Spontaneous oughts in Meditative Traditions · e work contains 195 short and o% en quite cryptic aphorisms concerning meditative practice. ! eir interpretation o% en depends on a

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Spontaneous Th oughts in Meditative Traditions

Halvor Eifring

Th e spontaneous fl ow of seemingly random thoughts is a basic feature of the human psyche, 1 and mind wandering has recently become a hot topic in neuroscience, because it has been linked to areas in the brain that become more rather than less active when the person is at rest. 2 Th e nature and function of this stream of consciousness have been vehemently debated. On the one hand, it has been argued that “ a wandering mind is an unhappy mind, ” and that mind wandering is a source of unhealthy distraction and negative rumination, which in turn may lead to depression and anxiety — in short mental garbage that needs to be properly disposed of. 3 On the other hand, it has also been argued that since mind wandering takes up almost half of our waking time, it would not have survived the evolutionary struggle if it had no positive function, and it has been suggested that the wandering mind helps the person to process emotions and past memories, prepare for future challenges, perceive present reality more fully, improve self-understanding as well as empathy with others, and increase his or her creative potential. 4

Meditation has become a signifi cant part of this debate. Some have attempted to show that meditation reduces mind wandering, 5 while others have argued the opposite, that at least some forms of meditation actually increase the activities of the wandering mind. 6 Th ese contrasting views largely refl ect diff erent opinions about the positive and negative functions of mind wandering. In addition, they also partly refl ect attitudes that have a long history in the various contemplative traditions of Europe and Asia.

Th e most immediate historical background of such debates lies in the rise of modern psychology — in William James ’ s theoretical notion of the “ stream of consciousness ” and Sigmund Freud ’ s technical uses of “ free association, ” as well as Jerome L. Singer ’ s more recent but less well-known research into “ daydreaming. ” Long before the advent of modern psychology, however, discussions concerning spontaneous thoughts and mind wandering had been taking place for at least a couple of thousand years in large parts of the Eurasian continent, in the contexts of prayer, meditation, and contemplation.

While psychoanalysis looks upon free association as a key to the discovery of inner confl icts and an important tool for the treatment of psychological ailments,

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contemplative traditions tend to see mind wandering as an obstacle to meditative progress, as a problem that needs to be overcome. Th e skepticism toward spontaneous thoughts is found in contemplative traditions with widely diff erent geographical and cultural origins. Each of these must be seen and explained within its own historical context. At the same time, these various traditions should also be discussed in relation to each other. Th is chapter is a preliminary attempt to explore the parallels and contrasts between the ways diff erent traditions relate to the constant fl ow of spontaneous thoughts. It will take a brief look at representative works of four traditions: classical Yoga, Christian mysticism, early Daoism, and Buddhist Pure Land practices. Aft er a summary of the fi ndings, it will then make an initial attempt at linking this historical study to the modern attitudes described above.

Th e chapter looks at material that belongs not only to diff erent cultures, but also to diff erent historical periods. Although early cultural contacts did exist between India and Europe and may or may not have existed between India and China even before the spread of Buddhism, whatever parallels are found between the diff erent traditions can hardly be fully explained as the results of cultural infl uence. Th ey seem to suggest cross-cultural similarities that may have their roots in physiological, psychological, or more widely existential similarities between human beings. Such similarities pose important questions concerning the universality of the phenomena in question, which is oft en contrasted with their historical and cultural situatedness. Th is chapter, however, will simply point out some of the parallels (as well as the contrasts), without venturing too far into their possible explanations.

In each case, two basic questions will be posed. First, what is the doctrinal background for the oft en skeptical assessment of spontaneous thoughts? And second, since ridding the mind of spontaneous thoughts, or at least reducing their impact, is in most cases no mean challenge, what are the recommended approaches to the problem? In addition, we shall see that in all of the traditions, the skepticism toward mind wandering is tempered by more accepting views.

Yoga S ū tra : Undisturbed fl ow

Th e Indian work known as Yoga S ū tra may have been put together by Pata ñ jali around the second century CE, though many of its spiritual practices and metaphysical assumptions had by then already been around for centuries, some would argue millennia. Th e work contains 195 short and oft en quite cryptic aphorisms concerning meditative practice. Th eir interpretation oft en depends on a number of commentaries written several centuries later. 7

Th e single most famous statement in the work is s ū tra I.2:

Yoga is the stilling of the fl uctuations of the mind. yoga ś citta-v ṛ tti-nirodha ḥ

Although citta-v ṛ tti “ the fl uctuations of the mind ” is a wider and at the same time more technical term than the English phrases “ spontaneous thoughts ” and “ mind wandering, ” this sentence is usually understood to imply that Yoga will lead to a state


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of consciousness without any disturbance from spontaneous thoughts and mind wandering.

On closer look, the implications of this statement are quite complex. First of all, all states of mind are understood to belong to one of the fi ve fl uctuations listed in s ū tra I.6 and further elaborated upon in I.7-I.11: right knowledge ( pram ā ṇ a ), error ( viparyaya ), imagination ( vikalpa ), sleep ( nidr ā ), and memory ( sm ṛ taya ḥ ). Th us, it is not only mind wandering in the narrow sense that needs to be stilled, but all mental activity.

Th e negative attitude toward spontaneous thoughts in the Yoga S ū tra is oft en explained with reference to the strong duality between puru ṣ a (the transcendent self) and prak ṛ ti (objective or material reality) underlying Yoga philosophy. Th is duality diff ers sharply from the Cartesian distinction between mind/spirit ( res cogitans ) and body/matter ( res extensa ), since yoga places spontaneous thoughts in the same category as bodily and material objects, the category of prak ṛ ti . Th is category includes all phenomena, whether bodily/material or mental/spiritual, its opposite being puru ṣ a , a transcendent, non-phenomenal consciousness underlying all existence, in particular human selfh ood. Simply speaking, spontaneous thoughts must be stilled because they come in the way of the realization of puru ṣ a . As we shall see, similar dualities exist in a number of diff erent contemplative traditions, and though the terminologies and cultural conceptualizations surrounding them diff er widely, the human — and meditative — experiences underlying such dualities may have much in common.

When the stilling of the fl uctuations of the mind is accomplished, “ the seer abides in its own true nature ” ( dra ṣ ṭ u ḥ svar ū pe ‘ vasth ā nam , I.3), that is, in the puru ṣ a , while in the opposite case, the seer “ is absorbed in the fl uctuations ” ( v ṛ tti-s ā r ū pyam , I.4), that is in prak ṛ ti .

In itself, however, the duality between puru ṣ a and prak ṛ ti is hardly enough to justify a skeptical attitude toward spontaneous thoughts or mental states. From the Yogic point of view, apart from puru ṣ a itself, everything belongs to prak ṛ ti , not only spontaneous thoughts or other mental activities. So what is it about “ the fl uctuations of the mind ” that needs to be stilled, when there are other aspects of prak ṛ ti that are not dealt with in the same way?

Th e simple answer is that the fl uctuations of the mind are seen as particularly detrimental to Yogic realization. Th e mind, citta , is of prime importance for such realization, but its constant fl uctuation is seen as a hindrance. Th e Yoga S ū tra , like many Indian scriptures, and similar to other contemplative traditions, excels in providing terms for and lists of conditions that are seen as conducive to Yogic realization, as well as conditions that are seen as detrimental. Th e latter includes:

● the fi ve impediments ( kle ś a ): ignorance ( avidy ā ), ego ( asmit ā ), attachment ( r ā ga ), aversion ( dve ṣ a ), clinging to life ( abhinive ś ā ḥ ) (s ū tra II.3-II.9)

● the nine disturbances (or interruptions, antar ā ya ): disease ( vy ā dhi ), idleness ( sty ā na ), doubt ( sa ṁ ś aya ), carelessness ( pram ā da ), sloth ( ā lasya ), lack of detachment ( avirati ), misapprehension ( bhr ā nti-dar ś ana ), failure to attain a base [for concentration] ( alabda-bh ū mikatva ), and instability ( anavasthitatva ) (s ū tra I.30)

● fi ve secondary disturbances: suff ering ( du ḥ kha ), dejection ( daurmanasya ), trembling ( a ṅ gam-ejayatva ), inhalation ( ś v ā sa ), exhalation ( pra ś v ā s ā ḥ ) (s ū tra I.31)



Th e nine disturbances are explicitly said to constitute “ distractions for the mind ” ( citta-vik ṣ ep ā ḥ ), and the fi ve secondary disturbances are said to “ accompany the distractions ” ( vik ṣ epa-saha-bhuva ḥ ). Th e fi rst and arguably greatest commentary on the Yoga S ū tra , the fi ft h-century Vy ā sa commentary, suggests that the fl uctuations of the mind would cease to exist if the nine disturbances were removed (Bryant 2009: 118), thus paving the way for the (self-)realization of the puru ṣ a .

Th e fi ve impediments are clearly also closely connected to the fl uctuations of the mind. However, not all fl uctuations of the mind are seen as impediments, at least not always. On the contrary, the fi ve types of fl uctuations are explicitly said to be either associated with impediments or not ( kli ṣ ṭ ā kli ṣ ṭ ā ḥ , s ū tra I.5). Although the duality between puru ṣ a and prak ṛ ti is absolute, therefore, some aspects of prak ṛ ti are seen as more conducive to the realization of puru ṣ a than others, and this includes some aspects of the fl uctuations of the mind. (As we shall see, similar ideas exist in other contemplative traditions.) Th us, the negative assessment of the fl uctuations of the mind is not all-pervasive.

Th e distinction between “ outgoing ” and “ restraining ” karmic imprints ( sa ṁ sk ā ra ) made in s ū tra III.9 possibly points in the same direction. Th e fl uctuations of the mind are at the same time seen as products of karmic imprints from the past and producers of karmic imprints deciding the future, keeping us in the wheel of life. However, while the stilling of the fl uctuations of the mind leads to the disappearance of the outgoing imprints, it also leads to the appearance of restraining imprints and thereby, according to s ū tra III.10, to the “ undisturbed fl ow ” ( pra ś ā nta-v ā hit ā ) of the mind. Th is “ fl ow ” still belongs to prak ṛ ti , and to the mind, but rather than the fl uctuating sequence of diff erent and oft en disturbing elements, we get “ an ongoing sequence of similar sa ṁ sk ā ras , like a movie reel of identical stills, ” and thus come closer to the core or essence of prak ṛ ti , “ an eternal and constant self that is not metaphysically dependent on or interdependent with anything else, ” though functionally dependent on puru ṣ a . 8

Th e distinction between the three qualities of existence (the gu ṇ as , including the largely detrimental rajas and tamas and the more benign sattva ; the distinction is not made explicit in the Yoga S ū tra but oft en referred to in the commentaries) is a similar case; Yoga reduces the infl uence of rajas and tamas and manifests the potential of sattva ; are perhaps the non-detrimental states of mind sattvic? Whether this more positive assessment of some aspects of prak ṛ ti may be extended to what we would call “ spontaneous thoughts ” or “ mind wandering ” is not clear.

If the goal of Yoga is to still the fl uctuations of the mind, large parts of the Yoga S ū tra may be read as a manual on how to attain this goal. At a general level, the stilling of thoughts is achieved by “ practice ” ( abhy ā sa ) and “ dispassion ” ( vair ā gy ā bhy ā m ), as stated in s ū tra I.12 and further elaborated in the following aphorisms. While dispassion is explained as “ the controlled consciousness of one who is without craving for sense objects ” ( vi ṣ aya-vit ṛ ṣ ṇ asya va ś ī k ā ra-sa ṁ j ñ ā ), the primary commentator Vy ā sa adds that this implies an indiff erence to the sense objects (as a result of long-term practice), not an active rejection of them and even less their disappearance. 9 If the same way of thinking is applied to spontaneous thoughts, the implication would be that while Yoga may eventually lead to a state in which such thoughts are stilled, this is an eff ect of the practice and is not due to the practitioner ’ s driving away or suppressing the thoughts.



It even allows for a reading where the thoughts are still present, only in a quieter and less disturbing form, as “ restraining ” rather than “ outgoing ” karmic imprints, and as “ sattvic ” rather than “ tamasic ” or “ rajasic ” elements.

In the Yoga S ū tra , the most basic means of stilling the fl uctuations of the mind lies in various forms of attentional “ one-pointedness ” ( ek ā grya or ek ā grat ā ), mostly through the successive stages of dh ā ra ṇ ā “ concentration, ” dhy ā na “ meditation, ” and several levels of sam ā dhi “ absorption, ” as in s ū tra II.11:

Th e states of mind produced by these [impediments] are eliminated by meditation. dhy ā na-hey ā s tad-v ṛ ttaya ḥ

However, the practical implications of this are not clear. Are concentration, meditation, absorption, and other forms of “ one-pointedness ” to be understood as the eff ects of a practice or as technical elements involved in that practice? In the Yoga S ū tra , this distinction is oft en blurred. In s ū tra I.20, for instance, sam ā dhi is listed along with other qualities more or less as a means to achieve a certain state, while in s ū tra II.2 we are told that sam ā dhi is a state that Yoga may help us bring about. In s ū tra I.32, eka-tattv ā bhy ā sa ḥ “ practice [of fi xing the mind] on one object ” is described as a method to eliminate disturbances, while in s ū tra II.41, ek ā grya “ one-pointedness ” is mentioned in a list of eff ects of the purifi cation of the mind. Although the emphasis on meditative concentration is traditionally interpreted as an injunction to actively dispel spontaneous thoughts when they arise, it may just as well be seen as focusing on the mentally absorbing eff ects of yogic practice, not as technical elements of the practice itself.

Only in s ū tra II.33 does the Yoga S ū tra express a concrete approach to counter unwanted spontaneous thoughts:

Upon being harassed by negative thoughts, one should cultivate counteracting thoughts. vitarka-b ā dhane pratipak ṣ a-bh ā vanam

Th e following s ū tra indicates that cultivating counteracting thoughts is not to be understood as suppression or “ positive thinking, ” but rather as thinking about the consequences of entertaining negative thoughts, namely, that “ the end results [of negative thoughts] are ongoing suff ering and ignorance ” ( du ḥ kh ā j ñ ā n ā nanta-phal ā ). Again, there is no indication that spontaneous thoughts should be actively dispelled, only that they should be seen in their proper context, in what Bryant calls “ a type of mindfulness meditation for yog ī s . ” 10

Note, fi nally, that the Yoga S ū tra , in spite of its emphasis on individual practice and technique, is also theistic, recommending “ submission to God ” ( Ī ś vara-pra ṇ idh ā n ā t ) as a means, arguably even the prime means, to achieve “ the perfection of sam ā dhi ” ( sam ā dhi-siddhi ḥ II.45) and, by repetition and contemplation of the mantra designating him (the pra ṇ ava ḥ [ o ṁ ] I.27), to achieve “ freedom from all disturbances ” ( antar ā y ā bh ā va ḥ I.29). By extension, submission to God may also be seen as a way, and maybe the best way, of stilling the fl uctuations of the mind.

Such theistic approaches oft en build on grace and come in several variants in a number of diff erent contemplative traditions, from the most insistently monotheistic



attitudes of Islam and Sikhism, via the more ambiguously monotheistic perspective of trinitarian Christianity, to the plethora of gods in much of devotional Hinduism, the visualization and corporeal integration of gods in some forms of Daoist mysticism, and the pseudo-theistic approaches of Pure Land Buddhism. Th e Yoga S ū tra diff ers from most of these, including the bhakti -oriented Hindu schools though not perhaps Daoist mysticism, in placing comparatively little focus on the emotional element of devotion. Th e Sanskrit term for devotion, bhakti , is not even mentioned in the work, in sharp contrast to many other Hindu schools, including the Bhagavad G ī t ā , as well as Sikhism.

Th e Cloud of Unknowing: Hard work

Th e Cloud of Unknowing is a fourteenth-century anonymous work of Christian mysticism, written in Middle English. Its immediate historical context includes other Late Medieval English mystics, such as the almost contemporaneous Richard Rolle (d. 1349), Walter Hilton (d. 1396), and Julian of Norwich (b. 1342), some of whom it indirectly argues against. In a wider sense, its history also includes the via negativa of the Desert Fathers and Neo-Platonism, to which it sometimes makes reference. 11

Like its Christian predecessors, as well as the Yoga S ū tra , Th e Cloud of Unknowing is also based on a duality that diff ers radically from Cartesian body-mind thinking. While it sometimes does refer to the familiar distinction between the physical ( bodily or fl esch[e]ly ) and the spiritual ( goostli or gostely ), and between body ( body ) and soul ( soule ), the fundamental distinction is not between body and soul, or matter and spirit, but between “ created things ” ( creat[u]r e s ) and “ God himself ” ( God . . . hym -self ) (ch. 3). Th e former category is by no means limited to the physical realm, but also includes the spiritual:

Whenever I say “ the whole created world ” I always mean not only the individual creatures therein, but everything connected with them. Th ere is no exception whatever, whether you think of them as physical or spiritual beings, or of their states or actions, or of their goodness or badness. (ch. 5) As oft e as I sey “ alle þ e creatures þ at ever be n maad, ” as oft e I mene, not only þ e self creatures, bot also alle þ e werkes & þ e condic i ons of þ e same creatures. I oute-take not o creature, whe þ er þ ei ben bodily creatures or goostly, ne ȝ it any co n dic i on or werk of any creature, whe þ er þ ei be good or iuel.

All thoughts, spontaneous or not, belong to the realm of “ created things ” and may disturb the direct contemplation of “ God himself ” :

Everything you think about, all the time you think about it, is “ above ” you, between you and God. And you are that much farther from God if anything but God is in your mind. (ch. 5) alle þ ing þ a t þ ou þ inkest apon is abouen þ ee for þ e tyme, & bitwix þ ee & þ i God. & in so mochel þ ou arte þ e fer þ er fro God, þ a t ou ȝ t is in þ i mynde bot only God.



Th is must be seen as an argument against a widespread tendency within Late Medieval Christian mysticism to approach God through intellectual approaches. Th e distinction between created and uncreated and the relegation of thoughts to the realm of creation have a long history within Christianity. As an early example, Evagrios Pontikos (345 – 99) argues that even “ dispassionate ” thoughts keep us far from God, since they are directed toward “ created things, ” while God is “ beyond sense-perception and beyond concept. ” 12

Both in Evagrios and in Th e Cloud of Unknowing , the thoughts discussed clearly include what we would call spontaneous thoughts or mind wandering. While admitting that such thoughts can be both angelic and demonic, or even plainly human, Evagrios strongly tends to link thoughts to passion and to demonize them: “ [Th e demon] is always using our memory to stir up thoughts of various things and our fl esh to arouse the passions, in order to obstruct our way of ascent to God. ” 13 He classifi es such thoughts ( logismoi ) into lists of eight (gluttony, unchastity, avarice, anger, dejection, listlessness, self-esteem, and pride), much like the lists of detrimental factors we saw in the Yoga S ū tra . His list is further refi ned by the Church and ends up as the famous idea of the Seven Deadly Sins.

Th ough arguing that thoughts keep the contemplative away from God, Th e Cloud of Unknowing seems to have a much more accepting view of them than Evagrios. Th oughts are “ the expression of your normal mind, ” 14 and “ [a]ll the while a soul lives in this mortal body . . . he will always see and feel some of God ’ s creatures, or their deeds, pressing in upon his mind between him and God. ” 15 Th erefore, “ a spontaneous thought, springing to mind unsought and unwittingly, cannot be reckoned to be sin, ” whether it is “ something you like, a thing that pleases you, or has pleased you in the past, ” or is “ a grouse over something that grieves you, or has grieved you. ” 16

Th e author adds, almost as an aft erthought, that spontaneous thoughts may be “ the result[s] of original sin ” ( þ e pyne of þ e original sinne ), but since “ you were cleansed from the guilt of that when you were baptized ” ( of þ e whiche sinne þ ou arte clensid in þ i baptyme ), they cannot really be called sinful any more (ch. 10). Note the similarity with the Yoga S ū tra ’ s view of spontaneous thoughts as resulting from past karmic imprints, which is perhaps the closest Yogic equivalent to the Christian notion of sin. In both cases, spontaneous thoughts are seen as residuals from the past.

However normal and unsinful, such thoughts or impulses nevertheless need to be “ quickly put down ” ( smetyn sone dou n):

If you allow houseroom to this thing that you naturally like or grouse about, and make no attempt to rebuke it, ultimately it will take root in your inmost being, in your will, and with the consent of your will. Th en it is deadly sin. (ch. 10) ȝ if it so be þ at þ is likyng or gruching fastnyng in þ i fl eschly herte & þ eires be suff red so longe to abide vnreproued, þ at þ an at þ e last it is fastnid to þ e goostly herte ( þ at is to sey þ e wile) wi þ a ful consent: þ an it is deedly synne.

Th e practical implication of this oft en sounds like brutal suppression, actually much more obviously so than the attentiveness ( prosochi ), watchfulness ( nipsis ), and guarding of one ’ s heart ( phylaki kardias ) advocated by Evagrios and other Desert Fathers. Th e practitioner must “ crush all knowledge and experience of all forms of



created things, ” 17 “ trample them down under foot, ” 18 and “ suppress all this in the cloud of forgetting, ” 19 “ stamping out all remembrance of God ’ s creation. ” 20 “ [A]s oft en as they come up, push them down. ” 21 Th is is “ very hard work indeed, ” 22 the aim of which is to achieve “ the single-minded intention of our spirit directed to God himself alone. ” 23

In Th e Cloud of Unknowing , therefore, there is hardly any doubt that the practitioner is asked to forcefully drive away all thoughts. Various techniques or stratagems are devised to help him on the way. First of all, he may “ take a short word . . . of one syllable, ” “ [a] word like ‘ god ’ or ‘ love ’ , ” “ or perhaps some other, so long as it is of one syllable, ” and use it to “ hammer the cloud and the darkness above you ” (the cloud of unknowing separating him from God) and to “ suppress all thought under the cloud of forgetting. ” 24

If this does not help him get rid of the thoughts, two other “ schemes ” ( slei ȝ tes ) are proposed. Th e fi rst suggests that you should “ [d]o everything you can to act as if you did not know that they [thoughts, impulses and memories] were so strongly pushing in between you and God, ” 25 as if denying their presence.

Th e second scheme is perhaps more interesting, since it seems to imply giving up the aim of dispelling spontaneous thoughts: “ Cower down before them like some cringing captive overcome in battle, and reckon that it is ridiculous to fi ght against them any longer, ” so that you “ surrender yourself to God while you are in the hands of your enemies. ” 26 Th e implication seems to be that sometimes, the fi ght against thoughts may in the end be just as much an obstacle to the contemplation of God as the thoughts themselves.

It is also interesting to note that the “ hard work ” involved in the fi ght against spontaneous thoughts is gradually made easier, both because “ one has got used to it over a long period ” and because “ devotion has come, ” aft er which “ [y]ou even may have little eff ort to make, or none, ” because “ sometimes God will do it all himself. ” 27 In addition to habituation, therefore, the increasing proximity to God will reduce the eff ort required to drive away the thoughts. In the end, we are told, you should “ not overstrain yourself emotionally or beyond your strength, ” and “ [w]ork with eager enjoyment rather than with brute force. ” 28

In contrast to the rather sparing theistic references in the Yoga S ū tra , the longing love for God is the main theme in Th e Cloud of Unknowing . Even here, however, there are also examples of depersonalized and nontheistic references to a transcendent realm described in paradoxical language. In chapter 68, the practitioner is told that he should be “ nowhere ” ( no ȝ where ) and be tied to “ nothing ” ( nou ȝ t ), but that it is only his “ outer self ” ( vtter man ) that is calling this “ nothing, ” while his inner “ self calls ” it “ All ” ( Al ), and “ when you are ‘ nowhere ’ physically, you are ‘ everywhere ’ spiritually ” ( whi no ȝ where bodely is euerywhere goodly ). To the neophyte, this realm appears “ completely dark and hidden ” ( ful blynde & ful derk ), but it is actually “ overwhelming spiritual light that blinds the soul that is experiencing it ” ( a soule is . . . bleendid in felyng of it for habu n dau n ce of goostly li ȝ t ).

Furthermore, the longing love for God is described as a “ quiet, eager joy, at rest in body and soul. ” 29 Th e author warns against “ the violence of emotional reaction ” 30 and against “ behaving wildly like some animal. ” 31



Inward Training: Measured harmony

Inward Training 內業 may be “ the oldest mystical text in China, ” 32 and also the oldest among the texts discussed in this chapter, arguably dating from the fourth century BCE. 33 Very early, it was included as one of only four proto-Daoist texts in the collection Gu ǎ nz ǐ 管子 , which contains seventy-six anonymous texts mostly on political and economic topics. 34 Partly because of its hidden existence in this compilation, it is much less well known than the classical works of Daoism, in particular the L ǎ oz ǐ 老子 and the Zhu ā ngz ǐ 莊子 , both of which it possibly precedes.

Inward Training diff ers from both the Yoga S ū tra and Th e Cloud of Unknowing in being consistently nontheistic and non-devotional. It does refer to sh é n 神 , a term that is sometimes translated as “ god, ” but Roth (1999) thinks its meaning in Inward Training is translatable as a completely depersonalized “ (the) numinous. ” Rickett (1998) uses the more ambiguous term “ spirit, ” which of course may be either personal or impersonal. Even if Roth should turn out to be wrong in a few cases, and a collocation such as gu ǐ -sh é n 鬼神 should be translated as “ ghosts and gods ” or “ ghosts and spirits ” rather than Roth ’ s “ the ghostly and the numinous, ” these gods or spirits do not have the central role of the God of Yoga S ū tra or, in particular, Th e Cloud of Unknowing and other Christian works. On the contrary, they are portrayed as not being particularly effi cacious, as when we are told that the fi nal penetration of a diffi cult problem “ is not due to the power of the ghosts and the gods, but to the perfection of essence and energy ” (see below). Th e single term that comes closest in meaning to God is the completely impersonal d à o ( 道 ) “ the Way. ”

Th e Way is beyond language and beyond the senses, without form, without place, even exhausting the placeless, it cannot be fi xed, it leaves without returning and comes without staying, and, using plant metaphors, it has no root and no stalk, no leaves and no fl owers. Still, it infuses the body, coexists with man, is never far away and never takes leave, and we can perceive its accomplishments. 35

While oft en characterized as monistic, due to the omnipresence of the Way and its insistence on the One ( 一 ), this worldview may also be seen as representing a non-Cartesian duality reminiscent of the Yoga S ū tra and Th e Cloud of Unknowing , since the Way occupies a unique position vis- à -vis all other forms of existence, including spontaneous thoughts and impulses. Th ere exists, however, a hierarchy of elements that belong to our worldly existence but are, as it were, particularly close to the Way: energy ( q ì 氣 ), essence ( j ī ng 精 ), spirit ( sh é n 神 ), and to some extent even the human mind (or, literally, heart, x ī n 心 ). Th e mind is the prime human gateway to the Way, oft en by way of energy, essence, and spirit. However, it needs to be properly cultivated ( 修心 ). It must be made tranquil ( 靜 ), calm ( 安 ), stable ( 定 ), aligned ( 正 ), orderly ( 治 ), complete ( 全 ), and concentrated ( 摶 ). Only then can one grasp the mind that exists within the mind, 36 and the Way can be halted and attained. 37 Both Rickett and Roth argue that the text describes meditation techniques with this aim.

Conversely, a number of conditions of the mind are detrimental to the attempts at attaining the Way, and this is where spontaneous thoughts, as well as desires, emotions, sensory impressions, and other spontaneous impulses, come into the picture. Worries and pleasures, joy and anger, desires, and profi t-seeking all make us lose our proper



state of mind. 38 With worries and sadness, joy and anger, there is no place for the Way. 39 Agitation is harmful and also makes us lose the Way. 40 We should not let external things disrupt our senses, and not let our senses disrupt our minds. 41 And while thinking is part of life, it leads to knowledge, and excessive knowledge may be fatal, or at least make you lose your vitality. 42 Not being able to let go of your thoughts makes you distressed inside and weak outside, 43 though even thinking that reaches a dead end may eventually, by help of external spiritual forces, reach a positive breakthrough:

Th ink about it, think about it, and think about it again. When thinking about it provides no way through, ghosts and spirits will provide a way through, though not due to the power of the ghosts and the spirits, but to the perfection of essence and energy. 思之思之，又重思之。思之而不通，鬼神將通之，非鬼神之力也，精氣之

極也。 (Roth 1999: 83)

How, then, do these meditative techniques deal with the various spontaneous impulses that are seen as detrimental to the attainment of the Way? Some passages propose getting rid of ( 去 ) or stopping ( 止 ) them, or, in a metaphor, diligently cleaning out the lodging place of the numinous ( 敬除其舍 ). In general, however, the text is more interested in creating harmony ( 和 ) than in ridding the mind entirely of its spontaneous impulses. Th e problem is not the impulses in themselves, which are as natural to man as the four seasons are to heaven:

Spring and autumn, winter and summer are the seasons of the heavens, . . . Pleasure and anger, accepting and rejecting are the devices of human beings. 春秋冬夏，天之時也 … … 喜怒取予，人之謀也。 (Roth 1999: 59)

Th e problem is their excessiveness ( 淫 ) and loss of measure ( 失度 ). Th e solution is to regulate ( 節 ) them and limit them to the appropriate degree ( 節適之齊 ), not to pull and push them ( 勿引勿推 ) or use force ( 力 ). Th en the results will come spontaneously ( 自來 , 自至 , 自歸 ), and the Way will of itself become stable ( 道將自定 ).

Th e regulation of spontaneous thoughts and impulses seems to be driven by a strong concern with gain ( 得 ) and loss ( 失 ). Depending on one ’ s ability to harmonize the mind properly, one can either gain the Way or lose it, and this is not only a matter of gaining or losing the guiding thread ( 紀 ), the basic point ( 端 ), or the proper measure ( 度 ), but is portrayed as a question of worldly success ( 成 ) or failure ( 敗 ), order ( 治 ) or chaos ( 亂 ), and even life ( 生 ) or death ( 死 ). It is also what makes or breaks a ruler ’ s ability to make the world listen ( 天下聽 ) and submit ( 天下服 ). Whatever one has gained, therefore, must be diligently guarded against loss ( 敬守勿失 ). In spite of the emphasis on the basic spontaneity of the Way, the diligent regulation of thoughts and impulses seems to represent a clear restriction of their spontaneous fl ow.

As in the Yoga S ū tra , many formulations in Inward Training are ambiguous with regard to method and eff ect. Terms like “ collect the mind ” ( 摶心 ), “ hold on to the one ” ( 執一 ), and “ guard the one and discard the myriad particularities ” ( 守一棄萬苛 ) may be read as injunctions to concentrate on one thing and suppress everything else, and posterity has oft en read them this way. But they may also, and just as likely, be



read as expressions of a unifying vision of the Way that includes but is not limited by all particular detail, including thoughts and impulses. Th e open awareness implied by terms such as “ enlarge the mind ” ( 大心 ) and “ widen the energies ” ( 寬氣 ) seems to point in the latter direction. Th is vision is primarily an eff ect of meditative practice, and it is unclear to what extent it has technical implications for the practice itself.

Pure Land: Between opposites

Th e text called Casual Teachings on the Pure Land ( 淨土隨學 ) has in common with the Yoga S ū tra that its way of thinking ultimately originates in India, and with Inward Training that it is written in Chinese. 44 It diff ers from both in being relatively recent, relatively unknown, and in having an identifi able author, the monk Y ù f ē ng G ǔ k ū n ( 玉峯古崑 ), who died in 1892, and who associated himself with the Pure Land School of Buddhism. 45 Th e text is a collection of poems, prefaces, and other brief writings on the virtues of this school, oft en in contrast to the more complex teachings of Ch á n (Zen) Buddhism or other Buddhist practices, even other Pure Land teachings.

While most Buddhist practices ultimately aim to bring the practitioner out of the wheel of life and death, the more immediate goal of the Pure Land practices is to be reborn in the Pure Land of the West, presided over by Amit ā bha Buddha. G ǔ k ū n ’ s recommended practice focuses on the verbal recitation of Amit ā bha Buddha ’ s name ( N ā m ó Ā m í tu ó f ó 南無阿彌陀佛 ) accompanied by the use of a rosary to help counting the number of repetitions, usually recommending 60,000 repetitions as a daily assignment, increasing it to 100,000 repetitions a day during seven-day meditation retreats.

Th is form of devotional recitation has much in common with the theistic practices of the Yoga S ū tra and Th e Cloud of Unknowing . Still, Buddhism has neither a personal god resembling the god of Christianity or Yoga, nor an impersonal core corresponding to the Way of Daoism. Amit ā bha Buddha is identifi ed as an awakened person, not a god, though his omnipresence and supernatural powers are such that the diff erence is far from clear-cut, and his humanity by no means decreases his value as an object of devotion. Th e strong focus on rebirth in the Pure Land is reminiscent of Christian ideas of Paradise, and it actually plays a much more central role in the Pure Land texts than Paradise does in Th e Cloud of Unknowing . Th e ripe fruit of one ’ s practice will be had at the moment of death.

In contrast to the other texts we have looked at, and most other Buddhist texts as well, Casual Teachings on the Pure Land is highly critical of those who actively seek to rid the mind of spontaneous (or, in Buddhist parlance, “ deluded ” 妄 ) thoughts. Th ey are just as obsessed, we are told, as those who seek Ch á n awakening:

Ever since I encountered the Pure School, I have oft en seen people reciting the name of the Buddha while either being obsessed with reaching awakening and thus blocking their mind or detesting deluded thoughts and thus fi lling their mind with worries. (p. 431c) 崑自學淨宗以來，每見念佛之人，或執著悟門，意不開暢，或惡嫌妄想，

心生憂愁。



G ǔ k ū n insists that “ even a multitude of digressive thoughts are no hindrance, ” 46 and that “ you do not need to dispel deluded thoughts. ” 47 He encourages the practitioner to “ stop detesting deluded thoughts as if they were thieves, ” 48 and to “ give free rein to the thousands and ten thousands of thoughts. ” 49 He even presents a poem of twelve stanzas in which each stanza begins with the line “ reciting the name in a messy way is full of eff ects, ” 50 indicating that digressions are no hindrance, and another poem of eight stanzas in which each stanza begins with the line “ there is no need to be concerned about deluded thoughts. ” 51 In the latter poem, he suggests a mindful approach to such thoughts: “ Just see what it [the thought] is. ” 52 While G ǔ k ū n is not the only Buddhist who criticizes the goal-orientation implied in ridding the mind of thoughts, he goes further than most in insisting that the presence of mind wandering is no obstacle to spiritual progress.

Paradoxically, however, we also see in his text, as in almost all Buddhist texts on the subject, a strong concern with the assumed negative eff ects of mind wandering, as well as its connection with bad karma from previous lives. G ǔ k ū n complains that “ the multitude of digressive thoughts is really lamentable, and thousands of schemes do not help to get rid of them, ” 53 and that “ the mind is chaotic and in urgent need of smoothing out. ” 54 He repeatedly uses the image of the wandering mind as an untamed and seemingly untamable horse or monkey, bemoaning the fact that “ the monkey of the mind and the horse of consciousness are utterly hard to stop. ” 55 Th e notion of mind wandering as a detrimental factor in the quest for spiritual progress is by no means absent from G ǔ k ū n ’ s way of thinking.

Th is paradox in G ǔ k ū n ’ s ideas on mind wandering is made explicit in one of his poems. Th e fi rst two stanzas deal with the negative eff ects of deluded thoughts, insisting that they are “ the deep roots of calamity ” ( 禍根深 ), which “ oft en make practitioners fall into the river of love ” ( 常害行人落愛河 ) and “ lose their good karma ” ( 失正因 ). Th e last two stanzas, however, hail deluded thoughts as an aspect of the “ true mind ” ( 真心 ), full of “ glorious merit ” ( 奇勳 ). While this ambiguity is in line with the philosophical nondualism typical of Mah ā y ā na Buddhism, G ǔ k ū n ’ s thinking is more practical. It is the recitation of the buddha ’ s name, we are told in the same poem, that has the power of “ assimilating the deluded (thoughts) within the true (mind) ” ( 攝妄歸真 ) (p. 433).

As in other traditions, therefore, the key lies in the effi cacy of the meditation object. We are told that “ only the Amit ā bha phrase can restrain the mind, ” 56 that “ uninterrupted recitation is the cause, and undistracted mental absorption is the eff ect, ” 57 and that even “ lax recitation ” ( 散稱 ) will make “ the deluded thoughts lighter and lighter, and the sinful defi lements fewer and fewer. ” 58

From this point of view, the mistake of many practitioners lies not so much in seeking mental absorption without digressive thoughts as in trying to do so by controlling the mind, and in thinking that such mental absorption is a precondition for proper practice rather than its result. G ǔ k ū n urges practitioners “ not to seek mental absorption intentionally but to let it come spontaneously. ” “ How can you reach mental absorption by means of control? Th e mind cannot be controlled. ” 59 Th e solution lies in reciting the name of the buddha without interruption.

G ǔ k ū n acknowledges that even proper practice does not always make the thoughts go away, that “ even with the silent recitation of Amit ā bha Buddha they still do not



cease, ” 60 and that “ while one recites the name of the Buddha, the mind keeps thinking of other things, not stopping for a moment even aft er all kinds of suppression. ” 61 On a practical level, he meets this challenge by using a rosary to count the number of recitations ( 記數 ), with the additional eff ect of keeping the mind on the task without interruptions. In terms of doctrine, G ǔ k ū n repeatedly refers to his own version of a quote from the Lotus S ū tra, stating that “ when the Buddha ’ s name is thrust into a chaotic mind, the chaotic mind becomes a buddha. ” 62 In other words, such recitation makes it possible to “ enter the seed of buddhahood without cutting off the deluded mind. ” 63 Th is is what makes Pure Land practices superior to other practices, especially in our degenerated times:

In our times, with few great practitioners and much karmic affl iction, how many people are able to reach awakening and not give rise to deluded thoughts? (p. 432a) 當今之世，知識愈少，業障愈多，能開悟門，不起妄想，又能有幾人？

G ǔ k ū n thinks the ideal of emptying the mind of thoughts is unrealistic and therefore destructive:

If I rely on undistracted mental absorption for a good rebirth, I have no way of achieving it in this life. If I rely on engendering faith and resolution, that seems more encouraging. Th erefore, on seven-day retreats I always give myself the daily assignment of 100,000 repetitions of Amit ā bha as a basis for inspiring resolution, and I defi nitely avoid seeking undistracted mental absorption. (p. 442c) 要仗一心不亂，方得往生，今生決定不能。若仗信能生，似可勉力。是

故凡建七期，定十萬彌陀為日課，以作發之本，決不求一心不亂。

Th ere are signs that he hopes this will eventually reduce or remove the wandering mind if not earlier, then at least at the moment of death:

At the moment of death, when the buddha-name is recited, and the rosary buds counted, all karmic affl ictions disappear, pent-up impulses become smooth and clear, and great merit is achieved. (p. 434c) 畢命為期，佛一出音，珠一記數，塵累每銷，滯情融朗，功愈勝矣。

Even for G ǔ k ū n, therefore, freedom from thoughts seems to remain an ideal. However, in contrast to the suppression of thoughts in Th e Cloud of Unknowing and some Yoga traditions and the harmonization of thoughts in Inward Training , G ǔ k ū n tells the practitioner to let the thoughts pass freely, at most restraining them by counting the buds on a rosary, and to be unconcerned with the results of one ’ s practice, with whether or not the thoughts eventually go away.

Conclusion

In all the four cases we have studied, there exist dualities in which spontaneous thoughts come out on the “ wrong ” side with regard to the meditative or contemplative



project. Th e four cases diff er from each other in what they are seeking, whether it be a personal deity like the Christian or Yogic god, an impersonal force like the Daoist Way, a higher self like the Yogic puru ṣ a , or rebirth in a paradisiacal realm like the Buddhist Pure Land of the West. Th e four cases also diff er from each other regarding the nature and status of the dualities, from the strict dualism of the Christian tradition and Yoga to the so-called monistic views of early Daoism and the nondualism of Pure Land Buddhism. In all four cases, however, meditation is most oft en seen as a way of eventually putting the stream of thoughts to rest, and the constant fl ow of digressive thoughts is mostly viewed as an obstacle that must be overcome.

Th e practical approaches to spontaneous thoughts diff er both between the four cases and within each case. Th e tendency to fi ght or suppress the emergence of such thoughts is found in all four traditions, most pronounced in the Christian case and least so in the Pure Land thinking of G ǔ k ū n, though even in his case, the use of the rosary points in the direction of subtle suppression. However, suppression is not the only solution in any of the traditions. In the Christian case, the “ scheme ” of pretending that the thoughts are not there might perhaps qualify as a weak case of psychological denial, while the other “ scheme, ” whereby the meditator gives up the fi ght against the thoughts, seems to involve a reluctant acceptance of the presence of mind wandering. Th e Daoist approach is also semi-accepting of spontaneous thoughts and impulses, but insists on their moderation and regulation. More clearly accepting of spontaneous thoughts are the attempts at meeting them with various forms of mindful observation and analysis (in Buddhism and Yoga), with an open awareness that transforms the thoughts by including them in the fi eld of awareness or simply without attempting what is seen as the futile and counterproductive endeavor of suppressing them.

In all four traditions, there is a tendency to assume that the ideal state of mind has no mind wandering, and that the acceptance of thoughts is a preliminary tactic rather than the end point. Th ere are, however, also voices insisting that the presence or absence of thoughts is not decisive, and that true liberation involves nonattachment both to thoughts and to the absence of thoughts. Note that Neo-Confucian meditation, which has not been discussed in this chapter, is sometimes explicit in not seeking a state without thoughts, refl ecting its opposition to what it conceives as the Buddhist and Daoist tendencies to turn their back on the world. 64

Th e comparison between these four traditions raises the question of the sources of the various cross-cultural similarities. Th e phenomenon of mind wandering is itself no doubt universal and may be linked to neurological and psychological features that are common to mankind. It is less easy, however, to pin down the sources of the skeptical attitudes toward mind wandering, as well as to the dualities between a phenomenal dimension to which mind wandering belongs and a non-phenomenal dimension situated at the core of the meditative quest in widely diff erent traditions. Cultural constructivists may see these similarities as superfi cial and point to the signifi cant diff erences between theistic and nontheistic approaches, between monistic, non-dualistic, and dualistic views, and between diff erent explanations for the emergence of mind wandering. Perennialists, on the other hand, may insist that it is the diff erences that are superfi cial, that all contemplative traditions (in contrast to some modern meditative approaches) ultimately attempt to get closer to a dimension beyond all



phenomena, and that this accounts for the cross-cultural parallels in attitudes and methodology. By combining an interest in similarities and diff erences, I have tried to balance these two positions.

From a modern psychological point of view, some of the various approaches to spontaneous thoughts in meditation may involve the suppression and possibly denial of psychological impulses. However, the absence of or nonattachment to thoughts aimed for by all four traditions may in no case be fully accounted for by psychological terminology related to defense mechanisms like suppression and denial. Th ough some of the contemplative methodologies involve much eff ort to start with, they have in common an assumption that once you have been through a certain inner transformation, no eff ort is necessary to keep thoughts (or the attachment to thoughts) away. Th is kind of transformation seems to belong to a realm not readily describable in standard psychological terms, perhaps relating to the non-phenomenal dimension discussed by perennialists.

Th is is not to say, however, that there are not also points of convergence between psychology and meditation. Both Freudian or later psychodynamic schools and many meditative traditions see spontaneous thoughts and mind wandering as an expression of residuals from a past that still exercises its limiting infl uence on us. In our case, all the sources except perhaps Inward Training build at least partly on such a view. Th e treatment of neurotic traits in psychodynamic therapy may also be seen as an untying of knots that produce attachment. Th e use of free association to discover and release such knots may have things in common with meditation techniques that allow the passing of spontaneous thoughts rather than attempting to drive them away. In our material, such techniques are most obviously present in many a Pure Land Buddhism.

Th e types of meditation that have been most popular in the West since the 1960s generally have a more accepting attitude toward mind wandering than what has been common in the various meditative traditions. Th is applies to Transcendental Meditation and the many other mantra- or sound-based techniques that became hugely popular at the beginning of this wave and which are still infl uential. It also applies to the breath- and body-based techniques that are now most oft en associated with mindfulness meditation, but also with Zen, Vipassana, and various other Buddhist-inspired labels.

As we have seen, this more accepting attitude has long roots in the traditions themselves, where it has coexisted with more unequivocally negative and suppressive attitudes for centuries or even millennia. Moreover, to judge by the Pure Land text, the increasing acceptance of mind wandering was already well on its way even before the twentieth-century modernized versions of meditation were developed and disseminated. Further studies of the late premodern development of other practices are necessary to determine whether or not this is a general tendency.

Some of the diff erences in attitude that exist within the traditions continue to make their infl uence felt in modern discourses on meditation. In general, the mantra- and sound-based techniques tend to be most unequivocally accepting of mind wandering. While aiming to bring the practitioner to the “ source of thought, ” Transcendental Meditation allows spontaneous thoughts and impulses during meditation. 65 Most other modern mantra- and sound-based techniques, including the biologically oriented Relaxation Response 66 and the Christian practice of Centering Prayer, 67 are



also practiced with a high degree of acceptance of mind wandering, though without any explicit attempt at reaching the “ source of thought. ” In the psychologically oriented practice of Acem Meditation, mind wandering is not only accepted, but is seen as a resource helping the practitioner to release inner tension and set inner resources in motion. 68 In contrast, the modern Buddhist-inspired breath- and body-based techniques tend to see the acceptance of mind wandering as a provisional means to ultimately enable the practitioner to “ let go ” of the impulses, hence keeping up the traditional aim of reducing the impact of distractive thoughts.

To some extent, the neuroscientifi c discourse on mind wandering refl ects these diff erences. Th e most skeptical views of mind wandering, related to its negative impact on mood and concentration, are oft en associated with studies on Mindfulness Meditation, sometimes in combination with cognitive psychology, and some of these studies argue that meditation reduces mind wandering and the corresponding brain activity. Th e more positive views of mind wandering, related to its benefi cial impact on relaxation, heart function, and the processing of memories and emotions, are most oft en associated with sound-based forms of meditation, primarily Transcendental Meditation and Acem Meditation. 69

Th is chapter has primarily focused on the traditional approaches to spontaneous thoughts in meditative practice. By doing so, however, I also hope to suggest that the modern discourses on mind wandering and its corresponding brain networks partly refl ect issues with deep historical roots, and that these roots deserve much more thorough research.


Notes 239

of the Upanisads to strengthen his conviction as stated in the Upanisads (called manana) and then by nididhyasana (meditation) which includes all the Yoga processes of concentration, try to realize the truth as one. ”

7 Hirst (1996) clearly establishes Ś ankara ’ s view that the three categories are meaningless.

8 Designating the sacred sounds of a chant on the bodily parts (known as Ny ā sa) as a preparation before the chant is common to many forms of devotional chanting of the Sahasranamas (one thousand names) of Vi ṣ nu, Ś iva, and Lalita.

9 Purifi cation of the body and mind through the designation of sound on the bodily parts is common to almost all chanting practices involving Sanskrit mantras. Th e fi rst part commences with the invoking of deities to stay in diff erent parts of the body and the second part is more about the universal rhythm.

10 I have partly followed Paul Harvey ’ s translation of the hymn at http://www.dharmadownloads.info/page6/vedic_chant.html (accessed April 2007), though I have opted to use the word “ self ” instead of “ me ” for the word “ aham. ”

11 For instance the Vedic hymn Narayana s ū kta ṃ describes the heart as the location of God in the human body, and all Ny ā sa processes invariably ask for establishing a relationship with the heart through the Gayatri mantra, a vehicle for transporting off erings.

12 Th e Tamil Bhakti (devotional) tradition recognizes the importance of the intensity of love and related emotions as the means of achieving oneness with God, and that is why Ś aiva Siddh ā nta accords the status of Tirumurai (sacred texts) to devotional literature on par with philosophical literature.

13 Having a dhy ā na slok ā (a verse for meditation) is common for all hymns used in prayers and also for traditions such as traditional sculpting, painting, and icon making for temples.

14 According to tantric texts and the beliefs attached to Ś ankara ’ s composition Soundarya Lahari, the primal sounds have the power to energize the chakras (vital points of energy) in the body.

15 My informants are from the Caiva Ve ḷ a ḷ ar caste groups in the Tirunelveli region of Tamil Nadu.

16 Th is translation is based on the Tamil texts of Srirudram published by the Ramakrishna mission. Th is book is used by most of the practitioners for memorizing Srirudram chanting through Tamil scripts.

Chapter 13

1 Th is chapter has profi ted much from comments by Guttorm Gundersen and Gunnar Sj ø stedt.

2 Mason et al. (2007), Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, and Schacter (2008). 3 Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010). 4 Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, and Schacter (2008) and Andrews-Hanna (2012). 5 Brewer et al. (2011), Hofmann, Grossman, and Hinton (2011), and Holzel et al.

(2007). 6 Xu et al. (2014), Jang et al. (2011), and Travis et al. (2010). 7 See Bryant (2009). Th is part of the chapter has profi ted from discussions with Edwin

Bryant. Most of my references to the Yoga S ū tra , including its English translations,


Notes 240

are to Bryant ’ s work, though the exact wording of the translations has sometimes been modifi ed by me, in order to fi t better with the present context.

8 Bryant (2009: 317f. and 544 n. 33). 9 Bryant (2009: 52). 10 Bryant (2009: 256). 11 All translations from Th e Cloud of Unknowing are from Wolters (1978), while the

Middle English text is quoted from Hodgson (1958). 12 Palmer et al. (1979 – 99, vol. 1, pp. 62 and 58). 13 Palmer et al. (1979 – 99, vol. 1, p. 61). 14 a clere beholding of þ i kindely witte ; ch. 8. 15 þ e whiles þ at a soule is wonyng in þ is deedly fl esch e , it schal eu er more se & fele þ is

combros cloude of vnknowyng bitwix him & God ; ch. 28. 16 a nakyd sodein þ ou ȝ t of any of hem presing a ȝ ens þ i wile & þ i wetyng, þ of al it be no

sinne arettid vnto þ ee ; . . . wit h su m maner of likyng ȝ if it be a þ ing þ a t plese þ þ ee or ha þ plesid þ ee bifore, or ell e s wi þ sum man er of gruching ȝ if it be a þ ing þ at þ ee þ ink greue þ þ ee or ha þ greued þ ee before ; ch. 10.

17 breek dou n all e wetyng & felyng of all e man er of creatures ; ch. 43. 18 treed hem down vnder þ i fete ; ch. 31. 19 put it doune vnder þ e cloude of for ȝ etyng ; ch. 8. 20 tredyng dou n of þ e mynde of alle þ e creatures þ at eu er God maad ; ch. 26. 21 as oft e as þ ei rise, as oft e put þ ei m doun ; ch. 31. 22 a ful grete trauayle ; ch. 26. 23 nakid entente directe vnto God for him-self ; ch. 24. 24 take þ ee bot a litil worde of o silable, . . . & soche a worde is þ is worde god or þ is worde

loue, . . . or ano þ er as þ e list: whiche þ at þ ee like þ best of o silable, . . . bete on þ is cloude & þ is derknes aboue n þ ee, . . . smite dou n al man er þ ou ȝ t vnder þ e cloude of for ȝ eti ng; ch. 7 .

25 Do þ at in þ ee is to lat as þ ou wist not þ at þ ei p re es so fast apon þ ee, bitwix þ ee & þ i God ; ch. 32.

26 koure þ ou doun under hem as a cheitif & a coward ou er comen in batayle, & þ ink þ at it is bot a foly to þ ee to stryue any lenger wi þ hem; & þ er fore þ ou ȝ eeldest þ ee to God in þ e handes of þ in enmyes ; ch. 32.

27 he haue of longe tyme vsid him þ er -in ; . . . þ ou haste douoc i on ; . . . þ ou schalt haue ou þ er litil t r auaile or none ; . . . þ an wil God worche som-tyme al by him-self ; ch. 26.

28 streyne not þ in hert in þ i brest ou er- rudely, ne oute of mesure ; . . . wirche more wi þ a list þ en wi þ any li þ er streng þ e ; ch. 46.

29 listely wi þ a soft e & a demure contenau n ce, as wel in body as in soule ; ch. 46. 30 boistouste of bodely felyng ; ch. 47. 31 þ is beestly ruednes ; ch. 46. 32 Graham (1989: 100). 33 Roth (1999: 23 – 30). 34 Rickett (1998). 35 口之所不能言也，目之所不能視也，耳之所不能聽也 ; 序其成 ; 不見其形 ; 無所 ;

窮無所 ; 人不能固 ; 其往不復，其來不舍 ; 無根無莖，無葉無榮 ; 充形 ; 與我俱生 ; 不遠 ; 不離 ; Roth (1999: 52 – 57).

36 心以藏心 ; 心之中又有心焉 ; 心之心 ; Roth (1999: 73). 37 道乃可止 ; 道乃可得 ; Roth (1999: 55). 38 其所以失之，必以憂樂喜怒欲利 ; Roth (1999: 51). 39 憂悲喜怒，道乃無處 ; Roth (1999: 95).


Notes 241

40 以躁為害 ; 躁則失之 ; Roth (1999: 95 and 97). 41 不以物亂官，不以官亂心 ; Roth (1999: 69). 42 生乃思，思乃知，過知失生 ; Roth (1999: 61). 43 思之而不捨，內困外薄 ; Roth (1999: 85). 44 Th e text is quoted from cbeta.org, with page numbers referring to Manji Shinsan

Dainihon Zokuz ō ky ō . Translations are mine. 45 In contrast to what Sharf (2002b) fi nds for earlier periods of Chinese history, G ǔ k ū n

clearly identifi es Pure Land Buddhism as a separate school, referring to it as the Pure School ( 淨宗 ). Other writers from the same period use the term Pure Land School ( 淨土之宗 ).

46 雜念紛紛也不妨 , p. 427c. 47 不必除妄想 , p. 431c. 48 休將妄想嫌如賊 , p. 432c. 49 千思萬想總憑他 , p. 433a. 50 散亂持名大有功 , pp. 432b – c. 51 妄想不必問如何 , pp. 433a – b. 52 只要看伊是甚麼 , p. 433a. 53 雜念紛飛實可哀，千般計策莫能排 , p. 427c. 54 內心亂亂急須平 , p. 447a. 55 心猿意馬最難停 , p. 428b. 56 一句彌陀纔繫念 , p. 428a. 57 音聲不絕是因，一心不亂是果 , p. 435a. 58 妄想時時而輕，罪垢時時而減 , p. 434c. 59 不期心一而自一 ; 豈制之令一也？心不可制 , p. 435a. 60 靜念彌陀尤不息 , p. 428b. 61 正念佛時，心中偏想別事；種種壓捺，莫能暫停 , p. 430b. 62 佛號投亂心，亂心即成佛 , p. 426c. 63 不斷凡情人聖胎 , p. 427c. 64 See Sh ǐ Zh ē nt á o (2012). 65 Yogi (1963). 66 Benson, Greenwood, and Klemchuk (1975). 67 Pennington (2001). 68 Holen (2007). 69 Nesvold et al. (2011), Xu et al. (2014), and Travis et al. (2010).


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Index

absorption 18 – 19, 34, 63, 122, 125, 136, 139, 140, 204, 211 – 12, see also concentration, sam ā dhi

Acem Meditation 43 – 4, 48 – 9, 215 Ā gamas 8, 13, 186, 188 – 9 Aghora ś iva 187 – 8 Aleni, Jesuit Giulio 26 Amit ā bha Buddha 112, 115, 118 – 20,

210 – 11 Ā n ā p ā nasati Sutta 12 Ani Lochen 179 – 83 Ā n Sh ì g ā o 12 Aru ḷ nandi Ś iv ā c ā rya 188 Arymurthy 156 – 9 attention modes, see modes of attention autohypnosis 4, see also self-hypnosis automatic self-transcending 48 – 9 autosuggestion 4

Baker, Don 5 – 7, 162 bare attention 63 – 7 bhakti yoga 131 b ī j ā k ṣ ara mantra 193 biomedical perspective of

meditation 37 – 8 Delphi-type consensus study 39 – 40 functional brain imaging 37 mindfulness-based stress reduction

(MBSR) 38 – 9 operational defi nitions 39 – 40

Bly, Robert 134 breathing 12, 36 – 7, 39, 41, 44, 47 – 9,

59, 60, 72, 132, 163 – 71 , see also pr ā ṇ ay ā ma

Buddhaghosa 63, 65 buddha-name 105, 112, 122, 124 Buddhism 7 – 8, 13, 18, 21, 25, 29, 34, 45,

64, 74, 80 – 4, 90 – 1, 103, 108, 110 – 11, 114, 116 – 17, 124, 126, 152, 162, 166, 171, 175 – 6, 201, 205, 210 – 11, 213 – 14

cakra , see chakra c ā nt ó ng q ì 79, 166, 168 Casual Teachings on the Pure Land 210 – 12 celestial immortals 169, 170 cessation 11, 13, 21 – 2, 44, 66, 71 – 3, 139,

see also concentration, ś amatha chakra ( or cakra ) 7, 132 – 3, 135, 139 – 40,

142, 144 – 6, 149, 156, 180 Chamakam 193 – 5, 198 Ch á n 5 – 7, 53, 55 – 75, 81 – 4, 88, 90, 97, 99,

102, 105, 107 – 8, 110 – 11, 113 – 17, 119, 122 – 6, 210, see also S ǒ n, Th i ề n, Zen

Chand, Nanak 140 – 1, 146 Ch é ng H à o 76, 78 – 9, 83 – 4 Ch é ng Y í 76, 78 – 9, 82, 84, 87, 98 – 100 Ch é ng-Zh ū theory of praxis 78, 80 – 1,

85 – 7, 89, 91, 97 – 9 Ch ö d 8, 173, 176 – 85

drum for 178 Nyingmapa school 181 – 2 outward appearance and ritual

objects 177 philosophical background 175 – 6 ritual dance 179 ritual paraphernalia of 177 at Shugseb 183 – 4 texts and deities 177 thighbone trumpet 178 – 9 transmission lineages of 176 wandering ch ö dpas 179

choiceless awareness 46 ch ŏ ng 163 – 5, 167 – 8 Ch ŏ ng Chak 167 Ch ŏ ng Ny ŏ m 165 – 7 Ch ŏ ng Yagyong 169 Christianity 5, 7, 8, 24 – 35, 103, 106, 114,

116, 126, 151, 152, 201, 205 – 8, 210, 213, 214

Chwasan 171 cinnabar-fi eld breathing ( Tanj ŏ n

hoh ŭ p) 164, 166, 170 – 1


Index264

cinnabar-fi eld meditation 5 – 7, 129, 162 – 71

cinnabar fi elds, signifi cance of 164 – 5 Clinically Standardized Meditation 43 – 4,

48 – 9 Cloud of Unknowing 111, 205 – 8, 210, 212

duality principle 205 methods to get rid of spontaneous

thoughts 206 – 7 cognitive therapy 38 – 9, 41 Collaert, Adrian 26 Collaert, Jan 26 concentration amidst aff airs 89 – 90 concentration on oneness ( or singleness,

the one) 86, 89, 92, 101, see also concentrative unity

concentration 11 – 12, 16, 18, 22, 25, 35, 44 – 5, 50, 63, 85, 86, 89, 92, 96 – 7, 101, 118, 136, 145, 151, 154, 165 – 6, 202, 204, 215, 217, see also absorption, cessation, dh ā ra ṇ ā , dhy ā na, ś amatha , sam ā dhi

concentrative meditation 25, 34, 44, 47, 49, 105, see also ś amatha

concentrative unity 89, 97, 101, see also concentration on oneness

c ú nxi ǎ ng 32 – 4

Dahn World 170 – 1 D à hu ì Z ō ngg ǎ o 102, 110 – 1, 117, 125 – 6 Daoism 5 – 23, 25, 33 – 5, 79 – 84, 88, 90 – 1,

94, 96 – 9, 103, 114 – 18, 124, 126, 129, 131, 145, 162 – 9, 201, 205, 208, 210, 213

Chinese forms of 162 – 7 c ú nxi ǎ ng 32 – 4 karma and rebirth 21 mysticism 201, 205 no-self 21 oblivion 13 – 14 q ì 14 – 15 sitting in oblivion 13 – 14 time, importance of 80 visualization 15 – 16, 34 – 5

D à ox ì n 57 – 63, 67, 72 D à oxu ā n 56 dar-al islam 147 Das, Maluk 139 – 40 Dayala, Guru Data 144

Retransformation of Self 144 dh ā ra ṇ ā 139, 204, see also concentration dhy ā na 18, 34, 55, 57, 59, 67, 75, 139,

193, 204, see also concentration, meditation

Diary of Oral Exhortations , see K ǒ udu ó r ì ch ā o

D ì nggu ā n j ī ng 17 doubt 18, 108 – 11, 121 – 5, 202 dualism 149 – 56 Dunhuang Ch á n manuscripts 56 – 7, 74 Dwivedi, Hazariprasad 138 – 9, 146 Dzogchen 8, 66, 224n. 34

Eifring, Halvor 6 – 8, 11, 25, 41, 102, 200 Ellingsen, Ø yvind 5, 7, 25, 36 equilibrium-harmony problem 84 – 5 Evagrios Pontikos 206

Fiammeri S. J., Giovanni Battista 26 focused attention 36, 38, 41, 45 – 8, 50 – 1 F ú ji à n community 29 – 35 Fundamental Expedient Teachings for

Calming the Mind to Enter the Way 57, 61

Geertz, Cliff ord 147 – 8, 151 Gethin, Rupert 65 – 6 Gold, Daniel 5, 7, 131 G ó mez, Luis 74 g ō ng ’ à n, see keyword g ō ngf ū 30 guided meditation 41, 152, 156 Gu ī f ē ng Z ō ngm ì 56 – 7, 59, 60, 73

Record of the Transmission of the Dharma Treasure 57

guru ś abda 135

H ā nsh ā n D é q ī ng 7, 102 – 27 alternative methods for

meditation 111 – 14 buddha names 105, 112, 122, 124 early experience of s ū tra recitation,

buddha invocation, and keyword investigation 117 – 19

encounter with the Confucian and Daoist classics 117 – 19

generation of doubt in Ch á n investigation 122 – 4


Index 265

keywords as meditation objects 107 – 11 linguistic utterances for

meditation 119 – 24 mantras 113 – 14 meditative methodology 124 – 7 ridding mind of thoughts 103 – 4 self-generated object, meditation

using 125 spontaneous thoughts 104 – 7 s ū tras 112 – 13 syncretism 114 – 17

hatha yoga ( ha ṭ hayoga ) 131, 139, 146 Havnevik, Hanna 5, 8, 175 Heart of Buddhist Meditation, Th e 63 – 4 H é z é Sh é nhu ì 59, 71, 75 Hindi sants 5, 7, 129, 131 – 46

Dwivedi ’ s views 138 – 9 growth of 137 – 44 Kabir 133 – 7 Lingayats 133 n ā da practice 136 panth leaders 138 piety and worship 132

H ŏ Chun 163 – 4, 167 Holen, Are 5, 7, 25, 36, 41 Hu á ng G à n 100 – 1 hu à tou , see keyword Hu ì n é ng 58 – 60, 71, 75 Hussein, Zahid 156 – 9

Ignatius of Loyola 24 – 35 imaginative gaze 27 immortals ( shins ǒ n ) 163, 164, 170 – 1 impermanence 20 – 1, 23, 62 inner observation 16, 19 – 20, 23, see also

insight meditation, open monitoring, Vipassana

inner world 36 – 7, 145 insight meditation 7, 9, 11 – 23, 105

see also inner observation, open monitoring, Vipassana

body, sensations, mind, and qualities in 12

Buddhist notions 20 – 2 in China 16 – 20 within Chinese Buddhism 13 inner observation 19 – 20 perfect observation 16 – 17 stability-cum-observation 17 – 19

Inward Training 208 – 10, 212, 214 Islam ( or Muslim) 5, 7, 129, 132 – 3, 141,

147 – 61, 205 Islamization 148 – 9, 160, see also

Sumarah

Jaman Buda 147 Javanism 7, 129, 147, 160 J ñ ā na Parochi 140

Kabir 133 – 6, 138 – 42, 144 – 6 guru 135 – 6 K ā l/Niranjan 141 – 2 ś abda 135 yogic terms 136 – 7

kalimah shahadat 148 karma 13, 16 – 17, 20 – 1, 23, 66, 68, 119,

149, 197, 211 karma yoga 131 karmic imprints ( sa ṁ sk ā ra ) 203 – 4, 206 kejawen 147, 149 keyword ( hu à tou, g ō ng ’ à n ) 102, 105,

107 – 26, see also k ō an ki 163 – 70, see also q ì Kim Sis ŭ p, 165 – 6 knowing the mind 81 – 2 k ō an 56, 75, 107, 170, see also keyword Kohn, Livia 5 – 7, 11, 34 Korean gods and spirits 162 K ǒ udu ó r ì ch ā o 29, 31 – 3 Kri ṣ ṇ a Yajur Veda 186 – 9, 194 ku ṇ ḍ alin ī 139, 144 – 6 Kushwah, Th akur Mansingh 144 – 6 Kw ŏ n K ŭ kchung 166 Kw ŏ n T ’ aehun 170

Laghu Ny ā sa 189 – 91, 193 Ledi Say ā daw 63 logic relaxation 25, 39 – 40 L ǚ D à l í n 82 – 3 L ù Xi à ngsh ā n 82 – 4, 87

Machig Labdron 175 – 7, 181 – 5 Madhurop ā san ā 139 Mah ā Ny ā sa , 189 – 90 Mah ā s ī method, 63 – 4, 66 – 7, 223n. 27 Mah ā s ī Say ā daw 63 – 4, 67, 75, 223n. 26 Mah ā y ā na 58, 60, 66, 73, 75, 108, 175 – 6,

178, 211


Index266

Malik Sahib, see Kushwant, Th akur Mansingh

Mallery, Karel van 26 mantra 44 – 5, 47 – 9, 51, 62, 102, 111 – 4,

116 – 7, 119 – 21, 123 – 4, 126, 139 – 41, 149, 154, 186 – 7, 195, 204, 214

Matos, Bento de 30 meditation, see also biomedical perspective

of meditation; Ch á n; Ch ö d; insight meditation; yoga

biomedical classifi cation 47 chanting as 25, 64, 120, 186 – 99 clinical eff ects 49 – 50 concentrative 25, 34, 44, 47, 49, 105

( see also ś amatha , focused attention) dimensions for describing 48 – 9 focused attention 36, 38, 41,

45 – 8, 50 – 1 ( see also concentrative meditation)

guided 41, 152, 156 Jesuit practices 5 – 7, 9, 26 – 35 mindfulness 7, 12, 22, 25, 37 – 9, 41 – 2,

45 – 7, 49, 51, 53, 55 – 75, 171, 204, 214 – 15

in modern contexts 5 – 6, 36 – 50 modes of attention 37, 41, 43,

45, 47 – 50 monism and dualism 7, 149 – 56,

187 – 8, 191, 193 as a national practice in Java 158 – 9 negative valuation of 56 Neo-Confucian practices 6, 53, 76 – 101 nondirective 28, 37, 41, 43 – 51 pragmatic classifi cation 49 recorded instructions 41 self-administered 40 – 1 spontaneous mental activity 41 – 2

( see also mind wandering) Meyka ṇ ṭ at ē var 188 Milindapa ñ ha 65 mindfulness 7, 12, 22, 25, 37 – 9, 41 – 2,

45 – 7, 49, 51, 53, 55 – 75, 171, 204, 214 – 15, see also sati/sm ṛ ti

mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) 38 – 9, 41, 47, 49

mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) 38 – 9, 41, 47, 49

mindlessness 7, 55 – 75

mind wandering 37, 41 – 7, 50, 114, 200 – 3, 206, 211, 213 – 15, see also spontaneous mental activity/thoughts

M í ngb ě n, see Zh ō ngf ē ng M í ngb ě n Mingun Jetavana Say ā daw 63 m ò c ú n 33 – 4 modes of attention 37, 41, 43, 45, 47 – 50 modernity, meditation and, 5 – 6, 36 – 50 monism 7, 103, 144, 148 – 56, 187 – 8, 191,

193, 208, 213 m ò xi ǎ ng 30, 33 – 4 m ò zh à o , see silent illumination muscular relaxation 39 Muslim, see Islam Muthukumaraswamy, M. D. 4 – 5, 8, 186

Nadal, Jerome 26 – 9, 33 Annotations and Meditations on the

Gospels 26, 28 Namakam 194 – 5, 198 Namgung Tu 168 – 9 Nanak, Yogiraj, see Chand, Nanak Nath, Gorakh 132 Nath yogis 7, 132, 136 – 7 Neo-Confucianism 6 – 7, 32, 53, 76 – 101 Niranjan 136, 141 – 2 nirgu ṇ a bhakti 132, 138 nirodhasam ā patti 66 nirvikalpa sam ā dhi 139 non-conceptual awareness 66, 224n. 33 nondirective meditation 28, 37, 41, 43 – 51 nondualism 43, 85, 103, 106, 153,

211, 213 no-self 4, 20 – 1, 23 Nyanaponika Th era 63 – 4, 66

oblivion, see sitting in oblivion, Zu ò w à ng l ù n

observing self 11 open monitoring 41, 45 – 8, 50 – 1, see also

inner observation, insight meditation, Vipassana

Ǒ uy ì Zh ì x ù 102, 116

Paltu Sahib of Ayodhya 143 pa ñ c ā k ṣ ara mantra 186 pamong 150, 152 – 3 Passeri, Bernardino 26 Path of Purifi cation 63, 65


Index 267

perfect observation 11, 16 – 17 Platform Scripture of the Sixth

Patriarch 58 – 9, 70, 73, 113, see also Hu ì n é ng

pluralism 187 – 9, 191 Polanco, Juan 26 pr ā ṇ ay ā ma 132, 139, 140, 144, 146,

see also breathing praty ā h ā ra 139 Pure Land Buddhism 6, 8, 29, 114 – 17,

119, 126, 201, 205, 210 – 14 purifi cation 18, 20, 144, 151, 155, 189 – 90,

193, 195, 204

qi 11, 14 – 16, 19, 21, 23, 80, 90 – 1, 163, see also ki

Qi Gong 48 – 9 quiet-sitting/quietude 7, 11, 15, 18, 34,

53, 57, 59, 69, 76 – 101 alternative to 96 – 101 method for regulating the breath 79 sitting position 79 southern transmission 82 types 80 – 1

Radhasoamis 142 – 4 Relaxation Response 36, 43 – 4, 48 – 9, 214 relaxed meditation 152, 156 reverence 7, 53, 76 – 101

and examination of principles 92 – 6 quiet-sitting and 87

Ricci, Matteo 26 ridding the mind of thoughts 20, 103 – 4,

112 – 13, 165, 167, 207, 209 – 11 Rinzai 56, 75 Rocha, Jo ã o da 27 Rorty, Richard 66, 74

Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature 74

ś abda 135 – 6, 139 – 46 sagu ṇ a bhakti 132, 137 Sahaj S ā dhan ā 138 – 9 Sahib, Malik, see Kushwah, Th akur

Mansingh Sahib, Tulsi 138, 146 Ś aiva Siddh ā nta 4 – 5, 8, 173, 186 – 99

adherents of 188 Ajapa japa 187, 199 connecting with God 191 – 4

designating sacred sounds on the bodily parts 189 – 91

monism and pluralism in 187 – 9 Namakam and Chamakam 194 – 5, 198 Ny ā sa component of 189 – 94 panc ā k ṣ ara mantra 186 principles of 187 ritual practice 186 roles of sound and meaning in

chanting 194 – 9 sequence with Mantra pu ṣ pa ṃ 195 sixteen-step process 195 Srirudram, chanting 187 – 9, 194 – 9 Ved ā nta vs . 189 vedic chanting 186 – 7

ś aktip ā t practice 144, 146 sam ā dhi 18, 22, 57, 59, 125, 139, 204,

see also absorption, concentration ś amatha (or samatha ) 11, 22, 63, 67, 105,

see also concentration, focused attention

sa ṁ sk ā ra , see karmic imprints sants, see Hindi sants Sapta Darma movement 160 sati / sm ṛ ti 61, 63 – 7, 75, see also

mindfulness satipa ṭ ṭ h ā na 63, 65 – 6, 154 Satipa ṭ ṭ h ā na Sutta 12 – 13, 65 savikalpa sam ā dhi 139 Saxonia, Ludolphus de 28 – 30 Scripture on the Discernment of the Buddha

of Immeasurable Life 61 self-cultivation 76, 78, 80 – 2, 84 – 5, 87 – 8,

93, 95 – 97, 99 – 100, 113, 118 – 19, 163 self-hypnosis 39, see also autohypnosis self-referential activity/processes

37, 42 – 3, 46 – 8, 50 – 1 self-transformation 1, 3 – 4 sexual yoga 143, 177, 183 shadow puppet drama (wayang kulit) 148 Sharf, Robert H. 5, 7, 55, 105 sh é n 90, 163, see also shin Sh é nhu ì , see H é z é Sh é nhu ì shikantaza 56, 75 shin 163 – 4, see also sh é n Shin, Junhyoung Michael 29 shins ǒ n, see immortals Shu ō w é n ji ě z ì 16 silent illumination ( m ò zh à o ) 56, 117


Index268

S ī m ǎ Ch é ngzh ē n 16 – 17 Singh, Shiv Dayal 141, 144 sitting in oblivion ( zu ò w à ng ) 13 – 14, 16,

18, 23, see also Zu ò w à ng l ù n six senses (six robbers) 22 Sm ā rta Brahmins 188 S ò ng ni à nzh ū gu ī ch é ng 27 – 8 S ŏ n 55, 74, see also Ch á n, Th i ề n, Zen S ō t ō 56, 74 – 5, 175 Spiritual Exercises, see Ignatius of Loyola spontaneous mental activity/

thoughts 8, 41 – 3, 103 – 7, 124, 126, 173, 200 – 15, see also mind wandering

psychoanalysis view 200 stability-cum-observation 11, 17 – 19, 23 Standaert, Nicolas 5, 7, 24 Stange, Paul D. 5, 7, 147 Subud 160 Sudarno Ong 152 – 6 sudden enlightenment 58 – 9, 82, 85, 99 suff ering 20 – 1, 23, 118, 202, 204 Sufi sm 7, 129, 131 – 3, 145, 148 – 9, 151,

153 – 5 sujud 150, 153, 156, 160 Sukinohartono 150 Sumarah 5, 7, 129, 148 – 160

defi ned 151 followers 153 Solonese practices 156 Suwondo ’ s sessions 153 – 5

Sunan Bonan 148 Sunan Kalijaga 148, 149, 156, 158, 160 ś ū nya(ta) 73, 136 surat ś abd yoga 144 – 6 Suprapto Suryodarmo 155 Suwondo Hardosaputra 152 – 6 syncretism 102, 114 – 17, 124, 126,

147, 152

Tai Chi 48 – 9 Taittria Sa ṃ hita 187 Taittria Upani ṣ ad 194 Tan ’ gun 7, 170 – 1 Tantra 8, 74, 120, 138 – 9, 143, 148, 156,

160, 176 – 7, 180, 189, 192 tarekat 148 – 9 Th erav ā da 62 – 4, 66 – 7, 75, 152 Th i ề n 55, see also Ch á n, S ǒ n, Zen Th ree Teachings 90, 114 – 17, 124, 152, 162

Ti ā nt ā i Zh ì y ǐ 13, 105 – 6 Ti ā nzh ǔ ji à ngsh ē ng ch ū xi à ng j ī ngji ě 27 – 9 Ti ā nzh ǔ ji à ngsh ē ng y á nx í ng j ì l ü è 28 – 9 T ’ oegye Yi Hwang 167 – 8 Tong ŭ i pogam 163 tradition, meditation and, 5 – 6 Transcendental Meditation 43 – 4, 48 – 9,

214 – 15 transformation of self 1, 3 – 4 Treatise on Cutting off Discernment 69 – 70 Treatise on No Mind 67 – 9 Treatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the

Mind 71 – 3 Tridharma 152

Vedic chanting , see Ś aiva Siddh ā nta Vij ñ ā na Bhairava 106, 111 Vijnani, Yogendra 144 Vipassana ( or vipassan ā , vipa ś yan ā )

11, 22, 38, 45, 47, 49, 63, 67, 75, 105, 154, 214, see also inner observation, insight meditation, open awareness

visual imagery 39 visualization 7, 9, 11, 15 – 16, 19, 22 – 3, 25,

29, 34 – 5, 40, 49, 62, 64, 176 – 7, 190, 193, 195, 197 – 8, 205

Visuddhimagga , see Path of Purifi cation

wayang mythology, 160 Wierix, Hieronymus 26 Wierix, Jan 26 Wierix II, Antoon 26 witness consciousness 11, 12, 16, 20, 22, 63 Won Buddhism 171

x ī n-zh ò u 121 X ū y ú n 102

Yajur Veda, see Kri ṣ ṇ a Yajur Veda Yang, Rur-bin 6 – 7, 76 Y á ng Sh í 82 – 3 Yi Kwangch ŏ ng 171 Yi Kyugy ŏ ng 170 Yi Sugwang 168 Yoga 7 – 8, 25, 38, 44, 47 – 9, 64 – 66, 103,

126, 131 – 3, 137 – 46, 149, 154, 177, 180, 183, 185, 192 – 3, 201 – 204, 210, 212 – 13

Yoga S ū tra 106, 201 – 10


Index 269

attitude toward spontaneous thoughts in 202

duality between puru ṣ a and prak ṛ ti 202

karmic imprints 203 means of stilling the fl uctuations of

the mind 204 qualities of existence 203 sam ā dhi state 204 terms and conditions for Yogic

realization 202 – 3 theistic approaches to

meditation 204 – 5 Yu á n Li a of á n 102, 117, 126 Y ù f ē ng G u k ū n 210 – 13 Y ú nq ī Zh ū h ó ng 102, 115 – 16 Y ú nj í q ī qi ā n 17

Zen 38, 47, 49, 55 – 6, 60, 74 – 5, 81, 166, 169, 210, 214, see also Ch á n, S o n, Th i ề n

Z ē ng Gu ó f ā n 230n. 64 Zh ì y ǐ , see Ti ā nt ā i Zh ì y ǐ Zh ō ngf ē ng M í ngb ě n 102, 111, 117 – 18,

121, 125 – 6 Zh ō nggu ó j ī b ě n g ǔ j í k ù 33 Zh ō u D ū ny í 77, 85 – 6, 93 Zh ō uy ì c ā nt ó ngq ì , see C ā nt ó ng q ì Z ǐ b ó Zh ē nk ě 102 Zh ū Qu á n 168 Zh ū X ī 32, 34, 76 – 7, 79 – 84, 87, 91, 93,

96 – 101, 166 Discussion on Observing the Mind 81

Z ō ngm ì , see Gu ī f ē ng Z ō ngm ì Zu ò w à ng l ù n 16 – 18, see also sitting in

oblivion


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Spontaneous oughts in Meditative Traditions · e work contains 195 short and o% en quite cryptic aphorisms concerning meditative practice. ! eir interpretation o% en depends on a