Standards, Competence and Knowledge: Initial Teacher Training and Business

International Journal of Value-Based Management13: 215–227, 2000.© 2000Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

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Standards, Competence and Knowledge:Initial Teacher Training and Business

IAN ABBOTT & PRUE HUDDLESTONInstitute of Education and Centre for Education and Industry, University of Warwick,Coventry, CV4 7AL, U.K.

Abstract. Initial teacher training in England and Wales has undergone a number of reformswhich have imposed greater central control on institutions and individual programs. The cul-mination of this process has been the introduction of a competence based model. In this paperthe authors explore the factors which have led to the adoption of a competence based approachin many sectors of education and training. They describe how a Post Graduate Certificate inEducation program has been developed to enable students to achieve competence throughthe establishment of links between education and business. They go on to consider the widerimplications of this approach for teaching and learning.

Keywords: education business links, competence, standards, initial teacher training

1. Introduction

1.1. Initial teacher training

During the 1990s the training of teachers in England and Wales has under-gone fundamental change as wide ranging legislation has been introduced bycentral government to control course content and structure. The autonomyenjoyed by higher education (HE) institutions, the traditional providers ofinitial teacher training (ITT) programs, has been severely reduced as com-petition and regulation have been introduced (Evans, Abbott, Goodyear, andPritchard, 1996). In 1993 the government established the Teacher TrainingAgency (TTA) to accredit teacher training institutions, control policy andadminister funding (DFE, 1993). In particular, the TTA is responsible for thedistribution of trainee numbers and money to the variety of institutions whichhave the responsibility for training teachers. The structure and standards ofindividual ITT courses have been closely regulated by the introduction ofa regular system of inspection and grading carried out by the Office forStandards in Education (OFSTED). In addition a significant amount of thetraining process has been shifted from HE into schools and colleges throughthe establishment of partnership arrangements.

216 IAN ABBOTT AND PRUE HUDDLESTON

1.2. The standards

Central control of teacher training was further strengthened in 1998 when theTTA introduced a ‘National Curriculum’ for ITT through the imposition ofthe National Standards which laid down criteria which all trainee teachershave to achieve if they are going to obtain Qualified Teacher Status (DfEE,1998). The standards replaced the competence statements which had beenintroduced in 1992 (DFE, 1992). The standards are classified into five broadareas:

• Knowledge and understanding.• Planning, teaching and class management.• Monitoring, assessment, recording, reporting and accountability.• Other professional requirements.• Information and communications technology.

The standards give clear guidance about the levels of competency required oftrainee teachers, e.g.:

– Subject knowledge.A.1.vi. understand for their specialist subject(s), the framework of 14–19 qualifications and the routes of progression through it.A.1.viii. know and can teach the key skills required for current quali-fications relevant to their specialist subject, for pupils aged 14–19, andunderstand the contribution that their specialist subject(s) make(s) tothe development of key skills (DfEE, 1998, p. 9).

– Monitoring, assessment, recording, reporting and accountability.C.f. where applicable, understand and know how to implement the as-sessment requirements of current qualifications for pupils aged 14–19(DfEE, 1998, p. 11).

The standards are now the basis for all ITT programs and institutions haveto ensure that their courses reflect the standards which have been laid downby the TTA. In order to gain qualified teacher status trainee teachers need tosuccessfully meet all the requirements laid down by TTA. If a trainee fails toachieve even one of the 80 standards they will not be licensed to teach andwill subsequently be unable to obtain a teaching post in a state school.

1.3. The PGCE program

The normal pattern of training for secondary school teachers in England andWales is the one year Post Graduate Certificate of Education (PGCE). Thisis taken after the competition of an undergraduate degree in a subject area.A trainee on the PGCE is assumed to have adequate subject knowledge and

INITIAL TEACHER TRAINING AND BUSINESS 217

the main purpose of the PGCE is to provide the training which is necessaryto operate as an effective teacher. In the case of Economics and BusinessStudies approximately 80% of the cohort have some business experience,with a number being classified as mature students.

The structure of the PGCE course at the University of Warwick is rep-resentative of the pattern which is now well established within ITT (Abbottand Atherton, 1996). The PGCE trainees spend approximately 70% of their36 weeks on the course in local schools or colleges which are referred toas partnership institutions. Approximately seventy secondary schools, sixthform and further education colleges across six different local education au-thorities currently participate in the PGCE program. The trainees spend twodays per week on serial placement in their partnership institution duringSeptember and October and January and February. These two day placementsculminate in two block placements at different schools or colleges. The firstblock placement takes place during November and December and the secondfrom March to June. For the remainder of the course trainees are based inthe HE institution involved in two broad areas of activity: subject work andcore education studies. Within the subject work the emphasis is on a rangeof issues relating to economics and business teaching. The focus of coreeducation studies is on the more general aspects of teaching and broadereducational issues for example, classroom management. The PGCE course atWarwick prepares trainees to teach the full 11–18 range and the emphasis ison secondary school teaching. However, work in further education and sixthform colleges is increasing in importance, in this particular PGCE program, aspressure for school and college placements intensifies. In addition a majorityof the teaching within economics and business is at post-16 level.

Staff in schools and colleges, usually referred to as mentors, who workwith trainees receive in-service training for their role from the HE institution.The mentors have a key role to play in the training process providing dayto day support and supervision to individual trainees. The mentors are alsoclosely involved in the assessment process through a structured program oflesson observations. This work is fully supported by program documentationsetting out the rights and responsibilities of all parties. Participating schoolsand colleges are paid a fee by the HE institution for accepting trainees.

1.4. The competence/standards movement

According to Bates (1999): ‘in the last decade we have witnessed the advanceof the competence movement across all spheres of post-16 education andtraining’ (p. 98). The work of the National Council for Vocational Qual-ifications (NCVQ) now superseded by the Qualifications and CurriculumAuthority (QCA) has resulted in competence based education and training


(CBET) being accepted across large sectors of British education and training.The introduction of National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ) and GeneralNational Vocational Qualifications (GNVQ) have led the movement towards acompetence based system. NVQs are occupational specific qualifications andthe competencies associated with these programs are based on tasks whichhave to be completed in the workplace. GNVQs are broader based vocationalqualifications which were intended to combine both vocational and academicapproaches and to provide an alternative route into HE or employment. Theyare delivered in schools and colleges mainly to students aged 14–19. For afull account of the initial development of NVQs and GNVQs see for example,Burke (1995).

The introduction of NVQs and GNVQs has been well documented andgenerated a great deal of controversy, see for example (Jessup, 1991; Smith-ers, 1993; Hyland, 1994; Wolf, 1995). Major reviews have been carried outinto both NVQ (Beaumont, 1996) and GNVQ (NCVQ, 1995) as a result ofcriticism of the implementation of the CBET model. However, the CBETbandwagon continues to roll and a number of professions including teaching,medicine, and engineering have embraced a competency based approach, seefor example (Hodkinson and Issitt, 1995).

CBET has been an integral part of ITT since 1992 and the standards in-troduced by the TTA in 1998 are ‘competencies by another name’ (Hayes,1999, p. 6). Faced with over 80 different standards, including those for ICT,the PGCE course team at Warwick have further refined the standards whichhave been imposed by the TTA by providing a grading scheme and moredetailed descriptors, for example:

– Knowledge of Key Stage 4 and post-16 exam courses (relating toStandard A.1.vi).

– Level 3: accurate knowledge of section of syllabus being taught andsome awareness of how it fits into the whole.

– Level 2: understands the links between what is being taught and otherparts of the syllabus; familiar with other current syllabuses.

– Level 1: has a command of and confidence with 14–19 syllabuses; someawareness of new developments.

If a trainee fails to reach Level 3 they would be deemed to have failed thatparticular standard. Failure to achieve any of the standards would result in atrainee failing the PGCE course. Level 3 corresponds to a degree of compet-ence which is ‘acceptable but needs improvement’, Level 2 is considered tobe ‘competent’ and Level 1 is recognized as an ‘area of strength’.


2. The placement

The Warwick Economics and Business PGCE course has a long traditionof developing innovative links with business, see for example (Huddlestonand Abbott, 1993; Abbott, Coldicott, Foley, Huddleston, Stagg, 1998). Thecourse team has a strong belief in the importance of all teachers workingwith the wider community but this is especially important for teachers ofeconomics and business. The development of education business links hasbeen seen as a priority by the course team despite the introduction of thecompetencies which have restricted the opportunities for this type of work.As a consequence part of the teaching and assessment of the PGCE course isdevoted to showing how education business links can be utilized to prepareyoung people for adult and working life while at the same time enablingtrainees to meet the standards imposed by the TTA. Indeed OFSTED hasrecommended that this area of work should be one of the ‘ways forward’ forthe training of economics and business teachers, and they suggest ‘giving alltrainees an opportunity to plan and manage a visit for pupils to industrial,commercial or community bodies’ (OFSTED, 1999, p. 28).

During the PGCE year trainees are given an introduction to education-business links and they have the opportunity to use a range of resources andwork with staff from organizations involved in this field. The culmination ofthis process is a placement in a local business organization, and the traineeshave to develop a range of teaching and assessment materials which theycan use during their second school/college placement. In 1999 the focus ofthis activity was the leisure and tourism industry and the trainees, working ingroups of five, undertook a one day placement in a local organization. Theorganizations who supported the placements were:

• Twycross Zoo.

• Rugby Tourism.

• Walton Hall Hotel and Leisure Complex.

• Warwick Tourism.

• Birmingham Airport.

The students were provided with the following detailed information about thepurpose of the placement and the requirements of the assignment:

Design an assignment for use with a group of GNVQ Leisure and Tourism stu-dents (Advanced) which focuses on Unit 3 of the GNVQ (Advanced) Leisureand Tourism specification – Marketing in Leisure and Tourism.This unit covers the following four elements:


• investigate marketing principles, activities and objectives in Leisure andTourism;

• analyze and undertake market research in Leisure and Tourism organi-zations;

• investigate and evaluate communications in Leisure and Tourism or-ganizations;

• develop a marketing plan for a selected Leisure and Tourism product/service.

You may not wish to coverall the elements but you will need to state clearlywhich elements are begin included.

You will need to draw upon your placement experience in order to de-velop the scenario and to make optimum use of the range of source materialavailable in it.

In the assignment you will need to:

• provide a realistic and relevant scenario based on business experience:you may wish to use your visit for this, or some other business situationwith which you are familiar;

• give sufficient supporting materials for the assignment to be completedby the student group, or identify exactly where this might be accessed;

• identify a range of tasks which have to be completed by the students withappropriate time scales;

• provide clear assessment criteria for the students indicating what meritsa pass, a merit and a distinction award;

• offer a clear rationale for the assignment and a critique of the use ofbusiness contexts/placements for designing GNVQ assignments (PGCE,1998).

This was an assessed piece of work which contributed to the trainees ac-quisition of the standards. In addition the acquisition of the Key Skills of:Communication, Application of Number, Information Technology, Improv-ing Own Learning and Performance, Working with others, Problem Solving;is an important part of the learning process for school/college pupils andtrainees were expected to demonstrate how these could be incorporated intotheir assignments. Trainees were encouraged to consider the teaching oppor-tunities and different models of learning which could be developed as a resultof fostering links with business and were expected to trial the materials duringtheir next school/college placement.


3. Work-based learning

The development and growth of NVQs during the past ten years has focusedattention upon the workplace as a potential site for learning. Whilst NVQmethodology has been criticized for being too narrow and overly mechanisticand bureaucratic in its implementation (Hyland, ibid., Wolf, ibid., Beaumont,ibid) its introduction has caused a re-examination of learning in, and from,the workplace.

Work-based learning within HE institutions is not new (Duckenfield,1992). It has been an integral part of the training for social workers, teach-ers, nurses and is part of sandwich degree courses. More recently manyHE courses have introduced elements of work experience across a rangeof disciplines. The University of Huddersfield, for example, has introducedsupervised work experience placements for all its undergraduate programs.(For a fuller discussion see, Benett, Lee and Jackson, 1989).

Obviously, the PGCE program at Warwick, in common with other teachertraining programs, includes an extensive period of work placement throughthe school based practice described earlier in this paper. What is differentwithin the Warwick program, particularly within economics and businessstudies, is the business placement element. Why do we see this placementas important and why do we retain it, particularly when our trainees will havehad some business experience already?

The business experience is seen as important both in providing a contextfor learning and in furnishing the trainee teacher with useful subject mat-ter to inform lesson planning and pupil assignments within economics andbusiness studies curricula. Lave (1991) has argued that learning should notbe identified with gaining a discrete body of abstract knowledge, but thatlearning takes place through: ‘legitimate peripheral participation’ in on-goingsocial practice (Lave and Wenger, 1991). To this extent, the school placementallows the trainees ‘legitimate peripheral participation’ in ‘the communityof practice’, namely the school. It allows them to engage with a communityof practitioners and to incrementally acquire the skills and knowledge re-quired not just of subject teachers but of professionals who may eventuallybe admitted to the ‘community of practice.’

Lave’s work focuses upon the institution of apprenticeship but there area number of parallels within the training of teachers. In addition to thoseoutlined above, the role of the school mentor has a parallel with that of the‘master’ within the apprenticeship model. In fact, the U.K.’s current ModernApprenticeship scheme, launched by the Employment Department in 1994,highlights the role of ‘workplace mentors.’ (Huddleston, 1998). The traineeteacher actually has two mentors in school, one of them responsible for the


subject area, the other for assisting the trainee in developing professionalcompetence to a level acceptable within the wider community of practice.

In their development as subject teachers, however, the trainees need toacquire the skill of setting subject knowledge within realistic contexts:

trainee teachers understand for their specialist subject(s), the frameworkof 14–19 qualifications (Standard A.1.vi); and that: they know and canteach the key skills required for current qualifications relevant to theirspecialist subject(s), for pupils aged 14–19, and understand the contri-bution that their specialist subject(s) make(s) to the development of keyskills (Standard A.1.viii, DfEE, ibid.).

The key skills referred to include: ‘communications’; ‘application of num-ber’; ‘information technology’, as mandatory units, with ‘improving ownlearning and performance’; ‘working with others’ and ‘problem solving’ asoptional, but increasingly important units. Key skills already form part of allGNVQ programs, from September 2000, they will be available for all post-16programs irrespective of the route followed. This recognizes the importanceof young people developing those skills which will be increasingly requiredin their chosen vocational area and, ultimately, in the workplace.

General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs) have been de-signed to provide a broad education as a foundation both for trainingleading to employment, and for further and higher education. This isachieved by ensuring that students develop the general skills, knowledgeand understanding that underpin a range of occupations or professions,and by incorporating a number of additional general skills including Ap-plication of Number, Communication and Information Technology intoevery GNVQ. (Source: RSA: GNVQ Advanced Leisure and TourismSpecification.)

A recent OFSTED (1998) report highlights the need for business supportwithin the vocational curriculum, particularly within GNVQ programs. QCA(1999) has prepared guidance for schools in implementing a ‘work-relatedcurriculum’ recommending that:

Vocational courses can provide opportunities for pupils to work along-side employees. Through such direct contact, pupils can develop a clearunderstanding of the opportunities within a sector, the nature of the em-ployment and the requirements of employers. . . . Many begin to developunderstanding of the structure of companies, the roles and responsibilit-ies of different personnel, and how decisions are made within industrialand commercial organizations (p. 9).


This provides part of the rationale for Warwick’s use of business placementfor its trainee teachers of business. In addition, trainees have to be preparedto teach across the framework of 14–19 qualifications, not just those with avocational orientation. QCA (ibid.) suggests that:

Work-related contexts can support learning of all pupils in all subjects.. . . The approach requires teachers explicitly to build such connectionsas part of their schemes of work and to identify how subject-based activ-ities relate to the overall program of work-related learning in the school(p. 8). The business placement is intended to provide a broader rangeof experiences for trainees to reflect on both the context and content oftheir work.

Section 351 of the 1996 Education Act (DfEE, 1996) requires schools toprovide a balanced and broadly based curriculum which ‘prepares pupilsfor the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life.’ Part ofthis is preparation for eventual employment. Business placements for teach-ers can provide insights into different employment opportunities informingthem of employers’ expectations, recruitment and training practices. This canbe communicated to pupils through careers sessions. The Warwick businessplacement is intended to familiarise trainee teachers with the potential of suchplacements for enhancing their work with all pupils, not just those pursuingbusiness programs.

This year’s placements focused specifically on developing assignmentsfor use with students following vocational business programs, thereby con-tributing towards the achievement of the TTA’s Monitoring, Assessment,Recording, Reporting and Accountability standards (see p. 2 above). How-ever, placements can be used to gain a variety of objectives, some of whichhave been outlined above. The Government’s decision to allow the ‘Disap-plication of the National Curriculum at Key Stage 4 (age 14–16)1 for a widerfocus on work-related learning’ has provided another opportunity for the useof business placements.

Since August 1998 schools have been allowed to set aside, or modify,parts of the National Curriculum at Key Stage 4 in order to provide morework-related learning opportunities ‘to motivate pupils and encourage themto learn, and to offer courses that are not compatible with existing statutoryrequirements’ (QCA, 1998). Schools may set aside up to two of the followingNational Curriculum subjects: modern foreign language, design and techno-logy and science. These may be replaced with more work-related activities,for example, extended work experience, vocational courses, link courses withfurther education colleges, training providers or community organizations.The remainder of the National Curriculum remains compulsory.


Clearly, teachers will need preparation in identifying appropriate work-places and in mapping potential learning opportunities for pupils since eachpupil is to have an individual curriculum plan. We hope the Warwick businessplacement has, in some small way, raised trainees’ awareness of the use ofbusiness to provide not just subject content but a context for learning.

Obviously, the success of such a scheme is dependent upon the supplyof relevant and productive business placements which can provide qualityexperiences for our students. Setting up such placements is time consumingand potential learning opportunities have to be identified in advance other-wise time can be wasted. This is critical on a short course such as the oneyear PGCE program. Many major companies are substantially involved inpartnership with the education sector in a variety of ways, from involvementin reading partners schemes in primary schools, to hosting undergraduateson work experience schemes. However, the greatest involvement is at thesecondary school level (for a fuller discussion of business involvement witheducation, see Miller, Cramphorn, Huddleston and Woolhouse, 1995).

Wherever, our students eventually gain employment, it is certain that edu-cation business links will be part of the curriculum, if only as part of pupilwork experience programs. Currently, ninety eight percent of all school pupilsundertake a period of work placement during their last year of compuls-ory schooling. For most schools this is only one of a range of curriculumexperiences which involve partnership with business. Our students will beintroduced to one item, the workplace visit, on a possible ’menu’ of activities,their experiences within their placement schools should provide other oppor-tunities. Here, the role of the school mentor will be important in introducingthem to such possibilities.

In a recent survey (Tuffrey, 1995), sponsored by seven leading U.K. com-panies, attempts were made to chart the extent of business involvement in thecommunity, of which the education sector is an integral part, and to identifythe staff development gains accruing from such activities. This reflects agrowing interest in and concern with the role of companies as good corporatecitizens. It is not coincidental that subjects such as, ‘business ethics’ and‘corporate social responsibility’ are topics now appearing on MBA teachingprograms.

Schools too are increasingly examining their role within the wider com-munity. The National Skills Task Force in presenting its First Report (DfEE,1998) urges all providers of education and training to: ‘understand how skillneeds are changing and be responsive to the requirements of employers andindividuals’ (p. 5). A dialogue between local employers and their schools canhelp to increase understanding, or at least raise the questions which need tobe addressed.


4. Conclusion

Engestrom (1994) suggests that the ingredients for effective learning include:

ensuring that individuals have access to theoretical and experientialknowledge; the opportunity to engage in authentic tasks and interactionswith others; the chance to develop their critical and intellectual capa-cities through the application of concepts and theories in practice; theopportunity to have their thinking and understanding enhanced throughthe guidance and teaching of others (p. 48).

This he describes as ‘expansive’ learning as opposed to ‘adaptive’ learningwhich he characterises as learning which includes conditioning and imitationwhere ‘the learner focuses on copying readily available correct behaviours’(pp. 15–16). In ‘expansive’ learning Engestrom suggests that the learner isencouraged to criticize the given, to innovate and to create new ideas andforms of practice.

Whilst recognizing the centrality of the TTA’s standards and their achieve-ment for the acquisition of Qualified Teacher Status we also recognize theneed for trainees to be encouraged to be ‘expansive’ learners. We suggestthat the use of business placements may provide a range of opportunities forteachers to think creatively about their work and to investigate new forms ofpractice.

Note

1. The National Curriculum is compulsory for all pupils in stage schools. It covers the agerange 5–16 and is divided into 4 Key Stages.

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Documents

Standards, Competence and Knowledge: Initial Teacher Training and Business