard or obstacle if electrical power can beshut off during the drop.

The DZ safety officer or the RCL isresponsible for the safety of the drop if powerlines other than high tension iirre, ur"present.

o Wind Limitations. (See figure 5-1.)o Over Water Flights.

A flotation device (LpU BZ) will be worn byall parachutists as part of their normal jumpequipment whenever the aircraft flight pathis over water or whenever a body of water issufficiently close to the drop zone to warrantits use. All personnel should be briefed onditching procedures and techniques ofpara-chute water landings prior to ,u"h flight".

oDrop Altitude.Static line training jumps should not beexecuted at altitudes lower than BOE meters(1,000 feet) above ground level (AGL) fromaircraft flying at speeds greater than 90knots indicated air speed (KIAS) and 218meters (L,250 feet) AGL from aircraft flyingless than 90 KIAS. The COMJUWTF maydesignate that combat static line insertionsbe made at lower altitudes, usually from 1b2to 243 meters (500 to 800 feet) AGL.Pilot-Jumpntaster Briefing / Briefbaeh.A pilot-jumpmaster briefing shouli takeplace prior to the briefback. The briefing

)pc8

13

PTACTTlllt 0PtRAItO]tsPERS()T{NEL DROPS . tAt{D

SURFACE WINDJ,KTALE wtND 13 knots (24 km or 15 mph)DROP ALTITUDE W|ND 3O knors (56 km or 35 mphPERS(}iIt{EL DR()PS - WATER

SURFACE WIND 15 knors (28 km or IZ mph)DROP ALTTTUDE WtND 30 knots i56 km or 35 mph)SEA STATE 3_foor hidi1f.,.p ond4-foor high swell

CARG(l OR()PSSURFACE W|ND t7 knors (32 k m or 2O mph)DROP AITITUDE WtND 40 knots iZ+ km or 46 mph)t{0TE: Drop ottitude wind restrictions do nor opplyduring MFF, free drop, ond recovery kit drop

operotions.WARTIIilT OPTRATIO}IS

tllvllTS WtLL BE SETUN CON VENTIONAT

BY THE COMIVlANDER, JOINTWARFARE TASK FORCE.

Figure 5_1. Wind limitations duringshould include all aspects of mutual interestto includ-e the pilot briefing and ei routephases of the mission. Aircrew presence atthe mission briefback is highlv j""i""a u"a

INFILTRATIONStandard and nonstandard static line andMFF parachutes may be used to iiriit"ut"personnel and supplies into an operationalarea.Infiltration.

o Static Line. Techniques and proceduresfor.static line parachute operatior,

""" p""-

scribed in TM 57-220, Technical Training ofP-ara_chutists, with all changes, ..rd iC SZ- t,The Jumpmaster.o Military Free-Fall.-

MFF parachute infiltrations may beused when enemy air defense and detectionsystems prevent a low altitude penetration or

14

peacetime and wartime operations.

should include, as a minimum, the aircraftcommander, the senior navigator, and theloadmaster.

AND RESUPPLYwhen mission needs demand a clandestineinsertion. MFF parachute operations arecharacterized by:

Flights at altitudes above normal sightand sound.High drop altitudes-above 8,04g meters(10,000 feet).Low openings-betw een b47 to 762meters (1,800 to 2,500 feet).MFF parachute drops may be made on

a visually marked Rp, on an unmark ed, DZusing the high altitude release point (HARp),or on a visible preselected Rp to reach the

ftle

desired ground impact point. The technicaland procedural guidance for military free-fallparachute operations are prescribed in FM31-19, Special Forces Military FreeFall para-chuting.

o Adverse Weather Aerial Delivery Sys-tem.AWADS is a multipurpose, self_containedtactical navigation system that greatlyimproves mission aircraft capability Io infil-trate and resupply personnel and equipmentinto minimum size DZs in adverse *L"ih"" o"darkness. AWADS operations can be con_ducted safely and effectively in IMC with aminimum 9t-meter (800-foot) ceiling AGLand a minimum visibility of 0.92 kil,ometer(0.424 nautical mile). The following proced-ures apply when using AWADS airciaft forinfiltration:

Standard DZ Rp markings are used ifceiling and visibility permit visual sighting.

The navigator will confirm the air_craft's location with respect to the in-flightCARP when visibility prevents visual sight-i.rg.-

Jumpers must be briefed on the psycho_logical effect of exiting the aircraft in or justabove the clouds because the jumper per-ceives a false sense of excessive aircraftspeed that may cause him to hesitate in thedoor.

The jumper has limited time for DZorientation after he breaks out ofthe clouds.This may cause further problems in groundassembly.

The minimum drop altitude duringinstrument flight rules (IFR) will be lb2.bmeters (500 feet) above the highest obstruc-tion, 5.55 kilometers (B nautical miles) eitherside of the DZ centerline from the DL enfiypoint to theDZ exit point. TheDZentry/exitpoints are defined as follows:

DZ Entry Point: A geographical pointon the DZ run.in course where dropaltitude, drop airspeed, and stable flightconditions must be eetablished. fhispoint normally will be at least 11.1kilometers (6 nautical miles) prior topoint of impact.

DZExit Point: A geographical point onthe DZ departure course (extended DZcenterline) at or prior to which thedeparture maneuver will be performed.This point normally will be no closerthan 3.7 kilometers (2 nautical miles)past the trailing edge of the DZ. Selec-tion of theDZ exit point and departureprofile will insure at least a BOb-meter(1,000-foot) altitude separation from allobstructions within g.25 kilometers (bnautical miles) of the DZ departureflight path.Minimum ceiling or visibility restric-

tions do not apply to the Combat Talonaircraft for actual contingency operations.Minimum IMC drop altitudeis 76 meters (2b0feet) AGL.Sequence Of Reaupply. A typical air resup-ply mission involves a particular sequence ofactions (figure 5-2).

o Operational Element.Identifies and reports DZ/LZ sites.Transmits DZ/LZ data and resupply

requests to the SFOB.O SFOB.

Processes DZ/LZ data and resupplyrequests.

Coordinates mission with the air sup-port unit.

Transmits mission confirmation mes-sage to the operational element.

-

Prepares and delivers supplies/person-nel to the departure site. (See pase 4.1

o Air Support Unit.Prepares mission confirmation data

for the SFOB.Receives and loads supplies,/personnel.Executes the air delivery mission.

o Operational Element.Organizes the reception committee.Establishes the DZ/LZ.Receives personnel,/supplies.Removes and dietributes incoming sup-

plies.Typee of Resupply. The SFOB or FOBplans and schedules the aerial delivery ofautomatic, emergency, or on-call resupply

Il'

I

I

15

SUPPORTINGAIR UNIT

COOR DINATIONREOUEST

CONFIR,UATION

,utsstoNU WOA

aoo

'':FllSF OB

missions to deployed operational elements.Preplanned automatic and emergency resup-ply_provide operational elemen-t, niitt i--mediate equipment,/supplies until routine on-call supply procedures can be established.o Automatic Resupply.

Planned before infiltration as to deliv_ery time, location, contents, and the DZ mark_ing and authentication to be used.

Delivered automatically after success-ful infiltration and radio contact is estab_lished unless canceled, modified, or resched-uled by the deployed operationai element..

Replaces lost or damaged equipmentitems and augments equipm-ent that-couldnot be carried in on the iniiial infiltration.

Also serves to reinforce US support ofthe resistance movement.o Emergency Resupply.

Planned before infiltration. It includesspecified delivery time, provisional location(to be confirmed), contents, and the DZ mark-ing and authentication to be used.

Started when radio contact has notbeen made between the operational eletentand the SFOB/FOB within a specified periodof time after infiltration.

16

Figure 5-2.Sample UW air resuppty mission.

started on tr," roJi;-municationsbetween a deployed Special Forces elementand the SFOB/FOB for a certain, consecu-tive number of scheduled radio contacts.When the Special Forces element is forcedinto continuous movement, emergency DZsmust be selected and reported ai the firstopportunity. If, during this time, a certainnumber of radio contacts are missed, theresupply is delivered on the last reported DZ.

Contains mission-essential equipment/supplies to restore the operational capabilityand survivability of the Special Forces ele-p"lt u-"d indigenous assets. As a minimum,it should contain:

Communications equipment.Homing beacons/devices.Survival and medical supplies.Selected weapons, ammunition, anddemolition items.

o On-Call Resupply.On-call resupply missions are re_quested based on operational needs when

I8rtl-

communications have been established be-tween the SFOB/FOB and the Special Forceselement.

These supplies consist of major equip-ment items that are not consumed at a pre_dictable rate. These supplies are held inreadiness at theater a"*y a"ea command(TAACOM) depots or at the SFOB/FOB forimmediate delivery following specific mis-eion requests.

When determining the quantities to berequested, the following factors must be con_sidered:

The rate of expansion of the resistanceforce.Antieipated tempo of operations.The capability to receive, transport,store, and secure the incoming.,rppli"".

TYPES AND METHODSAn airdrop involves all types and methods ofair-to-ground delivery of equipment and sup-plies from an aircraftin flighi. The airdrop isthought by many to be one of the U""t ur,afastest means of resupply. In some cases itmay be the only means of resupply availableto the commander. See FM 29-51, DivisionSupply and Field Service Operations.Typea of Airdrop. The five types of airdropare:

o Free Drop. A free drop is the delivery ofcertain nonfr agile items of equipment,/supplyft9T r slow-flying aircraff ui lo* uititoa"without the use of parachutes or other retard-ing devices. Normally, the special packagingreq-uired for fragile items greatly ii-it" thi"technique. Free drops are most effective whenth-e drop can be made into a river, stream, orother body of water, and immediate aJio" istaken to recover the supplies..

o-Loy-Velocity Drop. A low_velocity dropis the delivery of supplies from an alrcraftusing cargo parachutes. Such loads arespecially prepared for airdrop either by pack-ing the items in air-droppubl" containlrs orby lashing them to airdroppable platiorms.Cargo parachutes are then attached to the

Special Forces use a brevity codesystem, known as the catalog supply system(CSS), to expedite on-call ,"*ppty req'uests,to insure accurate identification of equip-ment/supply items, and to minimize radiotransmission time. CSS permits maximumuser flexibility and identifies single majorequipment items or several associated itemsby code words. It is cataloged by class ofsupplies and grouped in individually pack-aged items or several associated uril itemspacked together. For example, an individualbundle might be made up rf orr" mortar withbase plate, mount, and sight; a unit bundlemight be made up of a recoilless rifle,complete with sight, spare parts, and eighirounds of HEAT ammunition.

OF AERIAL RESUPPLYload or the platforrn to slow the descent of theload and to insure minimum landing shock..

o Hieh-Velocity Drop. A high-velo"ity dropis the delivery of certain items of supply thatare specially packed and rigged ir,

"o.rt.ir"r"having layers of energy-dissipating materialattached to the underside and a stabilizingdevice. The stabilizing device, such as a rinf_slot parachute, is designed to minimizeoscillation of the load and to create justenough drag to keep the load upright duringdescent so that it will land on ih"

".ru"gydissipator.o Low Altitude Parachute Extraction Sys_tem (LAPES). This system extracts cargo

Ioads up to 3G,700 pounds depending on thetype aircraft used. While the aircraft is flyingat about 1.5 to 3 meters (b to 10 feet) above theground delivery point, a drogue paraehuteextracts the metric platform load from therear ofthe aircraft. This parachute providesdeceleration which, combined with groundfriction, quickly stops the forward ,io*"r-tum ofthe load. Recovery parachutes are notused with LAPES. Advantages are preciseaccuracy, no need for DZ markingequipment,and rapid clearance of theDZ.

o High-Speed, Low-kvel Aerial Delivery

t.da

tIe

I

17

System (HSLLADS). HSLLADS was devel-lpld fo_r airdrop resupply from the CombatTalon flying at 250 KIAS and as low as 76meters (250 feet) AGL. This system employs amodified container utilizing A-21 covers anda modified 22-footor 2g-foot extraction para-chute. This system can deliver up to 4 cargocontainers weighing a minimum of 280pounds each but not exceeding a total of 2,200poll-d" at delivery altitudes ranging from 76t9 ZZ! meters (250 to 750 feet) eCl. e,,sling-shot"-ejeclion system ejects the cargo loadover the RP.Methods Of Airdrop. The five methods ofairdrop currently employed are:

o Door Loads. The load is pushed orskidded out of the aircraft door or tail rampopening. This method is suitable for free, low_velocity, and high-velocity drops. The load islimited in size and weighl by the opening inthe aircraft and by the personnel capabilityto eject the load.

o Wing Loads. Loads are rigged in con-tainers attached to shackles o, th" underside9jth." aircraft's wings. The size and weight ofthe load are limited by the load_cariying

capacity of the aircraft and by the typecontainer and its asymetric flight character-istics.-

o Gravity. Load-restraining ties are re_leased to allow the load to slide out of thecargo compartment of the aircraft flying indrop attitude (with the nose slightly

"t""ut"a).o Extraction. A drogue parachute is usedto extract platform loads from the aircraftcargo compartment.

o External Transport. Loads are hungfrom a hook clevis on a helicopter, flown tothe delivery site, and dropped using the free,low-velocity, or high-velocity methJd.\lgt9d, Opening Airdrop. When the enemyair defense threat stops aerial resupply dropsbelow 3,048 meters (10,000 feet), cargl loadscan be equipped with time-delay devices suchas power-actuated reefing line cutters, baro-metric opening devices, or timers. Thesedevices are set to delay the opening of thecargo parachute at Iower altitudes permittinga good ground dispersion pattern. The air-crew employs high altitude bombing tech-niques combined with HARp compulationswhen using this airdrop system.

A-7A Cargo Sling, The A-7A cargo slingconsists of four identical sling straps, each188 inches long. Each sling strap is fittedwith a stationary parachute quick-iit adapter(commonly called a friction adapter) and afloating D-ring. Each A-?A cargo slingassembly weighs 1-1,/2 pounds.

A combination of two, three, or four slingstraps may be used forrigglng a load depend-irg Pp9" the size, weight, andlor shap" of th"load. The A-ZA cargo sling is used to dropnonfragile supplies. The maximum loadcapacity is 500 pounds; the minimum is 180pounds.

Two A-7A sling straps have a maximumweight limit of 300 pounds; three straps, 400pounds; and four straps, b00 pound.. (S""figure 5-3.)

CARGO SLINGS, ATRDROP CONTAINERS,AND PONCHO EXPEDIENT PARACHUTE

This section contains information on the useof cargo slings (A-ZA), airdrop containers (A-27 and A.22 cargo bags; CTIJ-L/ Ahigh-speedaerial delivery container), the poncho expedi_ent parachute, steel strapping, and riggingknots. The contair"r, ,rrry be'packed withsupplies, disassembled equipment, or smallitels of ready-to-use equifment prepared forairdrop. The container load may requirecushioning material such as honeycomb, felt,or cellulose wadding, depending Ln the loadrequirements and the method of airdrop. Thenup.lgr and types of parachutes required tostabilize and retard the descent of ihe loadwil.l {enen! on the type of container used, theweight of the load, and the method of airdrop.(fo1 riSSlng procedures, use FM 10-b0i,Airdrop of Supplies and Equipment, RiggingContainers.)

18

rpepr-

reheind).edfi1gtoE,

ly)8lsrhGtere

sr-l-a

/tIt

LOAD USING TWO A-7A SLING STRAPS (3OO-POUND LIMIT)

IYPtClt [0r0

LOAD USING THREE A.7A SLINGS (4OO-POUND LIMIT)

G.I3 CAR6() PARACHUTT

RISTR

0.RHG

LOAD USTNG FOUR A-7A SLTNGS (sOO_pouND LIMIT)

IYPTCAt t 0Ao

Figure 5-3. Loads using A-7A cargo slings.

19

TYPICAI. L()AO

SIt)T SIRAPScAilYAS CoVtR Stot STRAPSl80TT0rl [11'

Sling attached to canvas cover

clilvAS covtRI T0Pl

Load positioned on canvas cover

Flr t t)0u rc r(.Rt r. rA s r

SINTPRII6 STRAP

RIXG STRAP

Straps and quick-release assembty secured

0urcx.RttErstASSfIBLY

srot SIRTPSI t{a.'l

Figure S_4.A:?1 Cg,rgo Bag, The A-21 cargo bag is anadjustable container consistinf of a" slingassembly with scuff pad, a, quick_releaseassembly (personnel parachute harness), tworing straps, and a gZ- by llsinch canvascover. The A-21 cargo bag weighs approxi-mately 31 pounds.- Th" A-21 cargo bag is used to drop bothfragile and nonfragile supplies. The maxi_mum load capacity is b00 pounds. ?he mini-mum load capacity is 1b0 pounds.

The maximum allowabledimensions of aIgged A-21 cargo bag are 82 inches wide, 60inches long, and 82 inches high. (See figure5-4.)

20

A-21 cargo bag.A-22 Cargo Bag. The A-22 cargo bag is anadjustable, cotton duck cloth urra *"bbirrgcontainer consisting of a cotton or nylonwebbing sling assembly, a cover, and fourcotton or nylon suspension webs. (See figure5.5.)

The A-22 cargo bag has a maximum loadcapacity of 2,200 pounds.

The maximum allowable dimensions fora rigged load are 48 inches wide, b8-ll2inches long, and 60 inches high.

For low-velocity airdrop, a standardcargo bag skid (48 by 58-112 inches) serves asa base for the container load. For high-velocity airdrop, the standard cargo bag skid

PILOT CHUTE G.I2D PARACHUTE

CLEVIS --- +- SUSPENSIONwtEs

8O POUNDWEBBING

COTTON

Figure 5-5. A-22 cargo bag.

urrg,Durre

rd

or/2

or an appropriate size piece of plywood maybe used for the base of the container load. Theweight of the A-22 cargo bag and skid isapproximately 58 pounds.

NOTE: Low-velocity Container Delivery Sys-tem (CDS) with A-22 container is not organicto Special Forces.

High-Speed Aerial D eliu ery Container,CTU-Z/A, (See figure E-6.)

The CTU-2/A container (FM 10-542) isdesigned to be dropped by high speed aircraftflying at 425 KIAS and at minimum altitudeof 91 meters (300 feet) AGL. It is a fin-stabilized, parachute-retarded, reusable podcapable ofcarrying up to 500 pounds ofcargo.

The container measures 21 inches indiameter by 106 inches long, weighs 218pounds empty (with parachute), and is madeof glass-wotmd resin acrylic that allows easydestruction by burning.

The CTU-2,/A container can be used todeliver:

Critical supplies such as food, water,ammunition, and medicine.

CAUTION: Only ammunition listed in FM10-553/TO13C7-18-41 may be air-dropped.

Surfaceto-air recovery (STAR) kits.DZ marking equipment or beacons forairdrop/airstrike direction.

Figure 5-6. CTU-2/A high-speed aerial deliverycontainer.

rdrah-id

(

21

Poneho Expedient Paraehute. The pon-cho expedient parachute can be used to dropup to 65 pounds of equipment and lessens theneed for expensive parachutes. Rigging theponcho is illustrated and described in detailbelow:

o First, pull the hood drawstring loop toclose the hood opening, then wrap the excessdrawstring tightly around the base of thehood and tie it off so no air will escape.

o Fold the poncho in half (bottoms to-gether) with the snaps down.

o Cut eight suspension lines 6 feet inlength.

o Tie one suspension line to each of thegrommets on the poncho with a bowline knot.

o Insure that the suspension lines are nottangled and are the same length.

o Tie all the free ends of the suspensionlines to a snap link with one large overhandknot that is further secured by one or twohalf-hitch knots.

o Fold the poncho as follows:Lay the half-folded poncho flat.On both long sides of the poncho, make

S folds 6 to 8 inches wide to meet in the center(there should be the same number of folds onboth sides).

Next, fold the narrow-folded ponchointo an M fold.

. Tie the loop end of the static line to thedrawstring (which is wrapped around thehole of the poncho) with one loop of 25-poundtest cord (or with a lightweight string thatwill break when the bundle is deployed fromthe aircraft) and tie with a square knot.

o Attach the load to the snap link that isattached to the suspension lines.

o Fold the suspension lines on top of theload.

o Then place t\e M-folded poncho para-chute on top of the folded suspension lines.

o Affix the poncho parachute to the top ofthe load with one wrap of 25-pound test cordin the same manner as tying a package,insuring the cord goes through the loop in thestatic line. Tie with a square knot. This willdeploy the suspension lines prior to breakinglose from the aircraft (see figure 5-7).

22

Figure 5-7. Poncho expedient parachute.

Steel Strapping. The steel strapping com-monly used for rigging airdrop loads is madeof flat steel, 0.020 inch thick by 5/8 inch wide,with a breaking strength of 1,000 pounds.The steel strapping may be used as a con-

Hi

HOODDRAUISIRI IIG I.OOP

P01rcH0H OOD

susPlltst0ll Ullts

tainer, used in combination with webbingstraps, or used to bind equipment items to-gether for packing in container loads. Whensteel strapping is used as the container, itmust be used in double thickness. The loadlimit is 250 pounds.

DOUBLE HALF-HITCH

&UOVERHAND KNOT

Knote for Rigging. A good knot must beeasy to tie,/untie and must hold withoutslipping. The proper use of knots during therigging of loads for airdrop cannot be over-emphasized. The most frequently used knotsare illustrated below.

6s@SOUARE KNOT INSINGLE LINE$$+CLOVE HITCH

fu(SLIPPERY HALF-HITCH

BOWLINEKNOT

GIRTH HITCH

SOUARE KNOTDOUBLE LINE

IN

SURGEON'S KNOT ANDLOCKING KNOT

l-eI.,

1-

I- RIGGING KNOTS

23

GENERAL-

Special Forces personnel are responsiblefor selecting, reporting, and marking DZsused for UW reception operations._

During the planning phase of any SpecialForces air operation four basic faciors mustbe considered:

DZ selection.Type ofDZ.Computing theDZ release point.DZ marking.

Infiltration DZs are selected using all avail_able intelligence resources and maps. Final

approval of the DZ seleetedis made jointly bythe commanders of the SFOB/FOB and thlsupporting air unit.

.dfter the Special Forces operational element infiltrates into a UWOA, it must con-firm and report additional DZ datafor use bythe SFOB/FOB and the supporting air unit.The operational element will select DZs to beused for future reception operations that aregenerated by its mission and where timing isextremely important.

SELECTIONThe selectionof aDZmust satisfy the require-ments of both the reception committee andthe supporting air urrit. The DZ must beaccessible and secure, and must permit a safestatic line or military free-fall parachutedelivery of personnel/cargo conta-iners. Thep-ilot/navigator must be able to locate, iden-tifu, and authenticate the DZ.Thefollowingfactors are considered when selecting aDZ:Safety. ADZ that does not meet allcriteriafor the safety of infiltrating personnel but24

meets all air safety criteria may be used forcargo drops only.W eat her And A etronomieal Cond.itione.Seasonal weather and astronomical condi-tions in the area must be considered.Security. The DZ must provide maximumsecurity from the enemy ground threat; theapproach and exit routes must be concealedfrom observation or secured against inter-diction. Additionally, the DZ should be nearareas suitable for caching supplies and

bylhe

ile)n-byrit.belrE'iB

or

t.u-

mtedr-rrd

disposing of air delivery equipment.Sha_pe. Square- or circular_.'h.p"J DZ" urupr-eferable since they permit a wider choice inselecting the aircraft approach track.Size

. Width. The DZ width should allow forminor computation errors in wina arift.Generally, the minimum width is gOb meters(1,00_0 feet) for personnel drops.-

o Length. The absolute minimum DZlength depends on the ground dispersionpattern formed by the number of jumpers,zcargo containers to be dropped. This patterngenerally parallels the aircraft,s line of flightalong the long axis of the DZ.Ground. Surface. Ground surfaces shouldbe reasonably level and relativ"lv fr"" ofobstructions, such as rocks, trees, i"ir""., u.apower lines. Swamp", prddies, a.rJ _a"shyground may be used, but they can hinderrecovery operations.

Special attention must be given to thesurface of DZs located at elevatiJns in e*cessof 1,830 meters (b,g0b feet) above s; level.r ne lncreased rate of parachute descent dueto decreased air density at these

"ltitrrd""causes hard landing impacts.Temain. Flat or rolling terrain is desirable.Sites selected in mountainous or hilif coun-try containing large valleys or level piateausmay be used for mission security.'If a DZmust be located on a relatively sieep slope,plan to have the aircraft nv pu*ffli to theridge line to make the drop.

The use of cultivat"d fi"ld. should beavoided.

Sp{t valleys or pockets completely sur_rounded by hills are difficult to l'ocat"'frrmthe air and should not be selectJ

"*""pt i"unusual circumstances.-

The surrounding area must be relativelyfree ofobstacles that could interfe"" *iii

".f"flisht.. .: Night Operations. Rising ground orhills more than BOb meters (1,006 fJ"t) t igt

",than the surface of the site shoufa U"io "f

o.",than 4 kilometers (2 nautical miles) ardlustbe reported. Regardless of good moon illumi_nation, high terrain still constitutes, trur."ato aircraft since perception of height is

greatly reduced during hours of darkness.Navigational obstacles in excess of B0 meters(98 feet) must be reported for operationaldrops at altitudes less than 122 meters (400feet) AGL.

Approach Quadrants. It is importantthat the site should have one o, *o"" op",approach quadrants free of terrain/vegeta_tion masks that could block the aircrew,svision of the DZ marking during the air_craft's final approach. There should be anopen approach quadrant of at least 4bdegrees that will allow the air support unit achoice when determining its approach trackfrom the IP. (See figure 6-1.)

Figure 6-l.Computation of open quadrant andaircraft track (desired heading).

TREES OR TERRAIN IHAT WOUTD AAASKPItOT'S vtEW OF OZ,IiARKtNGS

220 0

360' mAGDESIREO TRACK

oPEN: t30. ro 220.ond 33O'ro OI2o

TRACK: 36O "

--

'

.-

.:-3

4.4*>?

25

o Approach Path. A single clear line ofapproach is acceptable provided there is aclear level turning radius of at least 4 kilo-meters (? nautical miles) on each side of theDZ for medium aircraft or as prescribed bycurrent regulations of the supporting air unitfor the type aircraft to be used- For short takeoff and landing,zlight (STOL) aircraft thedistance must be 2 kilometers (1 nauticalmile). (See figures 6-2 and 6-8.)

Figure 6-2. Level turning radius required forone-approach DZs and LZs (medium aircraft).

TYPES OFPrimary Drop Zones. The primary dropzone must satisfy the requirements of boththe aircrew and the reception committee. Thesite is one that is accessible,, reasonablysecure, and safe for delivery of incomin!personnel,/supplies. Additionally, the air-crew must be able to identify the DZ. Theinformation contained in the paragraph;above will aid in selecting the appro-priatedrop site.Alternate Drop Zones.An alterna te DZ iaselected and designated for every mission. Itis used for personnel, automatic, emergency,or on-call resupply drops when unfavorabieconditions prevent using the primary DZ.The date-time group of the drop is deteririned

26

Figure 6-3. Level turning radius for STOL,zlight aircraft.

Suitable bodies of water may be used, butrapid recovery procedures must be employed.The water must be at least 2 meters (6.B0 feet)deep and clear of underwater obstructions tothat depth. The eurface must be clear of allfl-oating debris, moored craft, and protrudingobetacles. For personnel drops, current speedshould not exceed 1 meter (8.28 feet) persecond, and the minimum safe water tempera-ture is 50 degreee F (10 degrees C).

DROP ZONESby the commandere of the SFOB/FOB andthe supporting air unit. This information isthen transmitted to the operational elementin the mission confirmation message. Com-bat Talons normally plan to overfly alternateDZa ae a matter of course. Alternate DZs_

Should be located as close as possible tothe aircraft's primary track to precludeexcessive aircraft maneuver and minimizethe possibility of enemy detection.

Should be manned by a skeleton recep-tion committee.Unmarked Drop Zonee. Unmarked DZsare used for preplanned blind drop parachutedelivery of personnel,/emergency resupplyduring specified time periods. Observers are

)L/

d, butloyed.6 feet)ons toof alludingspeedt) perIpera-

assigned to keep the DZ under constantsurveillance before and during the scheduleddrop time. When the drop has been made, theobservers alert the operational element. TheDZ is then rapidly cleared and sterilized.Unmarked DZs-

Are normally limited by visibility tospecific astronomical conditions.

Should be of odd shape and size andhave identifiable terrain features.

Should be located in isolated or remoteareas away from the enemy threat.

Should be reasonably close to plannedevacuation routes.

The pilot/navigator computes the RPafter visual or radar sighting of the DZ. If badweather or limited visibility in the DZ arcaprevents the drop, but the terrain allows asafe drop close to the objective, the drop maybe conducted on the nearest field along theaircraft's line of flight; however, the fieldcannot be more than 3 kilometers (1.62 nauti-cal miles) from the original DZ. Personnel tobe dropped will be so advised by the pilot.Area Drop Zones.The area DZ system is well adapted for use inconjunction with preplanned automatic resup-

ply drops where DZs arc frequently selectedby map reconnaissance.

It consists ofa prearranged flighttrackover a series of acceptable drop sites locatednot more than 1 kilometer (l/2nautical mile)on either side of the track.

A line-of-flight path is establishedbetween two selected points, A and B. Thedistance between these two points will notexceed 28 kilometers (15 nautical miles) andwill have no major changes in ground eleva-tion over 90 meters (295 feet). Points A and Bmust be identified by coordinates in themission request.

The reception committee is free toreceive the drop at any locaiion along the lineof flight between points A and B. (See figure6-4.)

The aircraft arrives at point A at thescheduled time and proceeds toward point Bat drop airspeed and altitude. Once the DZmarkings have been located and identified,the drop is made.

DZ markings will be displayed nolonger than 10 minutes-beginning 2 min-utes before the aircraft's scheduled arrival

] andion isrmentCom-rnateZB-ble to:ludeimize

ecep-

DZs:huterpplva are

The drop mat be rece,ved anrrhef e a,ong tieI ghl path betreen Pornts A and I The d stancebetieen Po nts A and B r, nol erceed l5naul camrles (28 trlometers)

\AIRCRAFTTRICX

%'%\

.%,a

\@RtrtRtilct

POITITS

Figure 6-4. Area drop zones.

27

tlme over pointA until8 minutes past or untilall jumpers /cargo have landed.

If a beacon/transponder ie to be usedfor area DZ identification, it will be posi-tioned to mark point A and turned on prior tothe aircraft's TOT, as jointly agreed upon bythe commanders concerned, and it will be leiton for 15 minutes or until the first deployedparachute is observed. A beacon may also beused on an area DZto mark the desired pointof impact.

Area DZs are reported by using thenormal DZreport format except-

Locations of points A and B ,including reference points, are given.

The open quadrant ie not reported.Obstacles not shown on the issued map

are reported in reference to either points Aor B when they are over g0 meters (2gE feet)above the level of the terrain and within B.Tkilometers (2 nautical miles) on either side ofthe line of flight. (See figure 6-b.)

MFF Drop Zonee. DZs for MFF parachuteoperations are easier to select than DZs foretatic line paraehute operatione because theMFF parachute is easily maneuvered. Somefactors to consider are:

A DZ that doee not meet the air safetycriteria may still be suitable for MFF person-nel drops as dispersion is not a prime factor.

There is no preferred shape. Any reason-ably level area more than 100 meters (B2gfeet) in width and relatively free of obstaclesmay be used.

Any ground surface suitable for staticline DZs is satisfactory.

Small valleys or pockets completely sur-rounded by hills can be used.-

Normally, open approach quadrants,obstacles, and weather conditions are not aselection factor. Jumpers can maneuver

In plannin g aDZoperation, computingtheRP is extremely important. The Rp is the

28

COMPUTING THE RELEASE POINT(sTATtC LtNE OPERATTONS)

Figure 6-5. Obstacles and reference points(area DZ).around obstacles at lower altitudes. Weatherconditions, such as ground fog, mist, haze, orcloud formations that obscure ground vision,may serve as convenient cover.

exact point on the DZ over which exit fromthe aircraft is to be made. The RP marker is

(REFERENCE POINT)IAKE CHARTES

\II

JI

I

I

I

II

\\

(RETERENCE POINI}

NORTONVII.TE

located in relation to the desired impact pointusing a backward planning sequence. Rpcomputation relies on three factors:

Dispersion is the length of the patternformed by the impact of the parachutists,/containers. The desired point of impact forthe first parachutist/container depends onhow the calculated dispersal pattern is fittedinto the available DZ space.

Wind drift is the horizontal distancetraveled from the point of parachute deploy-ment to the point of impact as a result of windconditions. The RP is located a calculateddistance upwind from the desired impact point.

Forward throw is the horizontal distancetraveled by the parachutist or cargo con-tainer between the point of exit and theopening of the parachute. Adjustment forthis factor is made by moving the releasepoint in the direction of the aircraft approach.Dispersion. First, the ground dispersionpattern is computed to determine the abso-lute minimum length of the DZ. It is thecomputed horizontal distance depending onand formed by the desired impact point of thefirst jumper/container to the impact point ofthe last jumper/container as determined bythe known number of incoming jumpers/con-tainers. It generally parallels the aircraft,sline of flight. This computation provides thereception committee with accurate data thatwill insure the aerial delivery lands withinthe usable limits of theDZ.

Use this formula to compute ground dis-persion pattern: D =RT.

D = unknown dispersion pattern inmeters.

R = 0.51 times speed of aircraft in knots.T = exit time in seconds. It is calculatedby multiplying the number of jumpers/containers to be dropped by the specifiedinterval (second(s)) as determined byunit standing operating procedure andsubtracting I second . If two aircraftdoors are used simultaneously, use thefigure of themostuseddoor and subtract1 second .

ExomPle:

R = oircroft f lyingotllO knotstimesO.5l.T = l2 iumpersond 2 corgo contoinersore tobedroppedot l-second inlervolusin g two oircroft doors:l 2+2xl secon d= l4 divided by 2 minus I second = 6seconds.

D = 56.1 x6 = 336.6 or 337(round outnumbers) (1,106 f eet).

For personnel drops, a 100-meter (32&foot) safety factor is added to each end oftheeomputed ground dispersion pattern. Therefore, using the above figures, D = 337 + 200 =537 meters (1,752 feet).Wind Drift Next, the wind drift distance iscomputed. It is the horizontal distance ajumper,/container will travel with the windfrom the point ofparachute opening throughdescentto the desired impact point on theDZ.

It is based on three factors: the windvelocity, the aircraft drop altitude, and theconstant factor for the type parachute used.

An anemometer is used to measurewind velocity. Readings may be in knots ormiles per hour depending on the type used.Multiply miles per hour by 0.86 to convert toknots. When wind velocities are below 10knots, the direct substitution of miles perhour in the wind drift formula gives suf-ficient and accurate results.

Use this formula to compute wind drift:D = KAV.

D = unknown wind drift distance inmeters.

K = constant factor for a parachute. Itrepresents the lateralwinddrift in metersfor each 100 feet of altitude loss in a1-knot wind.A = aircraft drop altitude in hundreds offeet.

V = wind velocity in knots.K FACTORS:

o 2.6 for cargo parachutes (G-13).. 4.1 for static line deployed maneuverable

oints

rtherze, orsion,

fromrer is

29

Example:

K=4.1A = 900 feet.V = 10 knots.

D = 4.1x 8 x 10 = 820 meters (1,050 feet).

parachutes (MC1/MC 1-1).o 4.1 for 35-foot canopies (T-10).

When receiving jumpers/containers inthe same drop, use the K factor forpersonnel parachutes.

The computed wind drift distance ismeasured from the desired impact point intoll:$ld direction (back

"ri-uir,l. iiis poirtrs rhe beginning of wind drift or the end offorward throw.Forward Throus. Last, the compensationfbr forward throw must be

"orr.iiiiua-. tt i,the horizontal distance a jumperT"orrtrir""will free fall between the point ,?""ii f""_ tfr"aircraft and the parachuie opening. -^"

Forward throw rs computedly takingone half the speed of the uir"""fifu*prlr""a

in knots) and substituting meters for knots.For example, a C-180 normally ni". "t ,speed of 130 knots while dropping personnel

or equipment. The forward ihrow-would becomputed as follows:

130 kno-ts (speed) = 6b knots2

Therefore, the forward throw would be 6bmeters.

DZ markers are positioned b0 meters(164 feet) to the right of this point -whenfacing the direction ofaircraft .ppio""n.When high velocity and frel'drop" a""

used for aerial resupply, the method fordetermining the Rp is different:The ground dispersion pattern is com-puted in the same manner as above.Wind drift is disregarded as wind con-ditions do not affectthese type drops.Without the restraint of a parachute,

forward throw is compensated forty movingthe RP location a distance in meters (feet)equal to the aircraft,s drop altitude into thedirection of aircraft approach. For example,if drop altitude is 600 feet, measure off tggmeters.

.

Vrsual ground markings are used to iden-tify both the DZ and the-Rp fo, tfr.-Jui"rarop.The last steps in DZ. planning ur"'.;""tirsan appropriate marking system and position-ing the markers on theDa.P"il;;;;, irurt-ing employs lights or panels in a distinctiveconfiguration according to th" ;;;b"Co__munications-Electronic" Operafion lir.t"r"-tions (CEOI).

The number of markeis used seldomexceeds six.

The distance between markers is usually45.5 meters (50 yards).

The DZ markings will normally form adistinctive shape (square, rectangll, or tri_a"glj) or letter (',T:, ,,L:, or,,X,,).

The aircraft is aligned as accurately aspossible 50 meters (164 feet) to the right of theright hand row of markers during slatic linedrops. The drop is made when thi airciaft isadjacent to the last marker in the righf handrow.

The standard marking method employs astandard four-marker pattern (figure O_O) inthe form of an inverted.,,L.,,

MARKING

MARKERSNighttime. Visible light sources are used asTUI\SI. during darkness orperiods of limitedvisibility. Atmospheric and t""iui"

-

condi-tions and security in the *", -*J^bl

"or-30

sidered when selecting a light source. Stronglight emissions may be necessa"y to pene_trate haze or ground fog. Whatlrru" iightsource is selected, all lights must be of the

nots.ataInneltd be

t0RWrn0THROW

Figure 6-6. Standard four-marker pattern.

LEGEND

@lmpact point of last jumper/container.

Distance 1 to 2: Computed ground dispersion pattern

@Desirea impact point of firsr iumper/container.

Oistance 2 to 3: Computed wind drift.

Dislance 3 lo 4: Compensation for forward throw.

@tocation of release point (RP).

TO MARK THE RELEASE POINT

l After selectrng the desired impact point (Point 2),compute the ground dispersion pattern. Starting at Point1, face into the direction of aircraft approach and pace o{fthe compuled distance, Point 'l to 2.

2. At Point 2. face into the wind direction and pace off thecomputed wind drift distance, Point 2 to 3.

3. At Poinl 3, face into the direclion of aircraft approachand pace off the constant lorward throw distance, Point 3to 4.

4. You are now standing at oi under the release point,Point 4.

5. TO POSITION DZ MARKERS: Ar Pornr 4, {ace inro thedirection ol aircraft approach, position marker A 50melers to your nght, and marker B 50 meters to the rightof marker A. Position markers D and E at so-melerintervals forward of marker A into the direction of aircraftapproach.

NOTE: PLACEMENT OF MARKERS AREVIEWED FACING AIRCRAFT APPROACHTRACK.

65

)tersrhenI.i are

for

:om-

con-

rute,ringteet)the

rple,183

GR0Ut00 rs PE R st0tt

PATTTRT

@_WII{O DRIFT\

lWhen required)

lvrx0 0tRtcTt0t

8

-*-

D

t

c)t --

FLAl{l(TARXT

matri-

tas'thelineit isrnd

r8a)in

rngne,ht!he

contrast sharply with the ground/vegetationbackground colors in the area. Wheneversecurity permits, smoke grenades or smoke-pots may be used to augment or replacepanels. If smoke alone is used for a resupplydrop, it should be placed at the release point.

\ -"@

*--@-,,*itt-I

rrn ctnr rrTnr cx

same type and have equal light emission toform a distinctive pattern. Homing beaconsmay be used in conjunction with the markingpattern.Daytime,Standard or improvised panels areused during daylight. The color selected must

31

Homing beacons may also be employed.Positioning of MarkeraMarkers must beplaced so they are visible only from thedirection of the aircraft approach. Selectedlight sources should be appropriately hooded,screened on three sides or placed in pits toreduce side glow, and aimed at the aircraftflight path. Panels should be positioned at anangle of approximately 4b degrees from thehorizontal to present maximum surface to-ward the approaching aircraft.

Markers must also be placed where

obstacles will not mask the pilot's line ofsight. As a guide, a mask-clearance ratio of 1to 15is used, i.e., l unitof vertical clearanceto15 units of horizontal clearance. For example,if a DZ marker has to be positioned near aterrain mask such as the edge of a forest thatis on the DZ approach track and the trees are10 meters (33 feet) high, the marker wouldrequire 150 meters (492 feet) of horizontalclearance from the trees. (See figure 6-7.) Thisapplies to static line jumps only.

4. or20o,.--g$E.,- {

RSIO METE

I5OMETERS+

Figure 6-7. Mask clearance ratio 1 :15.

IDENTIFICATIONAir-to-Ground. The aircraft is identified tothe reception committee by-

Arriving in the objective area within thespecified time limit, usually 2 minutes beforeto 2 minutes after scheduled drop time.

Approaching at designated drop altitudeand track.

32

Ground.-to-Air. The reception committee isidentified to the aircraft by-

Displaying the correct marking patternwithin the specified time limit.

Using the proper authentication codesignal.

AUTHENTICATIONof

rf1)to)le,raratuerldtalris

There is no standard authentication sys-tem for UW reception operations. The authen-tication system to be used is agreed upon bythe commanders concerned during missionplanning. Authentication procedures will beprescribed in the CEOI and changed on apredetermined schedule for security purposes.

Authentication between the aircraft pilot/navigator and the RCL may be accomplishedby using a coded light source, panel signal,radio contact, homing beacon, or combina-tions thereof. These may be employed indi-vidually or in conjunction with the markingpattern.

When coded light signals are used, code

Primary and alternate marking patterns areused to identifythe RP for both night and daydrops.

letters identified by all DOTS or DASHES-I, E, M, O, S, T, and H-will not be used. Thefollowing time intervals will be used to assistpilot/navigator recognition:

2 seconds for DOTS.4 seconds for DASHES.2 seconds for intervals between DOTSand DASHES.5 seconds for intervals between repeti-tions.

When a beacon/transponder is to be usedfor authentication, the commanders con-cerned will jointly agree upon positioningand turn on/off times during mission plan-ning.

)rs FIGURE 6-8. Standard inverted "L" marking.

STATIC LINE DZ MARKING PATTERNSPrimary Marking The standard inverted"L" (figure 6-8) that uses:

. Four markers (A, B, D, and E) positioned

-1'7

250 meters,13,, t

@RPark

@

++

RP When aircraft is on track50 meters to the right ofmarker A, and aligned withmarkers B and C, it isoYer the release point.

Flank marker{When required) er

50 meters betweenmarkers B. A 0,and I Aircralt

Track

Authenticationmarker

@r*__i

lllvERTE0 "L"NOTE: PLACEMENT OF MARKERS ARE

APPROACH TRACK.

I

VIEWED FACING AIRCRAFT

de

33

in the shape of an inverted "L". The distancebetween markers is 50 meters (164 feet).

o An authentication marker positioned bmeters (16 feet) to the left of marker E atnight. During da5'light, it will be positioned15 meters (49 feet) to the left. For non-standard positioning, the mission requestwill indicate its location in relation tomarkers A, B, D, or E.

o An additional flank marker (marker C)when absolute drop altitude is 600 feet orabove. This is necessary because ofrestrictedcockpit visibility in current airlift aircraft atthat altitude. Marker C is positioned 250meters (820 feet) to the right of marker A.Below 600 feet altitude, this marker is notrequired.

Alternate Marhing, A daily pattern speci-fied by the CEOI that uses:

MILITARY FREE.FALLThe high altitudes involved in MFF opera-

tions make the use of visual markings foridentification extremely difficult if not impos-sible. Identification must normally be madefrom terrain features. MFF parachutistsassemble on the lowest canopy and theimpact point of the first jumper is the desiredimpact point (DIP) for all other jumpers.

DZ markings are sometimes used becauseit is desirable to indicate wind direction to thedescending parachutists.

Smoke may be used during daylightjumps and when the tactical situation per-mits. Panels may also be used in a standardinverted "L" ot an arrow configuration.When these patterns, are used t\e long axis ofthe inverted "L" is aligned to the wind direc-

o The required number of markers posi-tioned to form the prescribed pattern. Thedistance between markers will be 50 meters(164 feet).

o An authentication marker positioned bmeters (16 feet) to the left of the E panel asyou face the approaching aircraft atnight, and 15 meters (49 feet) to the leftduring daylight. Nonstandard positioningwill be indicated in the mission request.

o An additional flank marker when dropaltitude is 600 feet (183 meters) and above. Itwill be positioned 250 meters to the right ofthe RP marker. It is not required for dropsbelow 600 feet (183 meters).Display. The static lineDZmarking patternwill be displayed for 4 minutes-beginning 2minutes before until 2 minutes past sched-uled drop time or until the first deployedparachute is observed.

DZ MARKING PATTERNtion with the wind blowing toward the shortaxis of the "L" or the arrow is pointing intothe wind. (See figure 6-9.)

Two lights (one red and one green) maybe used to mark theDZ and to indicate winddirection during night jumps. They will be setup with the green light upwind of the redlight. (See figure 6-9.) An additional lightmay be used to mark the release point if it isknown. This light must be of sufficientintensity so as to be easily identified at jumpaltitude.

Release point computations for MFF opera-tions are complex and depend on the availa-bility of upper wind data. See FM 31-19 for themethod of computation.

DROP ZONEEach Special Forces operational element

will reconnoiter its operational area as soonas possible after infiltration. This reconnais-sance is to select sites for DZs and to confirm,reassess, or refute the sites selected duringpre-mission planning.

34

REPORTSThe importance of DZ reporting by the

operational element is to identify and senddata to the SFOB onDZ locations for currentor future use. DZ data can be sent separatelyor as a part of a specific mission requestwhere the drop site is or can be identified.

,si-'heers

t5as

ateftng

'op.Itof

)ps

)rns2ed-,ed

.ayndset:edrhtlislntnp

ra-la-he

ortrto

The messages from the operational ele-ments to the SFOB are concise and useprecise message formats. Each SpecialForces operational element, using its CEOI,reports data on each DZ site in a missionrequest or in an information report. DZ dataincludes code name (from CEOI, or as appro-priate), location (grid designation and coor-

Figure 6-9. MFF DZ markings.

DZ/ LZ STERIL!ZATION

dinates of the center of the DZ), track ofrecommended aircraft approach, obstacles,and reference point(s). Other data, such asthe time of drop, services/items desired, andalternate DZ(s), can be included in a missionrequest. Prevailing requirements, as statedin the CEOI, determine message format andcontent.

lhendentelvest

To insure sterilization, the reception com-mittee (when one is used) must:

Police or obliterate cigarette butts, candyand gum wrappers, equipment, and othersigns of occupancy (crushed undergrowth,heel scuffs, trails, human waste).

Recover all rigging straps and other airdelivery equipment.

Assign an individual at the recoverycollection point to be responsible for account-ing for air items and packages as recoveryteams bring them off theDZ/LZ.

Provide a two- or three-man surveillanceteam, preferably from the supporting auxili-ary element, to maintain a close watch on theDZ/LZ area for enemy activity during the 48hours following the drop.

To assist in sterilization, the individualparachutist must:

Recover all parachute items, straps,bundles, and equipment worn on the drop.

Bury unwanted air items separately,preferably at the base ofthick bushes.

Erase drag marks, footprints, and impactmarks. Disguise freshly cut tree branch stubswith mud if possible.

Avoid trampling or crushing vegetation;bypass plowed areas and grass fields whenmoving off the DZ/LZ.

Prevent accidental compromise of theoperation by avoiding paths and roads andby moving cross-country to the assemblypoint.

WIND

oo Q onrrH t,oxro

oINVERTED "t"(DAYTT^ E)

! *ro rroxr

ARROW(DAYTIME)

N IG HTTI,vIE

35

llir!J ::ll r.iltr::ri:, ti4

INTRODUCTION,

Lan-ding zo:re operations are normally eon-$1eted at night on a preselected., orrp."p"r"aLZ to insert or recover p"r"orr.r"i/equipmentinto orfrom a UWOA. Areception

"i**itt""on the LZ assists during theie operatiorr..LZ procedures and techniquestescribed inthis section apply primarily io two categories

of fixed-wing aircraft (STOL and me-rliom)and to helicopters. They also apply to tigtriand medium aircraft no longer in thelctiveArmy,/Air Force inventory. Whereas STOLinfers the AU-2BA peaceiraker,rpoii"r, tfr"

GENERALAs a general rule, the same criteria used in

selecting DZs apply when selecting LZ sites;however, LZ size and approach features aremore important. The basic factors to considerin selecting anLZ are:Aireraft Limitations. The aircraft limita-tions are the primary factors in

"ltu ""te"tiorr.r/anorng rules cannot be set arbitrarily, butcertain specified minimums must be mei. TheRCL must have a thorough knowledge of afrequirements that are necessary to provide

36

U-10, and the UV-18A Twin Otter aircraft,the LZ criteria also apply to other lighiaircraft. The medium category of aircraft ad-dressed is the Combat Talon, but the LZcriteria also apply, without adjustment, tothe C-47, C-L29, etc. Helicoptei t Z criteriaapqly to past, present, and future models,such as the utility tactical transport aircraftsystem (UTTAS). Where differences exist,specific aircraft operations manuals will takeprecedence.

CRITERIAaircrew,/aircraft safety when landing onunprepared land or water LZs. Sound judg-ment cannot be overemphasized.The Mission and Seeurity. The planningand coordination required to implement anair-landed operation closely par.il"l DZ pl.r-ning procedures. The LZ should not be near aheavily defended area since low-flying air-craft are extremely vulnerableto ground fire.There is also the danger that nearby enemyforces could observe the aircraft *iril" it i"

landing and raid theLZ, capture the aircraftand personnel, and neutralize the entireoperation. An alternate LZ should be desig-nated and prearranged signals set up in orderto divert the aircraft to the alternate LZ andenhance the chance of mission success.

Aircraft security is enhanced by leav-ing one or more engines running; therefore,extra safety precautions must be taken by allground personnel. The RCL must makeample plans to disperse or withdraw per-sonnel,/cargo in case of enemy interference.These plans must be carefully coordinatedwith all elements involved in the mission,and practice withdrawals or dispersionsshould be conducted ifconsidered necessary.Identification. A site easily identifiablefrom the air must be selected. Flat or rollingterrain is best. Ridges or plateaus may beused in mountainous areas. The site must berelatively free of vegetation and natural orman-made obstacles.

Size and Featurea, The physical requirements, such as site size, ground,/watersurface eonditions, and approach/takeofffeatures, are important. The size required willdepend on the type of aircraft used, such asSTOL, light, medium fixed-wing, or heli-copters. There must be strict adherence tominimum dimensions to insure safe opera-tions.Weather and. A etronomical Conditione.Prevailing wind direction and velocity andvisibility restrictions, such as ground fog,haze, ambient light, or low cloud formationsin the landing area, must be determined. Bothprevailing weather and astronomical condi-tions should favor the operation.

The remainder of this chapter will explainhow to select, lay out, mark, and operateLZsused by STOL and medium fixed-wing air-craft on land, water and snow, and by helicopters. Message and reeovery zones will alsobe covered.

raft,ightt ad-LZ

;, toerialels,raftrist,ake

on.dg-

ingan

lan-traair-ire.mylis

LANDTNG ZONES (STOL AND MEDTUM ATRCRAFT)Terrain Features.

The site should be located on flat orrolling terrain or on ridges or plateaus inmountainous areas.

A valley or plateau of sufficient size canbe used as LZs in mountainous or hillycountry; however, landings at higher eleva-tions require increased LZ dimensionsbecause of decreased air density.

If the site is above 7,220 meters (4,000feet) altitude or in an area with a hightemperature range, the minimum lengthmust be increased as foilows:

Add 10 percent for each 30b meters(1,000 feet) of altitude above 1,220 meters(4,000 feet).

Add 10 percent when temperatures arebetween 90 and 100 degrees F (80 and 88degrees C).

Add 20 percent when temperaturesexceed 100 degrees F (38 degrees C).

A pocket or small valley completely sur-rounded by hills is usually undesirable forfixed-wing landing operations.

A site with a single approach, althoughundesirable, can be used. When using such a

site, you must insure that-Sufficient cl