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Grammar Glossary

Mechanics

Spelling

Absolute phrase

Abstract noun

Action verb

Action voice

Adjective

Adjective clause

Adverb

Adverb clause

Antecedent

Appositive phrase

Article

Auxiliary verb

Absolute phrase See Phrase.

Abstract noun See Noun chart.

Action verb See Verb.

Active voice See Voice.

Adjective A word that modifies a noun or pronoun by limiting its meaning. Adjectives appear in various positions in a sentence. (The gray cat purred. The cat is gray.)

Many adjectives have different forms to indicate degree of comparison. (short, shorter, shortest)

The positive degree is the simple form of the adjective. (easy,interesting, good)

The comparative degree compares two persons, places, things, or ideas. (easier, more interesting, better)

The superlative degree compares more than two persons, places, things, or ideas. (easiest, most interesting, best)

A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and further identifies or describes the subject. (The child is happy.)

A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun and begins with a capital letter. Many proper adjectives are created by adding these suffixes: -an, -ian, -n, -ese, and -ish. (Chinese, African)

Adverb A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb by making its meaning more specific.

When modifying a verb, an adverb may appear in various positions in a sentence. (Cats generally eat less than dogs. Generally, cats eat less than dogs.)

When modifying an adjective or another adverb, an adverb appears directly before the modified word. (I was quite pleased that they got along so well.) The word not and the contraction -n’t are adverbs. (Mike wasn’t ready for the test today.)

Certain adverbs of time, place, and degree also have a negative meaning. (He’s never ready.)

Some adverbs have different forms to indicate degree of comparison. (soon, sooner, soonest)

Adjective clause. See Clause chart.

The comparative degree compares two actions. (better, more quickly)

The superlative degree compares three or more actions. (fastest, most patiently, least rapidly)

Adverb clause. See Clause chart.

Antecedent. See Pronoun.

Appositive A noun or a pronoun that further identifies another noun or pronoun. (My friend Julie lives next door.)

Appositive phrase. See Phrase.

Article The adjective a, an, or the.

Indefinite articles (a and an) refer to one of a general group of persons, places, or things. (I eat an apple a day.)

The definite article (the) indicates that the noun is a specific person, place, or thing. (The alarm woke me up.)

Auxiliary verb. See Verb.

Base form

Base form. See Verb tense.

Clause

Collective noun

Common noun

Comparative degree

Complement

Complex sentence

Compound preposition

Compound sentence

Compound-complex sentence

Conjunction

Conjunctive adverb

Coordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Clause A group of words that has a subject and a predicate and that is used as part of a sentence. Clauses fall into two categories: main clauses, which are also called independent clauses, and subordinate clauses, which are also called dependent clauses.

A main clause can stand alone as a sentence. There must be at least one main clause in every sentence. (The rooster crowed, and the dog barked.)

A subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause needs a main clause to complete its meaning. Many subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns. (When Geri sang her solo, the audience became quiet.) The chart on the next page shows the main types of subordinate clauses.

Collective noun. See Noun chart.

Common noun. See Noun chart.

Comparative degree. See Adjective; Adverb.

A direct object answers the question What? or Whom? After an action verb. (Kari found a dollar. Larry saw Denise.)

An indirect object answers the question To whom? For whom? To what? or For what? after an action verb. (Do me a favor. She gave the child a toy.)

An object complement answers the question What? after a direct object. An object complement is a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective that completes the meaning of a direct object by identifying or describing it. (The director made me the understudy for the role. The little girl called the puppy hers.)

Complement A word or phrase that completes the meaning of a verb. The four basic kinds of complements are direct objects, indirect objects, object complements, and subject complements.

A subject complement follows a subject and a linking verb. It identifies or describes a subject. The two kinds of subject complements are predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives.

A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and tells more about the subject. (The author of “The Raven” is Poe.)

A predicate adjective is an adjective that follows a linking verb and gives more information about the subject. (Ian became angry at the bully.)

Complex sentence. See Sentence.

Compound preposition. See Preposition.

Compound sentence. See Sentence.

Compound-complex sentence. See Sentence.

Conjunction A word that joins single words or groups of words.

A coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so) joins words or groups of words that are equal in grammatical importance. (David and Ruth are twins. I was bored, so I left.)

Correlative conjunctions (both . . .and, just as . . . so, not only . . . but also, either . . . or, neither . . .nor, whether . . . or) work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal importance. (Choose either the muffin or the bagel.)

A subordinating conjunction (after, although, as if, because, before, if, since, so that, than,though, until, when, while) joins a dependent idea or clause to a main clause. (Beth acted as if she felt ill.)

Conjunctive adverb An adverb used to clarify the relationship between clauses of equal weight in a sentence. Conjunctive adverbs are used to replace and (also, besides, furthermore, moreover); to replace but (however, nevertheless, still); to state a result (consequently, therefore, so, thus); to state equality (equally, likewise, similarly). (Ana was determined to get an A; therefore, she studied often.)

Coordinating conjunction. See Conjunction.

Correlative conjunction. See Conjunction.

Declarative sentence

Definitive article

Demonstrative pronoun

Direct object

Declarative sentence. See Sentence.

Definite article. See Article.

Demonstrative pronoun. See Pronoun.

Direct object. See Complement.

Emphatic form

Emphatic form. See Verb tense.

Future tense

Future tense. See Verb tense.

Gerund

Gerund phrase

Gerund A verb form that ends in –ing and is used as a noun. A gerund may function as a subject, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition. (Smiling uses fewer muscles than frowning. Marie enjoys walking.)

Gerund phrase. See Phrase.

Imperative mood

Imperative sentence

Indicative mood

Indirect object

Infinitive

Infinitive phrase

Intensive pronoun

Interjection

Interrogative pronoun

Intransitive verb

Inverted order

Irregular verb

Imperative mood. See Mood of verb.

Imperative sentence. See Sentence chart.

Indicative mood. See Mood of verb.

Indirect object. See Complement.

Infinitive A verb form that begins with the word to and functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. (No one wanted to answer.) Note: When to precedes a verb, it is not a preposition but instead signals an infinitive.

Infinitive phrase. See Phrase.

Intensive pronoun. See Pronoun.

Interjection A word or phrase that expresses emotion or exclamation. An interjection has no grammatical connection to other words. Commas follow mild ones; exclamation points follow stronger ones. (Well, have a good day. Wow!)

Interrogative pronoun. See Pronoun.

Intransitive verb. See Verb.

Inverted order In a sentence written in inverted order, the predicate comes before the subject. Some sentences are written in inverted order for variety or special emphasis. (Up the beanstalk scampered Jack.) The subject also generally follows the predicate in a sentence that begins with here or there. (Here was the solution to his problem.) Questions, or interrogative sentences, are generally written in inverted order. In many questions, an auxiliary verb precedes the subject, and the main verb follows it. (Has anyone seen Susan?) Questions that begin with who or what follow normal word order.

Intensive pronoun. See Pronoun.

Linking verb

Linking verb. See Verb.

Main clause

Mood of verb

Main clause. See Clause.

Mood of verb A verb expresses one of three moods: indicative, imperative, or subjunctive.

The indicative mood is the most common. It makes a statement or asks a question. (We are out of bread. Will you buy it?)

The imperative mood expresses a command or makes a request. (Stop acting like a child! Please return my sweater.)

The subjunctive mood is used to express, indirectly, a demand, suggestion, or statement of necessity (I demand that he stop acting like a child. It’s necessary that she buy more bread.) The subjunctive is also used to state a condition or wish that is contrary to fact. This use of the subjunctive requires the past tense. (If you were a nice person, you would return my sweater.)

Nominative pronoun

Noun

Noun clause

Noun of direct address

Number

Nominative pronoun. See Pronoun.

Noun A word that names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. The chart on this page shows the main types of nouns.

Noun clause. See Clause chart.

Noun of direct address. See Noun chart.

Number A noun, pronoun, or verb is singular in number if it refers to one; plural if it refers to more than one.

Object

Object. See Complement.

Participle

Passive voice

Past tense

Perfect tense

Personal pronoun

Phrase

Positive degree

Possessive noun

Predicate

Predicate adjective

Predicate nominative

Preposition

Prepositional phrase

Present tense

Progressive form

Pronoun

Proper adjective

Proper noun

Participle A verb form that can function as an adjective. Present participles always end in -ing. (The woman comforted the crying child.) Many past participles end in -ed. (We bought the beautifully painted chair.) However, irregular verbs form their past participles in some other way. (Cato was Caesar’s sworn enemy.)

Passive voice. See Voice.

Past tense. See Verb tense.

Perfect tense. See Verb tense.

Personal pronoun. See Pronoun, Pronoun chart.

Phrase A group of words that acts in a sentence as a single part of speech.

An absolute phrase consists of a noun or pronoun that is modified by a participle or participial phrase but has no grammatical relation to the complete subject or predicate. (The vegetables being done, we finally sat down to eat dinner.)

An appositive phrase is an appositive along with any modifiers. If not essential to the meaning of the sentence, an appositive phrase is set off by commas. (Jack plans to go to the jazz concert, an important musical event.)

A gerund phrase includes a gerund plus its complements and modifiers. (Playing the flute is her hobby.)

An infinitive phrase contains the infinitive plus its complements and modifiers. (It is time to leave for school.)

A participial phrase contains a participle and any modifiers necessary to complete its meaning. (The woman sitting over there is my grandmother.)

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and any modifiers of the object. A prepositional phrase can function as an adjective, modifying a noun or a pronoun. (The dog in the yard is very gentle.) A prepositional phrase may also function as an adverb when it modifies a verb, an adverb, or an adjective. (The baby slept on my lap.)

A verb phrase consists of one or more auxiliary verbs followed by a main verb. (The job will have been completed by noon tomorrow.)

Positive degree. See Adjective.

Possessive noun. See Noun chart.

Predicate The verb or verb phrase and any objects, complements, or modifiers that express the essential thought about the subject of a sentence.A simple predicate is a verb or verb phrase that tells

something about the subject. (We ran.)

A complete predicate includes the simple predicate and any words that modify or complete it. (We solved the problem in a short time.)

A compound predicate has two or more verbs or verb phrases that are joined by a conjunction and share the same subject. (We ran to the park and began to play baseball.)

Predicate adjective. See Adjective; Complement.

Predicate nominative. See Complement.

Preposition A word that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence. Prepositions include about, above, across, among, as, behind, below, beyond, but, by, down, during, except, for, from, into, like, near, of, on, outside, over, since, through, to, under, until, with. (I usually eat breakfast before school.)

A compound preposition is made up of more than one word. (according to, ahead of, as to, because of, by means of, in addition to, in spite of, on account of) (We played the game in spite of the snow.)

Prepositional phrase. See Phrase.

Present tense. See Verb tense.

Progressive form. See Verb tense.

Pronoun A word that takes the place of a noun, a group of words acting as a noun, or another pronoun. The word or group of words that a pronoun refers to is called its antecedent. (In the following sentence, Mari is the antecedent of she. Mari likes Mexican food, but she doesn’t like Italian food.)

A demonstrative pronoun points out specific persons, places, things, or ideas. (this, that, these, those) An indefinite pronoun refers to persons, places, or things in more general way than a noun does. (all, another, any, both, each, either, enough, everything, few, many, most, much, neither, nobody, none, one, other, others, plenty, several, some)

An intensive pronoun adds emphasis to another noun or pronoun. If an intensive pronoun is omitted, the meaning of the sentence will be the same. (Rebecca herself decided to look for a part-time job.)

An interrogative pronoun is used to form questions. (who? whom? whose? what? which?)

A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing. Personal pronouns have three cases: nominative, possessive, and objective. The case depends upon the function of the pronoun in a sentence. The chart on this page shows the case forms of personal pronouns.

A reflexive pronoun reflects back to a noun or pronoun used earlier in the sentence, indicating that the same person or thing is involved. (We told ourselves to be patient.)

A relative pronoun is used to begin a subordinate clause. (who, whose, that, what, whom, whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever)

Proper adjective. See Adjective.

Proper noun. See Noun chart.

Reflexive pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun. See Pronoun.

Relative pronoun. See Pronoun.

Sentence

Simple predicate

Simple subject

Subject

Subjunctive mood

Subordinate clause

Subordinating conjunction

Superlative degree

Sentence A group of words expressing a complete thought. Every sentence has a subject and a predicate. Sentences can be classified by function or by structure. The second chart on this page shows the categories by function; the following subentries describe the categories by structure. See also Subject; Predicate; Clause.

A simple sentence has only one main clause and no subordinate clauses. (Alan found an old violin.) A simple sentence may contain a compound subject or a compound predicate or both. (Alan and Teri found an old violin. Alan found an old violin and tried to play it. Alan and Teri found an old violin and tried to play it.) The subject and the predicate can be expanded with adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, appositives, and verbal phrases. As long as the sentence has only one main clause, however, it remains a simple sentence. (Alan, rummaging in the attic, found an old violin.)

A compound sentence has two or more main clauses. Each main clause has its own subject and predicate, and these main clauses are usually joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction. (Cats meow, and dogs bark, but ducks quack.) Semicolons may also be used to join the main clauses in a compound sentence. (The helicopter landed; the pilot had saved four passengers.)

A complex sentence has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. (Since the movie starts at eight, we should leave here by seven-thirty.)

A compound-complex sentence has two or more main clauses and at least one subordinate clause. (If we leave any later, we may miss the previews, and I want to see them.)

Simple predicate. See Predicate.

Simple subject. See Subject.

A simple subject is the main noun or pronoun in the subject. (Babies crawl.)

A complete subject includes the simple subject and any words that modify it. (The man from New Jersey won the race.) In some sentences, the simple subject and the complete subject are the same. (Birds fly.)

A compound subject has two or more simple subjects joined by a conjunction. The subjects share the same verb. (Firefighters and police officers protect the community.)

Subject The part of a sentence that tells what the sentence is about.

Subjunctive mood. See Mood of verb.

Subordinate clause. See Clause.

Subordinating conjunction. See Conjunction.

Superlative degree. See Adjective; Adverb.

Tense

Transitive verb

Tense. See Verb tense.

Transitive verb. See Verb.

Verb

Verb tense

Verbal

Voice

Verb A word that expresses action or a state of being. (cooks, seem, laughed)

An action verb tells what someone or something does. Action verbs can express either physical or mental action. (Crystal decided to change the tire herself.)

A transitive verb is an action verb that is followed by a word or words that answer the question What? or Whom? (I held the baby.)

An intransitive verb is an action verb that is not followed by a word that answers the question What? or Whom? (The baby laughed.)

A linking verb expresses a state of being by linking the subject of a sentence with a word or an expression that identifies or describes the subject. (The lemonade tastes sweet. He is our new principal.) The most commonly used linking verb is be in all its forms (am, is, are, was, were, will be, been, being). Other linking verbs include appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, sound, smell, stay, taste.

An auxiliary verb, or helping verb, is a verb that accompanies the main verb to form a verb phrase. (I have been swimming.) The forms of be and have are the most common auxiliary verbs: (am, is, are, was, were, being, been; has, have, had, having). Other auxiliaries include can, could, do, does, did, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would.

Verb tense The tense of a verb indicates when the action or state of being occurs. All the verb tenses are formed from the four principal parts of a verb: a base form (talk), a present participle (talking), a simple past form (talked), and a past participle (talked). A regular verb forms its simple past and past participle by adding -ed to the base form. (climb, climbed) An irregular verb forms its past and past participle in some other way. (get, got, gotten)

In addition to present, past, and future tenses, there are three perfect tenses.The present perfect tense expresses an action or condition

that occurred at some indefinite time in the past. This tense also shows an action or condition that began in the past and continues into the present. (She has played the piano for four years.)

The progressive form of a verb expresses a continuing action with any of the six tenses. To make the progressive forms, use the appropriate tense of the verb be with the present participle of the main verb. (She is swimming. She has been swimming.)

The emphatic form adds special force, or emphasis, to the present and past tense of a verb. For the emphatic form, use do, does, or did with the base form. (Toshi did want that camera.)

The past perfect tense indicates that one past action or condition began and ended before another past action started. (Andy had finished his homework before I even began mine.)

The future perfect tense indicates that one future action or condition will begin and end before another future event starts. Use will have or shall have with the past participle of a verb. (By tomorrow, I will have finished my homework, too.)

Verbal A verb form that functions in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The three kinds of verbals are gerunds, infinitives, and participles. See Gerund; Infinitive; Participle.

Voice The voice of a verb shows whether the subject performs the action or receives the action of the verb.

A verb is in the active voice if the subject of the sentence performs the action. (The referee blew the whistle.)

A verb is in the passive voice if the subject of the sentence receives the action of the verb. (The whistle was blown by the referee.)

This section will help you use correct capitalization, punctuation, and abbreviations in your writing.

Mechanics

Capitalization

Punctuation

Abbreviations

First Word

Pronoun I

Proper Nouns

Proper Adjectives

CapitalizationThis section will help you recognize and use correct capitalization in sentences.

•Rule: Capitalize the first word in any sentence, including direct quotations and sentences in parentheses unless they are included in another sentence.

Capitalization

Example: She said, “Come back soon.”

Example: Emily Dickinson became famous onlyafter her death. (She published only six poems during her lifetime.)

Capitalization

Example: Some of my relatives think that I should become a doctor.

•Rule: Always capitalize the pronoun / no matter where it appears in the sentence.

•Rule: Capitalize proper nouns, including

Capitalization

a. names of individuals and titles used in direct address preceding a name or describing a relationship.

Example: George Washington; Dr. Morgan; Aunt Margaret

b. names of ethnic groups, national groups, political parties and their members, and languages.

Example: Italian Americans; Aztec; the Republican Party; a Democrat; Spanish

Capitalization

c. names of organizations, institutions, firms, monuments, bridges, buildings, and other structures.

Example: Red Cross; Stanford University; General Electric; Lincoln Memorial; Tappan Zee Bridge; Chrysler Building; Museum of Natural History

d. trade names and names of documents, awards, and laws.

Example: Italian Americans; Aztec; the Republican Party; a Democrat; Spanish


Capitalization

e. geographical terms and regions or localities.

Example: Hudson River; Pennsylvania Avenue; Grand Canyon; Texas; the Midwest

f. names of planets and other heavenly bodies.

Example: Venus; Earth; the Milky Way

g. names of ships, planes, trains, and spacecraft.

Example: USS Constitution; Spirit of St. Louis; Apollo 11


Capitalization

h. names of most historical events, eras, calendar items, and religious names and items.

Example: World War II; Age of Enlightenment; June; Christianity; Buddhists; Bible; Easter; God.

i. titles of literary works, works of art, and musical compositions.

Example: “Why I Live at the P.O.”; The Starry Night; Rhapsody in Blue


•Rule: Capitalize proper adjectives (adjectives formed from proper nouns).

Capitalization

Example: Christmas tree; Hanukkah candles; Freudian psychology; American flag

j. names of specific school courses.

Example: Advanced Physics; American History


Period

Exclamation Point

Question Mark

Colon

Semicolon

Comma

Dash

Punctuation

This section will help you use these elements of punctuation correctly.

Parentheses

Brackets

Ellipses

Quotation Marks

Italics

Apostrophe

Hyphen

•Rule: Use a period at the end of a declarative sentence or a polite command.

Punctuation

Example: I’m thirsty.

Example: Please bring me a glass of water.

•Rule: Use an exclamation point to show strong feeling or after a forceful command.

Example: I can’t believe my eyes!

Example: Watch your step!

Punctuation

•Rule: Use a question mark to indicate a direct question.

Example: Who is in charge here?

•Rule: Use a colon

• a. to introduce a list (especially after words such as these, the following, or as follows) and to introduce material that explains, restates, or illustrates previous material.

Example: I can’t believe my eyes!

Example: Watch your step!

Punctuation

•Rule: Use a colon

• b. to introduce a long or formal quotation.

Example: It was Mark Twain who stated the following proverb: “Man is the only animal that blushes. Or needs to.”

• c. in precise time measurements, biblical chapter and verse references, and business letter salutations.

Example: 3:35 P.M. 7:50 A.M. Gen. 1:10–11 Matt. 2:23 Dear Ms. Samuels: Dear Sir:

Punctuation

•Rule: Use a semicolon

• a. to separate main clauses that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction.

Example: There were two speakers at Gettysburg that day; only Lincoln’s speech is remembered.

• b. to separate main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb or by for example or that is.

Example: Because of the ice storm, most students could not get to school; consequently, the principal canceled all classes for the day.

Punctuation


• c. to separate the items in a series when these items contain commas.

Example: The students at the rally came from Senn High School, in Chicago, Illinois; Niles Township High School, in Skokie, Illinois; and Evanston Township High School, in Evanston, Illinois.

Punctuation


• d. to separate two main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction when such clauses already contain several commas.

Example: The designer combined the blue silk, brown linen, and beige cotton into a suit; but she decided to use the yellow chiffon, yellow silk, and white lace for an evening gown.

Punctuation

•Rule: Use a comma

• a. between the main clauses of a compound sentence.

Example: Ryan was late getting to study hall, and his footsteps echoed in the empty corridor.

• b. to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series.

Example: Mel bought carrots, beans, pears, and onions.

Punctuation


• c. between coordinate modifiers.

Example: That is a lyrical, moving poem.

• d. to set off parenthetical expressions, interjections, and conjunctive adverbs.

Example: Well, we missed the bus again.

Example: The weather is beautiful today; however, it is supposed to rain this weekend.

Punctuation


e. to set off nonessential words, clauses, and phrases, such as:

—adverbial clauses

Example: Since Ellen is so tall, the coach assumed she would be a good basketball player.

Example: Scott, who had been sleeping, finally woke up.

—adjective clauses

Punctuation


• —participles and participial phrases

Example: Having found what he was looking for, he left.

• —prepositional phrases

Example: On Saturdays during the fall, I rake leaves.


Punctuation


—infinitive phrases

Example: To be honest, I’d like to stay awhile longer.


—appositives and appositive phrases

Example: Ms. Kwan, a soft-spoken woman, ran into the street to hail a cab.

Punctuation


f. to set off direct quotations.

Example: “My concert,” Molly replied, “is tonight.”

g. to set off an antithetical phrase.

Example: Unlike Tom, Rob enjoys skiing.

Punctuation


h. to set off a title after a person’s name.

Example: Margaret Thomas, Ph.D., was the guest speaker.

i. to separate the various parts of an address, a geographical term, or a date.

Example: My new address is 324 Indian School Road, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 85350.

Example: I moved on March 13, 1998.

Punctuation


j. after the salutation of an informal letter and after The closing of all letters.

Example: Dear Helen, Sincerely,

k. to set off parts of a reference that direct the reader to the exact source.

Example: You can find the article in the Washington Post, April 4, 1997, pages 33–34.

Punctuation


l. to set off words or names used in direct address and in tag questions.

Example: Yuri, will you bring me my calculator?

Example: Lottie became a lawyer, didn’t she?

Punctuation

•Rule: Use a dash to signal a change in thought or to emphasize parenthetical material.

Example: During the play, Maureen—and she’d be the first to admit it—forgot her lines.

Example: There are only two juniors attending— Mike Ramos and Ron Kim.

Punctuation

•Rule: Use parentheses to set off supplemental material. Punctuate within the parentheses only if the punctuation is part of the parenthetical expression.

Example: If you like jazz (and I assume you do), you will like this CD. (The soloist is Miles Davis.)

Example: The upper Midwest (which states does that include?) was hit by terrible floods last year.

Punctuation

•Rule: Use brackets to enclose information that you insert into a quotation for clarity or to enclose a parenthetical phrase that already appears within parentheses.

Example: “He serves his [political] party best who serves the country best.” —Rutherford B. Hayes

Example: The staircase (which was designed by a famous architect [Frank Lloyd Wright]) was inlaid with ceramic tile.

Punctuation

•Rule: Use ellipsis points to indicate the omission of material from a quotation.

Example: “. . . Neither an individual nor a nation can commit the least act of injustice against the obscurest individual. . . .” —Henry David Thoreau

Punctuation

•Rule: Use quotation marks

• a. to enclose a direct quotation, as follows:

Example: “Hurry up!” shouted Lisa.

Example: “A cynic,” wrote Oscar Wilde, “is someone who knows the price of everything and the value of nothing.”

When a quotation is interrupted, use two sets of quotation marks.

Punctuation



Example: “Did you say ‘turn left’ or ‘turn right’?” asked Leon.

Use single quotation marks for a quotation within a quotation.

Punctuation



Example: “Do you really think the spaceship can take off?” asked the first officer. “Our engineer assures me that we have enough power,” the captain replied.

In writing dialogue, begin a new paragraph and use a new set of quotation marks every time the speaker changes.

Punctuation


• b. to enclose titles of short works, such as stories, poems, essays, articles, chapters, and songs.

Example: “The Lottery” [short story] “Provide, Provide” [poem] “Civil Disobedience” [essay]

• c. to enclose unfamiliar slang terms and unusual expressions.

Example: The man called his grandson a “rapscallion.”

Punctuation

• d. to enclose a definition that is stated directly.

Example: Gauche is a French word meaning “left.”


Punctuation

• a. for titles of books, lengthy poems, plays, films, television series, paintings and sculptures, long musical compositions, court cases, names of newspapers and magazines, ships, trains, airplanes, and spacecraft. Italicize and capitalize articles (a, an, the) at the beginning of a title only when they are part of the title.

Example: E.T. [film]The Piano Lesson [play] The Starry Night [painting] the New Yorker [magazine] Challenger [spacecraft] Concorde [airplane]The Great Gatsby [book]the Chicago Tribune [newspaper]

•Rule: Use italics

Punctuation

•Rule: Use italics

• b. for foreign words and expressions that are not used frequently in English.

Example: Luciano waved good-bye, saying, “Arrivederci.”

• c. for words, letters, and numerals used to represent themselves.

Example: There is no Q on the telephone keypad.

Example: Number your paper from 1 through 10.

Punctuation

•Rule: Use an apostrophe• a. for a possessive form, as follows:

Example: the tree’s leaves the man’s beltthe bus’s tiresthe children’s pets everyone’s favorite my mother-in-law’s job the attorney general’s decision the baseball player’s error the cats’ bowls

Add an apostrophe and -s to all singular nouns, plural nouns not ending in -s, singular indefinite pronouns, and compound nouns. Add only an apostrophe to a plural noun that ends in -s.

Punctuation

•Rule: Use an apostrophe

Example: Ted and Harriet’s family Ted’s and Harriet’s bosses Lewis and Clark’s expedition Lewis’s and Clark’s clothes

If two or more persons possess something jointly, use the possessive form for the last person named. If they possess it individually, use the possessive form for each one’s name.

• a. for a possessive form, as follows:

Punctuation


• b. to express amounts of money or time that modify a noun.

Example: two cents’ worth

Example: three days’ drive (You can use a hyphenated adjective instead: a three-day drive.)

• c. in place of omitted letters or numerals.

Example: haven’t [have not] the winter of '95

Punctuation


• d. to form the plural of letters, numerals, symbols, and words used to represent themselves. Use an apostrophe and -s.

Example: You wrote two 5’s instead of one.

Example: How many s’s are there in Mississippi?

Example: Why did he use three !’s at the end of the sentence?

Punctuation

•Rule: Use a hyphen

• a. after any prefix joined to a proper noun or proper adjective.

Example: all-American pre-Columbian

Punctuation


• b. after the prefixes all-, ex-, and self- joined to any noun or adjective, after the prefix anti- when it joins a word beginning with i, after the prefix vice-(except in vice president), and to avoid confusion between words that begin with re- and look like another word.

Example: ex-presidentself-importantanti-inflammatoryvice-principalre-creation of the eventrecreation timere-pair the socksrepair the computer

Punctuation


• c. in a compound adjective that precedes a noun.

Example: a bitter-tasting liquid

• d. in any spelled-out cardinal or ordinal numbers up to ninety-nine or ninety-ninth, and with a fraction used as an adjective.

Example: twenty-three eighty-fifth one-half cup

Punctuation


• e. to divide a word at the end of a line between syllables.

Example: air-port scis-sors fill-ing fin-est

Abbreviations

Abbreviations are shortened forms of words.

Abbreviations at the End of Sentences

Capitalization of Abbreviations

Abbreviations

•Rule: Use only one period if an abbreviation occurs at the end of a sentence. If the sentence ends with a question mark or an exclamation point, use the period and the second mark of punctuation.

Example: We didn’t get home until 3:30 A.M.

Example: Did you get home before 4:00 A.M.?

Example: I can’t believe you didn’t get home until 3:30 A.M.!

Abbreviations

•Rule: Capitalize abbreviations of proper nouns and abbreviations related to historical dates.

Example: John Kennedy Jr. P.O. Box 333800 B.C. A.D. 456 1066 C.E

Example: CBS CIA PIN

CPA IBM NFLMADD GE FBI

Use all capital letters and no periods for most abbreviations of organizations and government agencies.

The following basic rules, examples, and exceptions will help you master the spellings of many words.

Spelling

Forming pluralsAdding prefixesSuffixes and the silent eSuffixes and the final yAdding -ly and –nessDoubling the final consonantForming compound wordsie and ei-cede, -ceed, and -sede

Forming Plurals

English words form plurals in many ways. Most nouns simply add -s. The following chart shows other ways of forming plural nouns and some common exceptions to the pattern.

Forming Plurals (cont’d)

A few plurals are exceptions to the rules in the previous chart, but they are easy to remember. The following chart lists these plurals and some examples.

Adding prefixes

When adding a prefix to a word, keep the original spelling of the word. Use a hyphen only when the original word is capitalized or with the prefixes all-, ex-, and self- joined to a noun or an adjective.

co + operative = cooperativeinter + change = interchangepro + African = pro-Africanex + partner = ex-partner

Suffixes and the silent e

Many English words end in a silent letter e. Sometimes the e is dropped when a suffix is added. When adding a suffix that begins with a consonant to a word that ends in silent e, keep the e.

like + ness = likeness sure + ly = surely COMMON EXCEPTIONS awe + ful = awful;judge + ment = judgment

When adding a suffix that begins with a vowel to a word that ends in silent e, usually drop the e.

believe + able = believable expense + ive = expensiveCOMMON EXCEPTION mile + age = mileage

Suffixes and the silent e (cont’d)

When adding a suffix that begins with a or o to a word that ends in ce or ge, keep the e so the word will retain the soft c or g sound.

notice + able = noticeable courage + ous = courageous

When adding a suffix that begins with a vowel to a word that ends in ee or oe, keep the final e.

see + ing = seeing toe + ing = toeing

Suffixes and the silent e (cont’d)

Drop the final silent e after the letters u or w.

argue + ment = argument owe + ing = owing

Keep the final silent e before the suffix -ing when necessary to avoid ambiguity.

singe + ing = singeing

Suffixes and the silent y

When adding a suffix to a word that ends in a consonant + y, change the y to i unless the suffix begins with i. Keep the y in a word that ends in a vowel + y.

try + ed = tried fry + ed = friedstay + ing = staying display + ed = displayedcopy + ing = copying joy + ous = joyous

Adding -ly and -ness

When adding -ly to a word that ends in a single l, keep the l, but when the word ends in a double l, drop one l. When the word ends in a consonant + le, drop the le. When adding -ness to a word that ends in n, keep the n.

casual + ly = casually practical + ly = practically dull + ly = dully probable + ly = probablyopen + ness = opennessmean + ness = meanness

Doubling the final consonant

Double the final consonant in words that end in a consonant preceded by a single vowel if the word is one syllable, if it has an accent on the last syllable that remains there even after the suffix is added, or if it is a word made up of a prefix and a one-syllable word.

stop + ing = stoppingadmit + ed = admittedreplan + ed = replanned

Doubling the final consonant (cont’d)

Do not double the final consonant if the accent is not on the last syllable, or if the accent shifts when the suffix is added. Also do not double the final consonant if the final consonant is x or w. If the word ends in a consonant and the suffix begins with a consonant, do not double the final consonant.

benefit + ed = benefited similar + ly = similarly raw + er = rawer box + like = boxlikefriend + less = friendlessrest + ful = restful

Forming compound words

When joining a word that ends in a consonant to a word that begins with a consonant, keep both consonants.

out + line = outline after + noon = afternoonpost + card = postcard pepper + mint = peppermint

ie and ei

Learning this rhyme can save you many misspellings: “Write i before e except after c, or when sounded like a as in neighbor and weigh.” There are many exceptions to this rule, including seize, seizure, leisure, weird, height, either, neither, forfeit.

-cede, ceed, and sede

Because of the relatively few words with sēd sounds, these words are worth memorizing.

These words use -cede: accede, precede, secede.One word uses -sede: supersede.Three words use -ceed: exceed, proceed, succeed.

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