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Speech ProcessingProduction and Classification of Speech
Sounds
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*Veton Kpuska*IntroductionSimplified view of Speech Production
(see Figure 3.1 in the next slide)Lungs act as a power supply and
provide airflow to the larynx stage.Larynx modulates airflow and
provides either:Periodic puff-like airflow, orNoisy airflow to
vocal tract.Vocal-tract gives the modulated airflow its color
(spectrally shaping the source) with:Oral,Nasal, andPharynx
cavities.
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.1
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*IntroductionSound sources can also be generated by
constrictions and boundaries that are made within the vocal tract
itself:Periodic source,Noisy source, orImpulsive airflow source.
Note that speech production mechanism does not generate a perfect
periodic, impulsive, or noisy source.
Three general categories of the source for speech
sounds:PeriodicNoisyImpulsive
Illustration of each in the word shop:sh noisyo periodicp -
impulse
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*Veton Kpuska*Example of Shop
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*Veton Kpuska*IntroductionDistinguishable speech sounds are
determined not only by source, but also by different vocal tract
configurations,and combination of both.
Speech sound classes are referred to as phonemes.Phonemics is
the discipline that studies phoneme realizations (e.g., in a
language).Each phoneme class provides a certain meaning in a
word.Within a phoneme class there exist many sound variations that
provide the same meaning. The study of these sound variations is
called phonetics.Phonemes are the basic building blocks of a
language:They are concatenated (more or less), as discrete elements
into words,According to a certain phonemic and grammatical
rules.
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IntroductionThis chapter will cover:Description of speech
production mechanismResulting variety of phonetic sound patternsHow
these sounds differ among different speakers. *Veton Kpuska*
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Anatomy and Physiology of Speech Production*Veton Kpuska*
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*Veton Kpuska*Anatomy and Physiology of Speech ProductionAnatomy
of speech production is shown in Figure 3.2
Lungs:Inhalation and exhalation of air.Connected through trachea
(windpipe) and epiglottis to Vocal Tract.~12-cm-long and
~1.5-2-cm-diameter pipe.During the speaking, rhythmical cycle of
inhalation and exhalation changes to accommodate speech
production:Duration of exhalation becomes roughly equal to the
length of sentence/phrase.Lung air pressure during this time is
maintained at a constant level, slightly above the atmospheric
pressure.
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*Veton Kpuska*Anatomy and Physiology of Speech
ProductionLarynxComplicated system of cartilages, flesh, muscles,
and ligaments.Primary function (in context of speech production) is
to control the vocal cords (vocal folds) as illustrated in Figure
3.3.Vocal folds are:~15 mm in men~13 mm in women
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*Veton Kpuska*Anatomy and Physiology of Speech ProductionThree
primary states of the vocal folds:Breathing Arytenoid Cartilages
are held outward Voiced - Arytenoid Cartilages are held close
together.Unvoiced Arytenoid Cartilages are held outward or
partially close
Complex motion of the vocal folds illustrated in Figure
3.4Nonlinear two-mass model of Flanagan et al. (Figure 3.5)
Arytenoid: arytenoid Pronunciation: \a-r-t-noid, -ri-tn-oid\
Function: adjective Etymology: New Latin arytaenoides, from Greek
arytainoeids, literally, ladle-shaped, from arytaina ladle Date:
circa 1751 1 : relating to or being either of two small laryngeal
cartilages to which the vocal cords are attached 2 : relating to or
being either of a pair of small muscles or an unpaired muscle of
the larynx arytenoid noun
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*Veton Kpuska*Anatomy and Physiology of Speech Production
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*Veton Kpuska*Anatomy and Physiology of Speech ProductionIf one
were to measure the airflow velocity at the glottis as a function
of time, obtained waveform will be approximately similar to that of
Figure 3.6. Closed phase: folds are closed and no flow occursOpen
phase: folds are open and the flow increases up to a maximum.Return
phase: Time interval from the maximum air flow until the glottal
closure.Specific flow shape can change with:SpeakerSpeaking
styleAnd specific speech sound.Glottal air-flow is referred to
glottal flow.
Time duration of one glottal cycle is referred to as the pitch
periodReciprocal of pitch period is referred to as pitch, also as
fundamental frequency.
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*Veton Kpuska*Example 3.1Consider a glottal flow waveform model
of the form:u[n] = g[n]*p[n]Where g[n] is the glottal flow waveform
over a single cycle and p[n] is an impulse train with spacing
P.
Because the waveform is infinitely long, a segment is extracted
by multiplying u[n] by a short sequence called an analysis window
or simply a window. The window, denoted by w[n,], is centered at
time , as illustrated in Figure 3.7 next slide, and the resulting
waveform segment is written as:u[n, ] = w[n,](g[n]*p[n])Using
Multiplication and Convolution Theorem of Chapter 2, the following
expression in frequency domain is obtained:
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*Veton Kpuska*Example 3.1where W(,) is the Fourier transform of
w[n,], G() is the Fourier transform of g[n],k=(2/P)k, where 2/P is
the fundamental frequency or pitch.
As illustrated in Figure 3.7 the Fourier transform of the window
sequence is characterized by a narrow main lobe centered at =0 with
lower surrounding side lobes.Effect of the harmonics of the glottal
waveform on the spectrum.
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.7
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*Veton Kpuska*Example 3.1Degrease in pitch period () causes
increase () in the spacing of harmonics of glottal waveform:
k=(2/P)k.
First harmonic is also the fundamental frequency.
At each harmonic frequency there is a translated window Fourier
transform W(-k) weighted by G(k)
Magnitude of the spectral shaping function, i.e., glottal flow
|G(k)| is referred to as spectral envelope of the harmonics.
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*Veton Kpuska*Anatomy and Physiology of Speech ProductionFourier
transform of periodic glottal waveform is characterized by
harmonics.Typically the spectral envelope of the harmonics
(governed by the glottal flow over tone cycle, has on average a -12
dB/octave rolloff.Rolloff is dependent on the nature of airflow and
speaker characteristics.See Exercise 3.18 for further details.
The model in Example 3.1 is ideal in the sense that even for
sustained voicing a fixed pitch period is almost never maintained
in time:It can randomly vary over successive periods pitch
jitter.Amplitude of the airflow velocity within a glottal cycle may
differ across consecutive pitch periods amplitude shimmer.
Those variations are due to (perhaps!)Time-varying
characteristics of the vocal tract and vocal folds.Nonlinear
behavior in the speech anatomy, orAppear random while being the
result of an underlying deterministic (chaotic) system.
Jitter and shimmer are one component that give the vowels its
naturalness. In contrast a monotone pitch and fixed amplitude
results in a machine-like sound.Voice character is determined by
the extend of jitter and shimmer in voice (e.g., hoarse voice).
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*Veton Kpuska*Anatomy and Physiology of Speech ProductionStates
of Vocal Folds:BreathingVoicingUnvoicing Turbulence at the vocal
folds aspirationExample: he whispered soundsAspiration occurs also
with voiced sounds (breathy voice)Part of the vocal folds vibrate
and part of it are nearly fixed.
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*Veton Kpuska*Anatomy and Physiology of Speech ProductionOther
forms of atypical Vocal Fold movement:Creaky voice very tense vocal
folds with only a short portion of the folds oscillating. Resulting
in a voice that hasHigh pitch, andIrregular pitchVocal fry focal
folds are massy and relaxed resulting in a voice with an
abnormally:Low pitchIrregular pitch.Characterized by secondary
glottal pulses close to and overlapping the primary glottal
pulse.Result of coupling of false vocal folds with true vocal
folds.Diplophonic voice secondary glottal pulses occur between the
primary pulses within the closed phase (see Figure 3.9b and Figure
3.16).
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*Veton Kpuska*Anatomy and Physiology of Speech Production
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*Veton Kpuska*Examples of atypical voice types
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*Veton Kpuska*Vocal TractComprised of the oral cavity:From
larynxTo the lips includingthe nasal passage coupled to the oral
tract by way of the velum.Oral tract takes on many different
lengths and cross-sections. This is accomplished by moving the
articulators:TongueTeethLipsJaw.Average length for a adult male is
17 cm, and cross sectional area of up to 20 cm2.
Purpose of vocal tract is to: Spectrally color the source,
andGenerate new sources for sound production.
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectral ShapingUnder a certain conditions, the
relation between a glottal airflow velocity input and vocal tract
airflow velocity output can be approximated by a linear filter with
resonances.Resonance frequencies of the vocal tract are called
formant frequencies or simply formants.Formants (resonance
frequencies) change with different vocal tract configurations as
depicted in Figure 3.10.
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.10
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectral ShapingThe peaks of the spectrum of the
vocal tract response correspond approximately to its formants:For a
time-invariant all-pole linear system model of vocal tract with a
pole at z0=r0ej0 that corresponds approximately to a vocal tract
formant.Frequency of the formant is 0 Bandwidth is dependent on the
distance from the unit circle (r0).Because the vocal tract is
assumed stable (with poles inside the unit circle), its transfer
function can be expressed either in product or partial fraction
expansion form:
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectral ShapingFormants of the vocal tract are
numbered from the low to high formants according to their
location.F1, F2, etc.In general, the formant frequencies degrease
as the vocal tract length increases:Male speakers tend to have
lower formants than a female.Female speakers have lower formants
than children.Under a vocal-tracts: Linearity and time-invariance
assumption, andWhen the sound source occurs at the glottis,Then:The
speech waveform (the airflow velocity at the vocal tract output)
can be expressed as the convolution of the glottal flow input and
vocal tract impulse response.
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Example 3.2Consider a periodic glottal flow source
of the form:
u[n]=g[n]*p[n]
Where g[n] is the airflow over one glottal cycle and p[n] is the
unit sample train with spacing P. When the sequence u[n] is passed
through a linear time-invariant vocal tract with impulse response
h[n], the vocal tract output is given by:
x[n]=h[n]*(g[n]*p[n])
A window center at time , w[n,], is applied to the vocal tract
output to obtain the speech segment:
x[n,]=w[n,]{h[n]*(g[n]*p[n])}Using Multiplication and
Convolution Theorems, Fourier transform of the speech segment
representing frequency domain representation is obtained:
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*Veton Kpuska*Example 3.2
Where W(,) is the Fourier transform of w[n,], and k=(2/P)k, and
(2/P) is fundamental frequency or pitch.Figure 3.11 (next slide)
illustrates that the spectral shaping of the windowed transform at
the harmonics 1, 2 ,, N is determined by the spectral envelope
|H()G()| - consisting of:Glottal andVocal tract contributions
(unlike example 3.1 consisting only of glottal contribution)
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*Veton Kpuska*Example 3.2
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*Veton Kpuska*Example 3.2The general upward or downward slope of
the spectral envelope, also called spectral tilt, is influenced
by:The nature of the glottal flow waveform over a cycle, e.g., a
gradual or abrupt closing, and byThe manner in which formant tails
add.
Note also from the figure 3.11 that the formant locations are
not always clear from the short-time Fourier transform magnitude
|X(,)| because of sparse sampling of the spectral envelope |H()G()|
by the source harmonics.This is especially the case for high
pitched speech.
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectral ShapingPrevious example is important
because: It illustrates the difference between:Formant (resonance
frequency of vocal tract), andHarmonic frequency.
A formant corresponds to the vocal tract pole (resonant
frequency)Harmonics arise due to the periodicity of glottal source
(pitch).
In developing signal processing algorithms that require formants
the scarcity of spectral information can perhaps be detriment to
formant estimation.On the other hand, the spectral sampling
harmonics can be exploited to enhance perception of sound (as in
singing voice).
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Example 3.3A soprano singer often signs a tone
whose first harmonic (fundamental frequency) (1) much higher than
the first formant frequency (F1) of the vowel being sung. As shown
in the next figure (Figure 3.12), when the nulls of the vocal tract
spectrum are sampled at the harmonics, the resulting sound is weak,
especially in the face of competing instruments.To enhance the
sound, the singer creates a vocal tract configuration with a
widened jaw which increases the first formant frequency (Exercise
3.4) and can match the frequency of the first harmonic, thus
generating a louder sound.
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.12
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Nasal Sounds
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectral ShapingNasal and oral components of the
vocal tract are coupled by the velum.When the vocal tract velum is
lowered introducing an opening into the nasal passage, andOral
tract is shut off by the tongue or lips,Sound propagates through
the nasal passage and out through the nose.
The resulting sounds have a spectrum that is dominated by
low-frequency formants of the large volume of the nasal cavity and
are appropriately called nasal sounds:Examples: nose and mouse.
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectral Shaping: Nose
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectral Shaping: Mouse
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectral ShapingBecause the nasal cavity (unlike
the oral tract) is essentially constant, characteristics of nasal
sounds may be particularly useful in speaker identification.
Velum can be lowered even when the vocal tract is open:When this
coupling occurs the resulting sound is said to be nasalized (e.g.,
nasalized vowel):There are two dominant effects that characterize
nasalization:Broadening of the formant bandwidth of oral tract
because of loss of energy through nasal passage,Introduction of
anti-resonances (i.e., zeros in the vocal tract transfer function)
due to the absorption of energy at the resonances of the nasal
passage.
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Plosives
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*Veton Kpuska*Source GenerationIn previous section the effect of
vocal tract shape in the sound production was discussed.In the
Figure 3.10 (b) a complete closure of the tract (the tongue
pressing against the palate) is depicted. This closure is required
when making an impulsive sound (plosives):Build-up of pressure
behind the palate, andAbrupt release of pressure.
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*Veton Kpuska*Source Generation: Plosives Drop
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Fricatives
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*Veton Kpuska*Source GenerationAnother sound source is created
when the tongue is very close to the palette (but not completely
impeded) used to generate turbulence and thus noise source (e.g.,
fricatives).As with periodic glottal sound source, a spectral
shaping can also occur for either type of input (i.e., impulse or
noise source).There is no harmonic structure with these types of
inputs. The source spectrum is shaped at all frequencies by
|H()|.Note that the spectrum of noise was idealized assuming a flat
spectrum. In reality these sources will themselves have a non-flat
spectral shape.
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*Veton Kpuska*Source Generation: Fricatives NASA
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*Veton Kpuska*Source GenerationThere is another class of the
source type that is generated within the vocal tract, however, it
is less understood than noisy and impulsive sources at oral tract
constrictions.This source arises from the interaction of vortices
with vocal tract boundaries such as the false vocal folds, teeth,
or occlusions in the oral tract.Vortex can be thought off as a tiny
rotational airflow in the oral tract.There is evidence that sources
due to vortices influence the temporal and spectral and perhaps
perceptual characteristics of speech sounds.
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*Veton Kpuska*Categorization of Sound By SourceVoiced: Speech
sounds generated with a periodic glottal source.Unvoiced: Speech
sounds not generated with periodic glottal source. There are
variety of unvoiced sounds:Fricatives - Sounds that are generated
from the friction of the moving air against an oral tract
constriction. Example: thinPlosives Created with an impulsive
source within the oral tract. Example: topWhispers Barrier made at
the vocal folds by partially closing the vocal folds, but without
oscillations. Example: he.
However, the unvoiced sounds do not exclusively relate to the
sound source. That is the Vocal folds can be vibrating
simultaneously with impulsive or noisy sources. Thus above
subcategories may exists for voiced sounds.Example:zebravs.sheba --
Fricativesbinvs.pin -- Plosives
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*Veton Kpuska*Categorization of Sound By Source
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Spectrographic Analysis of Speech
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectrographic Analysis of SpeechSpeech waveform
consists of a sequence of different events. This time-variation
corresponds to highly fluctuating spectral characteristics over
time.Example of a word to.A single Fourier transform of the entire
acoustic signal of the word to cannot capture this time-varying
frequency content.In contrast short-time Fourier transform (SFFT)
that consists of a separate Fourier transform of pieces of the
waveform under a sliding window can capture this temporal
variability.
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectrographic Analysis of SpeechIn examples 3.1
and 3.2 presented earlier, a sliding (analysis) window concept was
introduced.This window, w[n,], is typically tapered at its end
(Figure 3.14) to avoid unnatural discontinuities in the speech
segment and distortion in its underlying spectrum.Example - Hamming
window:w[n,]=0.54-0.46cos[2(n-)/(Nw-1)] for 0nNw-1Window typically
does not necessarily move one sample at a time, but rather moves at
some frame interval (determines frame rate) consistent with
temporal structure one wants to reveal.
wherex[n,]= w[n,]x[n]represents the windowed speech segments as
function of the window center at time .
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectrographic Analysis of SpeechThe spectrogram
is graphically displayed as:S(,) = |X(,)|2
S(,) is a 2-D (two dimensional) representation of energy density
of the signal. For each window position , one could plot S(,). A
better and more compact representation of time-frequency display of
the spectrogram places spectral magnitude measurements vertically
in three-dimensional mesh or two-dimensionally with intensity
coming out of the page.This display is illustrated (caricature) in
Figure 3.14.This figure also illustrates two kinds of
spectrograms:Narrowband it gives good spectral resolution: a good
view of the frequency content of sine-waves with closely spaced
frequencies.Wideband - which gives a good temporal resolution: a
good view of the temporal context of impulses closely spaced in
time.
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectrographic Analysis of Speech
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*Veton Kpuska*Wide-band Spectrogram
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*Veton Kpuska*Narrow-band Spectrogram
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectrographic Analysis of SpeechNote that for
voiced speech, the speech waveform was approximated as the output
of a linear time-invariant system with impulse response h[n] and
with a glottal flow input given by the convolution of the glottal
flow over one cycle, g[n], with the impulse train p[n] =
[n-kP]:x[n,]= w[n,]{(p[n]*g[n])*h[n]}x[n,]= w[n,]{p[n]*[n]}Where
glottal waveform over a cycle and vocal tract impulse response was
combined as [n] = g[n]*h[n]. From the result of example 3.2 the
spectrogram of x[n] can be therefore expressed as:
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectrographic Analysis of SpeechDifference of
narrowband and wideband spectrogram is in the length of the
(analysis) window w[n,].Narrowband Spectrogram:Uses long window
with a duration of typically at least two pitch periods.Under the
conditions that:The main lobes of shifted window Fourier transforms
are non-overlapping, and that Corresponding transform side-lobes
are negligible, from the equation in pervious slide the following
approximation holds (exercise 3.8):
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectrographic Analysis of SpeechNarrowband
Spectrogram (cont): Harmonic lines are resolved horizontal
striations in the time-frequency plane of the spectrogram.Long
window which covers several pitch periods smears closely spaced
temporal events and thus gives poor time resolutions (e.g.,
plosives that are closely spaced to a succeeding voiced sound are
poorly represented).
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectrographic Analysis of SpeechWideband
Spectrogram:Wideband spectrogram is defined by a short window with
a duration of less than one pitch period (see Figure
3.14).Shortening the window widens the Fourier transform (recall
the uncertainty principle).Widening of Fourier transform will cause
neighboring harmonics to overlap and add of neighboring window
transforms thus smearing the harmonic line structure: roughly
tracing out the spectral envelope |()| due to vocal tract and
glottal flow contributions.From temporal perspective since the
window length is less than a pitch period, the window sees
essentially pieces of the periodically occurring sequence [n].
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectrographic Analysis of SpeechWideband
Spectrogram (cont):For the steady-state voiced sound, we can
therefore express the wideband spectrogram roughly as (see Exercise
3.9):
Where is a constant scale factor and where E[n] is the energy in
the waveform under the sliding window:
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*Veton Kpuska*Spectrographic Analysis of SpeechWideband
Spectrogram (cont):Shows the formants of the vocal tract in
frequency, alsoGives vertical striations in time every pitch
period, rather than the harmonic horizontal striations as in
narrowband spectrogram.Vertical striations arise because the short
window is sliding through fluctuating energy regions of the speech
waveform.
Figure 3.15 in the next slide compares the narrowband (20-ms
Hamming window) and wideband (4-ms Hamming window)
spectrograms.
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.15
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.16
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*Veton Kpuska*Categorization of Speech SoundsSound source can be
created with either the vocal folds or constriction in the vocal
tract.Classification of speech sounds can be also be done from the
following perspectives:The nature of the
source:PeriodicNoisyImpulsive, orCombination of the three.The shape
of vocal tract - place and manner of articulation.Place of the
tongue hump along the oral tact and The degree of the constriction
of the hump.The shape is also determined by possible connection to
the nasal passage by way of velum.The time-domain waveform which
gives the pressure change with time at the lips output.The
time-varying spectral characteristics revealed through the
spectrogram.
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a LanguagePhoneme a fundamental
distinctive unit of a language.To emphasize the distinction between
the concept of a phoneme and sounds that convey a phoneme, speech
scientist use the term phone to mean a particular instantiation of
a phoneme.Different languages contain different phoneme
sets.Syllables contain one or more phonemes.Words are formed from
one or more syllables.Phrases are concatenation of words.
If first two factors are used to study speech sounds then this
is referred to as articulatory phonetics.If last two descriptors
are used to study the speech sounds then this is referred to as
acoustic phonetics.
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a LanguageOne broad classification for
English language is done in terms
of:Vowels,Consonants,Diphthongs,Affricates, andSemi-vowels. In the
next slide, this classification is illustrated in Figure 3.17.
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.17
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a LanguagePhonemes arise from a
combination of vocal fold and vocal tract articulatory
features.Articulatory features (corresponding to the first 2
category descriptors) include:Vocal fold stateVibrating
orOpenTongue position and heightFrontCentralBack along the
palate.ConstrictionPartialCompleteVelum stateNasal soundNot a nasal
sound.
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a LanguageIn English the combinations
of features are such to give 40 phonemes.Other languages can yield
a smaller/larger number:11 in Polynesian141 in the click language
of KhosianRules of a language define which phones can be stringed
together and how to form words.In Italian consonants are not
allowed at the end of words.A phoneme is not strictly defined by
the precise adjustment of articulators (dialects and accents).The
articulatory properties are influenced by: Adjacent
phonemes,Speaking rate,Emphasis in speaking, andTime-varying nature
of the articulators.
The variants of sounds or phones, that convey the same phoneme
are called the allophones of the phoneme:Example: butter, but and
to, were /t/ in each word is somewhat different.
Motor theory of perception uses articulatory features from the
speech waveform and its acoustic temporal and spectral features to
study the sounds in a language.
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a Language: VowelsVowelsSource:
quasi-periodicPitch (not important to categorize a sound in
English, however, in Mandarin Chinese language some sounds are
interpreted based on the pitch tonal languages)System:Each vowel
phoneme corresponds to a different vocal tract
configuration.Spectrogram:The particular shape of the vocal tract
determines its resonances (concentrations of energies in the
spectrogram).Waveform:Certain vowels properties are also seen in
the speech waveform within a pitch period. (see Figure 3.19 in the
slide after next)
In spite of the specific properties of different vowels, there
is much variability of vowel characteristics among
speakers.Articulatory differences in speakers is one cause of
allophonic variations.The place and degree of constriction of the
tongue hump, andCross-section and length of vocal tract, => And
therefore the vocal tract formants will vary with speaker.
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.18
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.19
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a Language:
NasalsNasals:Source:Quasi-periodic airflow puffs from the vibrating
vocal folds.System:The velum is lowered and the air flows mainly
through the nasal cavity.Because oral tract is being constricted
the sound is radiated at the nostrils.Nasal consonants are
distinguished by the place along the oral tract at which the tongue
makes a constriction (Figure 3.20).Spectrogram:Is dominated by the
low resonance of the large volume of the nasal cavity. Closed oral
cavity acts as a side branch with its own resonances that change
with the place of constriction of the tongue:These resonances
absorb acoustic energy and thus are anti-resonances of the vocal
tract.Anti-resonances of the oral tract tend to lie beyond the
low-resonances of the nasal tract.Consequently nasals have very low
energy in high-frequency range.
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.20
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.21
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a Language: FricativesThere are two
broad classes of fricatives:Voiced and UnvoicedSource:Vocal folds
are relaxed and not vibrating for unvoiced fricatives.Vocal folds
are vibrating simultaneously with noise generation at the
constriction. Noise is generated by turbulent airflow at some point
of constriction along the oral tract.Constriction is narrower than
with vowels.System:The location of the constriction by the tongue,
lips determines which sound is produced:BackCenter, orFront of the
oral tract, as well asThe teeth or lips.Spectrogram:Noise like.
Energy is concentrated in higher frequencies.
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Example 3.4A voiced fricative is generated with
both a periodic and noise source. The periodic glottal flow
component can be expressed as:
u[n] = g[n]*p[n]
g[n] is the glottal flow over one cyclep[n] is an impulse train
with pitch period P.
Voiced fricative simplified model of the output at the lips:
xg[n] = h[n]*(g[n]*p[n])
h[n] a linear time-invariant vocal tract with impulse response
under periodic signal u[n].
Modeling the noise source component of the turbulent airflow
velocity source at the constriction denoted by q[n] (assumed white
noise). The glottal flow u[n] modulates this noise function q[n]
which in turn excites the front oral cavity that has impulse
response hf[n]:
xq[n] = hf[n]*(q[n]u[n])
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Example 3.4We assume in simplified model that the
results of the two airflow sources add:x[n] = xg[n] + xq[n] =
h[n]*u[n] + hf[n]*(q[n]u[n])
See Exercise 3.10 for special characteristics of x[n].
Issues that have been ignored:u[n] is modified by the oral
cavityxq[n] can be influenced by the back cavity.Sources of
non-linear effects (distributed sources due to traveling
vortices)
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a Language:
FricativesSpectrogram:Unvoiced fricatives are characterized by a
noisy spectrum, while Voiced fricatives often show both noise and
harmonics.Waveform:Unvoiced fricative contains only noise,Voiced
fricative contains noise superimposed on quasi-periodic signal.
Whisper:Forms a class of its own under general category of
Consonants.Turbulent flow is produced at the glottis rather than at
the vocal tract constriction.
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.24 - Fricatives
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.23
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a Language: PlosivesPlosives form a
class of sounds where the constriction is complete however brief
followed by the burst of flow. As with fricatives plosives can
be:Voiced andUnvoiced.System:Constriction can occur at:FrontCenter,
orBack of the oral tract. (Figure 3.24)Sequence of events:Complete
closure of the oral tract and buildup of air pressure.Release of
air pressure and generation of turbulence over a very short-time
durationGeneration of aspiration due to turbulence at the open
vocal foldsOnset of the following vowel about 40-50 ms after the
burst.With voiced plosives vocal folds vibrate for duration of all
4 steps. During the period when oral tract is closed, we hear a
low-frequency vibration due to propagation of vocal folds
vibrations through the walls of the throat. This activity is
referred to as a voice bar.After the release of the burst, unlike
the unvoiced plosive, there is little or no aspiration.There is
much shorter delay between the burst and the voicing of the vowel
onset.Figure 3.26 compares voiced/unvoiced plosive pair.
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a Language: PlosivesWaveform:
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a Language: PlosivesSpectrogram:
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a Language: PlosivesExample 3.5: A
time varying system model for the voiced plosive.Voiced plosive is
generated with a burst source and can also have present a periodic
source throughout the user and into the following vowel. Assuming
that the burst occurs at time n=0, we idealize the burst source as
an impulse [n]. The glottal flow velocity model for the periodic
source component is given by:
u[n] = g[n]*p[n]
g[n] is the glottal flow over one cyclep[n] is an impulse train
with pitch period P.
Assume that the vocal tract is linear but time-varying, due to
changing vocal tract shape during its transition from the burst to
a following steady vowel. This implies that vocal tract output
cannot be obtained by the convolution operator.Vocal tract output
thus must be computed using the time-varying impulse response
concept introduced in Chapter 2.
In this simple model, the periodic glottal flow excites a
time-varying vocal tract, with impulse response denoted by h[n,m],
while the burst excites a time-varying front cavity beyond a
constriction, denoted by hf[n.m]. h[n,m] and hf[n.m] represent
time-varying impulse responses at time n due to a unit sample
applied m samples earlier at time n-m. The output then can be
written using generalization of the convolution operator:
We have assumed that two outputs can be linearly combined.
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a Language: Transitional Speech
SoundsDiphthongs:Vowel like nature with vibrating vocal folds.Do
not have a steady vocal tract configuration.:They are produced by
varying in time the vocal tract smoothly between two vowel
configurations.Characterized by movement from one vowel target to
another.hide /Y/out /W/boy /O/new /JU/
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a Language: Transitional Speech
SoundsSemi-Vowels: Two categories of vowel like sounds:Glides (/w/
as in we and /y/ as in you), andLiquids (/r/ as in read, and /l/ as
in let).
Glides:Greater constriction of oral tract during the transition,
andGreater speed of the oral tract movement, compared to
diphthongs
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.28 Liquids & Glides
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Elements of a Language: Transitional Speech
SoundsAffricates: are the counterpart of diphthongs consisting of
consonant plosive-fricative combinations.The difference as compared
to fricatives is that the affricates have: A fricative portion
preceded by a complete constriction of the oral cavityFormed at the
same place as for the plosive.Examples:/tS/ as in chew -
unvoiced/J/ as in just - voiced
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*CoarticulationVocal fold/vocal tract muscles are
programmed to seek a target state or shape, often the target is
never reached:Our speech anatomy cannot move to a desired position
instantaneously and thus past positions influence the
present.Furthermore, to make anatomical movement easy and graceful,
the brain anticipates the future, and so the articulators at any
time instant are influenced by where they have been and where they
are going.Coarticulation refers to the influence of the
articulation of one sound on the articulation of another sound in
the same utterance. Coarticulation can occur on different temporal
level:Local articulation of a phoneme is influenced by its adjacent
neighbors or by neighbors close in time:horse vs. horseshoe. sweep
vs. seepGlobal articulators are influenced by phonemes that occur
some time in the future beyond the succeeding or nearby
phonemes;
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Prosody: The Melody of SpeechProsody of a language
is defined by the rules that define changes in speech extending
over more than one phoneme:Intonation (change in
pitch)Amplitude/Energy (loudness)Timing (articulation rate or
rhythm).
These rules are followed to convey different: Meaning,Stress,
andEmotion
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.29 - Prosody
Veton Kpuska
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*Veton Kpuska*Figure 3.30 Global Coarticulation
Veton Kpuska
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Narrowband Spectrogram*Veton Kpuska*
Veton Kpuska
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Wideband Spectrogram*Veton Kpuska*
Veton Kpuska
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Utterance Depicted in Previous slides.Cat and Dogs each hate the
other.*Veton Kpuska*
Veton Kpuska
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END*Veton Kpuska*
Veton Kpuska
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