Sports coaching

ADAPTED PHYSICALACTIVITY QUARTERLY, 7999,16,23&250 O 1999 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Motivational Factors and Coping Strategies sf Norwegian Paralympic

and Olympic Winter Sport Athletes

Anne Marte Pensgaard and Glyn C. Roberts Norwegian University of Sport and Physical Education

Holger Ursin University of Bergen

This study aimed to compare individual and situational motivational factors and the use of coping strategies among elite athletes with and without physical disabilities. Participants were Norwegian athletes from the 1994 Winter Olympics (n = 69) and Paralympics (n = 30) at Lillehamrner. Quantitative data came from questions concerning expectations and satisfactions, and three instruments (Perception of Success Questionnaire, Perceived Motivational Cli- mate Questionnaire, and the COPE Inventory). Qualitative data came from interviews. MANOVA analyses revealed that Paralympic and Olympic athletes had similar motivational profiles, but the Paralympic athletes perceived a more mastery-oriented climate, F(l, 98) = 12.6, p < .001. Both groups used similar types of coping strategies, except that Olympic athletes employed more redefinition and growth strategies, F(1, 97) = 6.72, p < .01. Paralympic athletes were also significantly more satisfied with effort and results. Paralympic and Olympic athletes were significantly different on only 4 of 1 1 variables.

The psychology of elite athletes with disabilities is an understudied topic in sport psychology (Goodling & Asken, 1987; Porretta & Moore, 1997). Sport for people with physical disabilities has grown over the last decade. Our understanding of the psychology of such elite athletes has also grown. Studies from the past 10-15 years have mainly focused on psychological parameters of athletes with disabilities (e.g., Cox & Davis, 1992; French, Henschen, & Horvat, 1991; Henschen, Horvat, & Roswal, 1992). Other research areas include motivation (e.g., Fung, 1992; Mao, 1995; Scott, 1995; White & Duda, 1993), use of coping strategies (e.g., Bouffard & Crocker, 1992; Overton, 1989), and psychological skill training

Anne Marte Pensgaard and Glyn C. Roberts are with the Norwegian University of Sport and Physical Education, PO Box 4014, Ullevaal Stadion, N-0806 Oslo, Norway. Holger Ursin is with the Department of Biological and Medical Psychology in the Division of Physiological Psychology at University of Bergen, Aarstadveien 21, N-5009 Bergen, Norway.

Motivational Factors and Coping Strategies 239

(e.g., Hanrahan, 1995). The purpose of the present study was to investigate the motivational determinants of competition coping strategies among elite able-bodied athletes and those with disabilities.

The athlete with a disability, especially the elite athlete, is still a much-less understood individual than the able-bodied peer. Do elite athletes with disabilities differ in their use of psychological skills compared to nonathletes with disabilities and able-bodied athletes? Among elite athletes who participated in the United States Wheelchair Basketball Paralympic Team Trials, players who where selected for the Paralympic team were significantly less tense and angry than those who did not make the team (Henschen et al., 1992), as measured on the Profile of Mood States (POMS) instrument (Morgan, 1980). These results are consistent with Henschen et al.'s findings for able-bodied athletes and the finding that participation in athletic competition appears to lower the depression and increase the vigor of athletes with disabilities compared to nonathletic persons with disabilities (Campbell & Jones, 1994; Jacobs, Roswal, Horvat, & Gorman, 1990).

For comparison with the able-bodied athlete, when physical functioning is diminished in one area, it is assumed that psychological adjustments are required (Sherrill, 1998). Athletes with disabilities wish to be viewed as wanting to opti- mize their sport abilities through long, hard training. This need to be accepted as serious athletes is also seen as part of the struggle for equal opportunity and against prejudice (Wheeler, Malone, VanVlack, Nelson, & Steadward, 1996). Athletes with disabilities need coping strategies and the ability to withstand pressure in a way that athletes without disabilities never have to learn. Research indicates that wheelchair athletes are more able to control the negative effects of anxiety and seem more motivated than able-bodied collegiate-level track-and-field athletes (Cox & Davis, 1989). This finding suggests that athletes with disabilities have developed adaptive skills to cope with the challenges of competitive sport.

To further study these factors, it is necessary to have comparable groups. For example, elite athletes with disabilities should be compared with elite able- bodied athletes, not with college students. The explosive development within disability sport offers new possibilities for such studies. In Norway, for instance, athletes with disabilities are accepted at the National Olympic Training Center (Olympiatoppen Project) based on results from national and international competition. The trainees receive financial support and professional training consultation on the same terms as athletes without disabilities. This policy facilitates determining whether elite athletes with disabilities differ from able-bodied participants.

The conceptual underpinning of this study was based on achievement goal theory (e.g., Ames, 1992; Nicholls, 1989, 1992), which has demonstrated rele- vance to able-bodied athletes and those with disabilities (e.g., Duda & White, 1992; White & Duda, 1993). Achievement goal theory is based on perceived ability. However, two perceptions of ability are observed to function in achievement contexts:

Task involvement: a perception based on learning and mastery. Ego involvement: a perception based on social comparison with others.

Whether one is in a state of ego or task involvement depends on the individual's disposition to be ego or task involved and the motivational climate created by the coach and administrators of elite sport. Being task or ego involved has important implications for perceiving competition as threatening and for

240 Pensgaard, Roberts, and Ursin

the use of coping strategies in competition (Pensgaard & Roberts, in press). In addition, this is true for both able-bodied athletes and those with disabilities (Duda & White, 1992; Pensgaard & Roberts, in press; White & Duda, 1993).

A particular focus of the present study was determining whether Olympic and Paralympic athletes perceive different motivational climates. The extreme media focus and public attention on the Olympic Games place enormous pressure on athletes to excel and win. Frankly, there is less focus on participants of the Paralympic Games. Therefore, we expected that Paralympic athletes would perceive a more mastery-oriented climate and that Olympic athletes would perceive one of performance (Arnes & Acher, 1988). We hypothesized that this would af- fect the use of coping strategies, where Olympic athletes would use them more than the Paralympians. Interaction effects have been reported between goal orientations and use of coping strategies among Olympic athletes, where high-task/ low-ego oriented athletes employed more problem-focused strategies than athletes with other profiles (Pensgaard & Roberts, in press). The small sample of Para- lympic athletes causes a problem with statistical power. If, however, Paralym- pians reveal motivational profiles that are similar to those of Olympic athletes, and the coping pattern is coherent, then we can also assume a relationship between motivational profiles and the use of coping strategies among Paralympic athletes.

Finally, to obtain a deeper understanding of how elite athletes with disabilities perceive the motivational climate created by their coaches, and the coping strategies they used, we used in-depth interviews and standardized questionnaires. Qualitative approaches in sport psychology research have been encouraged by many researchers (e.g., Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1993; Roberts & Treasure, 1995). To the best of our knowledge, no previous study has used a qualitative approach to compare elite athletes with and without disabilities.

Method

Participants

Participants were Norwegian elite athletes. All competitors in the 1994 Winter Olympic (n = 91) and Paralympic Games (n = 43) were asked to participate in this study. A total of 69 Olympic (49 males and 20 females, 76% response rate) and 30 Paralympic athletes (23 male and 7 females, 70% response rate) returned the questionnaires, for an overall response rate of 74%. Norway had participants in all the winter events, except for figure skating. Paralympic athletes' disabilities included spinal cord injuries (n = 17), amputations (n = 1 l), vision impairments (n = l), and cerebral palsy (n = 1).

Measurements

A demographic data sheet, including single-item questions about expectations and satisfactions, and three psychological instruments were completed by each participant. Age, gender, athletic age (i.e., how long they had been active in the sport), and years of competing internationally were reported. Mean ages for the Olympic and Paralympic participants were 25.3 (SL) = 3.8) and 30.4 (SD = 9.4) years, respectively @ < .001). Paralympic athletes were also


asked to specify their sport classification and onset of disability (congenital or acquired). A total of 8 participants reported congenital disability, and 22 reported an acquired one.

Expectations and Satisfactions. To obtain the athletes' subjective ratings of expectations about results, satisfaction with effort, and satisfaction with results, three single-item questions were presented. Athletes indicated the level of their expectations in relation to performance on a 0-100 scale, where 0 indicated low expectations and 100 indicated high expectations. Using a 0-100 scale, where 0 meant low satisfaction and 100 high satisfaction, athletes indicated how satisfied they were with their general effort during the Olympics/Paralympics. Finally, athlete satisfaction with results was measured on a 0-100 scale, where 0 indicated low satisfaction and 100 indicated high satisfaction. If athletes had competed in more than one event, they were asked to indicate their general satisfaction.

Perception of Success Questionnaire. To measure individual goal orientations, we used a Norwegian version of the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ; Roberts & Ommundsen, 1996; Roberts, Treasure, & Balague, 1998). When the POSQ was translated into Norwegian, even though it demonstrated acceptable construct validity (Ommundsen, Roberts, & Kavussanu, 1998; Roberts & Omrnundsen, 1996), the factor analysis revealed a third factor created by two of the task items. Translation was considered a possible problem, which would have confounded the meaning content of these two items (Roberts & Ommundsen, 1996). Therefore, in this study, we included two additional task-oriented items-'? work very hard" and "I do the very best I can"--to determine whether this addition would improve the internal consistency of the scale. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the 6-item ego- and 8-item task-orientation scales were .75 and .75, respectively. Therefore, in the present study, we used the 8-item task orientation scale.

Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire. A Norwegian version (Roberts & Omrnundsen, 1996) of the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ; Seifriz, Duda, & Chi, 1992) was used to measure perceptions of motivational climate. This translated scale has demonstrated ad- equate construct validity (Ommundsen et al., 1998). Typically, two types of climate are measured: mastery- and performance-oriented. Some modifications of the PMCSQ were made because it was originally designed to measure climate in team activities. Alpha coefficients for the 6-item mastery and 9-item performance scales were .75, and 34, respectively. Both scales were used in the further analyses.

COPE. To determine the coping strategies that were employed, we used the COPE inventory (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989), which contains five scales to measure distinct aspects of problem-focused coping (active coping, planning, suppression of competing activities, restraint coping, and seeking instrumental support), five scales of emotion-focused coping (seeking emotional social support, positive reinterpretation and growth, acceptance, denial, and turning to religion), and three behavior-focused scales (focus on and venting of emotions, behavioral disengagement, and mental disengagement). The turning to religion scale was not used in this study due to its possible provocative nature. Each scale consists of four items, each scored on a 4-point Likert-type scale (1 = I did not do this at all; 4 = I did this a lot). Athletes were asked to describe the most stressful negative experience from the preceding OlympicParalympic Games. Further instructions were: "Based on what you have described, please indicate on the following scale what kind of strategies you used to deal with the situation." Thus, we


used the situation-specific version of COPE. The scales have acceptable psycho- metric properties (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989). The Norwegian version of COPE was developed via extensive translation and a back translation process by five professors at the Norwegian University of Sport and Physical Activity. The translated version was also compared to a translation from the Department of Psy- chology at the University of Oslo. Discrepancies were resolved through discussion.

In the present study, subscales with reliability coefficients less than .65 were eliminated from all subsequent analysis. Thus, the following subscales were eliminated: restraint coping (.48) and mental disengagement (.45). Alpha coefficients for all scales used in the present study are shown in Table 1; these were based on data from 69 Olympic and 30 Paralympic athletes.

Interview Guide. The interview guide1 developed for this study covered five main topics: early stages of the athletic career, perceived stress and coping methods, the 1994 Paralympic experience, the meaning of coach and team climate, and differences and similarities between athletes with and without disabilities. This

i paper particularly focused on the last topic. During this particular portion of the interview, athletes were asked to reflect upon the following main questions:

I Table 1 Cronbach's Alpha for Goal Orientations, Motivational Climate, and Coping Strategies

1 Variable Cronbach's alpha

I Goal orientation Ego .75 Task .75

Motivational climate Performance Mastery

COPE Active coping Planning Social instrumental Social emotional Suppression of competing activities Redefinition and growth Restraint coping Acceptance Venting of emotions Denial Mental disengagement Behavioral disengagement

Note. N = 99.

'The interview guide is available upon request from the first author.


What do you think are the major differences between ordinary and disability sport? Why do you think there is a difference?

All the athIetes were asked identical questions in the same order to avoid interviewer biases. Additional follow-up questions and probes were asked as necessary (Kvale, 1996). In this study, we specially looked at how elite athletes with disabilities viewed their situations compared to those of elite athletes without disabilities.

Procedure

Questionnaires and an informed consent form were mailed to the athletes immedi- ately after the Olympic and Paralyrnpic Games and returned within 2 months after competition. We emphasized that participants could withdraw from the study at any time. A strategic sample (Patton, 1990) of 3 athletes (1 female and 2 male) with disabilities was selected for the qualitative part of the study. All three had been training extensively with athletes without disabilities for long periods or been involved with top-level sport and thus had a reasonable background to compare their situation to elite athletes without disabilities. All three achieved excellent results during the 1994 Paralympics at Lillehammer (i.e., 2 athletes won gold medals, and 1 won a silver).

Interview location and time were scheduled for the 3 athletes who agreed to participate in this part of the study. Each interview was conducted at the athlete's site of choice: one at the University of Sport and Physical Education, and the other at each athlete's workplace. Interview transcripts (1.5-2 hr each) were given to the athletes so that they could provide comments (and additional information, if necessary). No changes were made.

Data Analyses

All quantitative data were entered into the SPSS statistical package (1994, Version 6.1). A MANOVA was conducted to examine differences between the conceptual related variables (expectations, satisfaction with effort, and satisfaction with results), goal orientations and motivational climate, and coping strategies. Effect size (eta-squared) was calculated for each significant difference.

Qualitative data were used to enhance our interpretation of the quantitative fmdings. Thus, we utilized a phenomenological description approach (Kvale, 1996), where the aim is to understand social phenomena from the actors' own perspec- tives. Quotations are therefore presented in the discussion section.

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Testing for Gender Differences

Means and standard deviations of expectations, satisfaction with effort, satisfaction with results, goal orientations, perceptions of motivational climate, and use of coping strategies are reported for Paralympic and Olympic athletes in Table 2.


Table 2 A comparison of Goal Orientations, Perceived Motivational Climate, ExpectationsISatisfaction Variables, and Coping Strategies of Paralympic and Olympic Athletes

Olympic (n = 69) Paralympic (n = 30)

M SD M SD P Es Variable

Goal orientation Ego Task

Motivational climate Performance climate Mastery climate

Expectations and staisfaction Expectations Satisfaction with effort Satisfaction with results

COPE Active coping Planning Social instrumental Social emotional Suppression of competing

activities Redefinition and growth Acceptance Venting of emotions Denial Behavioral disengagement

To determine whether there were gender differences in goal orientations, perceptions of climate, expectations of and satisfaction with results, and use of coping strategies, we conducted separate MANOVA tests for Olympic and Paralympic athletes. No multivariate main effect for Gender emerged; thus, we used the total sample in the subsequent analyses.

Group Differences

To determine whether there were any differences in these variables, we conducted three separate MANOVA tests with Olympic and Paralympic athletes as the inde- pendent variables in each. Goal orientations and perceived motivational climate were dependent variables in Test 1, expectations, satisfaction with effort, and satisfaction with results in Test 2, and coping strategies in Test 3.

In the first analysis, a significant multivariate main effect emerged, F(4, 93) = 3.45, p < .01. Univariate follow-up analyses revealed that Paralympic athletes perceived a significantly more mastery-oriented climate (M = 4.3), F(1,98) =


12.6, p < .001, than Olympic athletes (M = 3.7). Interestingly, athletes did not differ in terms of their personal dispositional profiles. Effect size was .11.

The second analysis also revealed a significant multivariate main effect, F(3, 93) = 10.36. p < .001. Subsequent univariate analyses (see Table 2) indicated that Paralympic athletes were significantly more satisfied with Effort, F(l, 97) = 13.5, p < .001, and Results F(l, 97) = 31.09, p < -001, than Olympic athletes. Effect sizes were .12 and .24, respectively.

Finally, a significant multivariate main effect emerged for Coping Strate- gies, F(9, 88) = 2.18, p < .05. Follow-up analysis revealed that Olympic athletes employed more redefinition and growth strategies than Paralympic athletes, F(l, 97) = 6.72, p < .01, ES = .06.

Discussion

The primary purpose of the present study was to compare individual and situational motivational factors and the use of coping strategies among elite athletes with and without physical disabilities. The overall impression is that few differences were observed, which is an interesting finding. Apparently, the experience of elite competition is similar for individuals with and without a disability. We discuss our findings according to the categories we investigated.

Motivational Factors

Athletes appeared to have similar goal orientation profiles, which supports Henschen et al.'s (1992) results. Paralympic athletes were as ego- and task-oriented as Olympic athletes. This means the Paralympians were competitive and wished to compare well with their peers. However, some differences were also evident. Paralympians perceived a more mastery-oriented climate than Olympians.

The most remarkable finding was the lack of differences in the two groups' motivational profiles. Goal orientation profiles were very similar. Both groups scored high on ego and task goal orientation, as expected. This is consistent with previous research, although White and Duda (1993) also found that high task- oriented wheelchair athletes reported that sport success was due not only to effort but also to external factors. This contrasts with findings for athletes without disabilities (Roberts & Ommundsen, 1996). However, this exception is understand- able because wheelchair athletes do depend on external factors (e.g., the wheelchair) to succeed (White & Duda, 1993). The similarities at this level are underlined by one statement:

Compared to able-bodied elite sport participants, I think we in many ways are more creative, better at finding new solutions, and have a focus on the technical matters . . . more than those who succeed in able-bodied sport. . . . But I think they also have much the same way of thinking.

However, one athlete made the point that athletes with disabilities have to learn very early (in regard to the time of disability onset) to be focused on self- improvement in order to maintain motivation:

I started to train in an ordinary sports club, and I became used to being last also at the training sessions. And I had to work hard with my own psyche


and to learn to set up goals based on my own standards. And I was very patient compared to the others. One day, when I realized that the primary task was to compete against myself and improve, then I remember I thought that I was actually quite lucky to have had a handicap because the others had not learned this yet! I was 12 at the time. . . . The others were devastated because they had not won. Lost for the first time in their lives! And then it actually was quite okay to be on "the other side," too, because you know that you have to fight!

Perceptions of motivational climate were also similar; both groups perceived their climate as performance-oriented. However, as expected and supported by the effect size test, the Paralympians perceived their climate to be more mastery-oriented than the Olympic athletes. This was also supported by the qualitative data. Paralympic athletes' perceived mastery climate is apparently influenced by the experience of being disabled. The interview data suggest that there may also be an effect from the motives of those involved in managing disability sport. The interviews revealed some dissatisfaction with the way disability sport is managed:

What one should not do--this is how I feel, anyway-is to be too kind. In a way there has not been enough demanded of athletes with disabilities in the past. The coach has been an expert in his sport, but then he is afraid of of- fending or doing some harm to the disabled athlete, or is afraid of pushing too hard because he does not know much about disabled persons. But this is a big misunderstanding. I think that disabled persons can cope with pressure better than most people, especially those who compete in sports, they have coped with many situations on the way. You have been through many personal crises, and then, I think, you are also able to cope with more.

The problem may have roots in the divergence of motives between athletes and the difference between the motives of athletes and leaders. One athlete explic- itly said that those who function as leaders in sport for athletes with disabilities do so out of a caring or service motive, and with too little emphasis on the outcome. This possible conflict should be addressed in future studies.

Roberts (1992) suggested that highly ego-oriented athletes, who experience a climate that is different from their predominant goal orientation, may not be as motivated to achieve. The overwhelming trend from previous studies has been that a mastery-oriented climate is preferred over one of performance (e.g., Omrnundsen et al., 1998). However, findings from the present study-the first to include athletes with disabilities-suggest that the climate surrounding these elite athletes might be too mastery-oriented in that these individuals show a lack of expectations about performance, at least for athletes with highly perceived ability. This needs to be addressed in the future.

Expectations and Satisfaction

Findings from this study revealed that Paralympic and Olympic athletes had similar expectations prior to the Paralympics/Olympics, but that the Olympians were far less satisfied with themselves in retrospect. The effect size coefficients indicate that the difference is not a result of the unequal number of athletes in the two groups. One liable explanation is the higher achievement rate in Paralympics, with more competition categories in each event and fewer participants. It may also be the result of differences within goal setting, as explained by one athlete:


To be quite honest, there are some differences when it comes to goal setting. And the differences within the handicapped elite sport are greater than in ordinary sport. The goals for the very best disabled athletes might even be higher than the ones the able-bodied elite athletes have. We also seem to have more eagerness and spirit to meet the different challenges than have able-bodied athletes. On the other hand, we have those whom I really would not categorize as being elite athletes.

Coping Strategies

There was only one difference in the use of coping strategies: Olympic athletes employed more redefinition and growth strategies than Paralympic athletes. To some extent, this was a surprising finding because one could expect that it was the Paralympic athletes (who have learned to cope with a disability) who would em- ploy more positive redefinition and growth strategies when faced with stressful situations. However, Paralympic athletes, rather than redefining the stressful situation in more positive terms, seem to have learned to live with disability in a func- tional way. In addition, findings from this study show that the Paralympians were very satisfied with effort and results. Thus, the need for this particular strategy was not present. However, we should be cautious when interpreting this finding based on the relative low effect size coefficient.

Despite individual differences, Paralympians appear to be a select group that may differ from the general population with physical disabilities. Bouffard and Cracker's (1992) study of the coping behaviors among persons with disabilities revealed a dynamic pattern similar to findings for able-bodied exercisers, although they did not test whether these individuals also used the same type of strategies. However, based on the findings, there does not seem to be any crucial differences in coping style and the dynamics of coping between athletes with and without disabilities.

The main finding is, therefore, that the two groups of athletes are similar, with much the same goals and expectancies from their sport. However, the lack of between-group differences does not imply a lack of individual differences. This is indeed the case within both groups. For the athletes with disabilities, in particular, the variance may be even greater than in ordinary elite sport. According to Will- iams (1994), the homogeneity of populations with disabilities is a myth, and sport socialization produces many different identities. There is even a hierarchy of preference among athletes with disabilities toward other athletes with disabilities (Mastro, Burton, Rosendahl, & Sherrill, 1996). People are recruited to disability sport at very different stages in their lives, depending on whether they have a congenital or acquired disability. In this study, 73% of the Norwegian participants at the Paralympics were not born with a disability, and they were an average of 10 years older than participants with a congenital disability (M age = 33 and 23, respectively). Many of the athletes in disability sport enter the sport world at an older age and are unfamiliar with the demands of life as an elite athlete. This is a great challenge for the athletes, but also for sport coaches and administrators for people with disabilities. A heterogeneous group requires individual treatment to avoid frustration from gaps between expectations and goals.

Future studies should address the possible differences among different sub- groups of athletes with congenital or acquired disabilities and why these differences occur, as emphasized by Sherrill (1997). Campbell (1995), for example,

248 Pensgaard, Robetts, and Ursin

compared the psychological well-being of wheelchair sport participants with congenital and acquired disabilities. Psychological well-being was assessed according to scores on mood, trait anxiety, and self-esteem and mastery. Campbell found that the group with acquired disabilities generally had a more positive mood, higher self-esteem and mastery, and lower trait anxiety. In contrast, Mastro and French (1984) reported that athletes with vision impairments, congenital or acquired, ex- hibited anxiety levels similar to other populations. To explain this contrast, Mastro and French pointed out that most of the athletes with congenital loss did have some useable vision, whereas most of the athletes with acquired loss had none at all. Clearly, we need to continue this line of research.

The impact of gender is another important mediating factor that has been largely overlooked. According to Shemll(1997), females with disabilities tend to experience more prejudice and discrimination than males, especially within the context of sport, where they are largely underrepresented. This is also evident in the present study. Gender differences in sport socialization, culture, training, and competition may have affected the dependent variables. Our decision not to examine such differences in more depth may have limited our findings. However, MANOVA tests indicated no gender differences in any of the motivational variables or the use of coping strategies.

Paralympic and Olympic sport may appear as two different worlds. There are immense differences in public and media attention, how the sports are orga- nized, and financial funding of the athletes. Even so, peak performers in any field seem to have more similarities than differences. Athletes without disabilities, coaches, and sport psychology researchers should acknowledge that they can learn from elite athletes with disabilities.

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