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Status of ecological health of wetlands inPunjab, IndiaSatnam Singh LadharPublished online: 30 Nov 2010.

To cite this article: Satnam Singh Ladhar (2002) Status of ecological health of wetlands in Punjab,India, Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 5:4, 457-465, DOI: 10.1080/14634980290002002

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Status of ecological health of wetlands in Punjab, IndiaSatnam Singh Ladhar

Punjab State Council for Science and Technology, MGSIPA Complex, Sector 26, Chandigarh, IndiaE-mail: ssladhar@yahoo.com

To identify important wetlands from ecological, socio-economic, hydro-biological, religious and recreationalpoints of view, a study was undertaken in the state of Punjab with the aim of designing suitable conservationstrategies and developing site-speci� c management plans for their timely implementation. The survey showsthat in Punjab, all the natural and man-made wetlands cover an area of about 23000 ha. While most of thenatural wetlands are under severe stress from reclamation for agriculture, the man-made wetlands which areprimarily being maintained for the purpose of meeting water requirements of Punjab and other adjoining statesare under threat of general ecological degradation. Though conservation and protection of wetlands in the statehave attracted the attention of the government, the general attitude of the public towards these ecosystems isnegative with efforts directed toward making alternate uses of the wetlands in the short-term. As a consequence,a large number of natural wetlands have vanished and the trend is continuing. Some of the very prominentwetlands that have totally lost their ecological character due to reclamation include Bhupinder Sagar, ChhangaliChhamb, and Rahon de Chhamb. Major reasons for their loss include drainage of low lands, reduced � ow ofwater into natural wetlands, siltation and encroachments. Due to the continuous loss of natural wetlands inthe state not only the local hydrological regime is changing rapidly but also the biological diversity has comeunder threatening pressure. This study has found that immediate conservation measures have to be implementedin some important wetlands in the state. The Punjab State Council for Science and Technology has identi� ed� ve wetlands, Keshopur-Miani Jheel, Chhawarian Bhangar Chhamb, Jastarwal Jheel, Mand Bharthala andDholbaha Reservoir, to be designated as wetlands of state signi� cance. These are in addition to Harike, Kanjliand Ropar wetlands that have been included in the list of wetlands of national importance.

Keywords: conservation strategies, management, hydrological regime, biological diversity

Introduction

Wetlands are landmasses where water and soil co-exist and create speci� c conditions suitable for growthand establishment of hydrophytic vegetation. These arevital, fragile and most important ecosystems on accountof their relative productivity and role in sustainabil-ity of other ecosystems such as agricultural and for-est ecosystems. Different types of wetlands (marshes,peat and bogs) have been studied quite well. Althoughthe values and functions of wetlands have been rec-ognized by wetland scientists and managers at global

levels, they are not well perceived at the general publiclevel in the state of Punjab. This is because the valueof land is better understood in economic terms thanfrom ecological aspects. Thus the long-term roles ofwetlands in ecological sustainability are rarely consid-ered. As a result, wetlands are being converted to otheruses.

Ancient Punjab, as the name suggests (the name isderived from two words, “Punj” meaning � ve and “aab”meaning rivers) had a vast currency of naturalwetlands.Up to the 1950s, natural wetlands in the Punjab coveredabout 60000 ha, about 1.32% of the area. Now, the area

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Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 5(4):457–465, 2002 C° 2002 AEHMS 1463-4988 /02 $12.00 + .00DOI: 10.1080/1463498029000200 2

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458 Ladhar / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 5 (2002) 457–465

Figure 1. Location map of wetlands in Punjab.

of wetlands is 0.46% of the Punjab. The area underwetlands larger than 10 ha is about 15000 ha. Manmadewetlands occupied an area of 6500 ha before the early1960s; they now cover about 8000 ha.

Present day Indian Punjab is located between 29±

320 North latitude and 74± 770 East longitude and occu-pies 50362 km2 (Figure 1). Less than 1% of the area isnow wetland. About 84% area is under cultivation andabout 5.7% is under forest cover (Jerath et al., 1995). Itsclimate is typically subtropical with hot summers (tem-perature reaching as high as 47±C in certain areas) andmild winters (lowest temperature around 0±C). Averageannual rainfall is about 532 mm in plains and 890 mm innorthern sub-mountain regions. Population growth hasbeen phenomenal and about 70% of total populationof 24.29 million is dependant on agriculture. Averagepopulation density of 482 individuals km¡2 is muchmore than the national average. Under such circum-stances wetlands have been persistently lost in Punjab.There are reports of occurrence of about 30 wetlands in

the State most of which are of natural origin. Fourteenof these have also been listed in Directory of Wetlandspublished by the Ministry of Environment and Forests,Govt. of India (Anonymous, 1990) although some havealready lost their wetland characteristics, for exam-ple, Rahon De Chhamb and Bhupinder Sagar (Ladhar,1995a). Conservation and management measures atHarike andKanjli wetlands in Punjab have been inplacesince 1987 with the assistance of the Ministry of Envi-ronment and Forests, Govt. of India. Conservation andmanagement of the Ropar wetland was established in1993.

The abuse of these fragile and extremely impor-tant ecosystems prompted The Punjab State Councilfor Science and Technology (the Council) to undertakea survey of every wetland in the State covering areasof 10 ha or more. Major objectives included prepara-tion of ecological status report on wetlands, evalua-tion of values and site-speci� c threats to each ecosys-tem, identi� cation of wetlands that need immediate

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Ladhar / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 5 (2002) 457–465 459

Table 1. Existing natural wetlands in the State of Punjab.

Wetland Name Nearest Town District Area (ha) Category

Jastarwal Jheel Jastarwal/Ajnala Amritsar 135 PermanentAliwal Kotli Aliwal/Arnala Amritsar 25 PermanentBareta Bareta Mansa 50 TemporaryChawariam-Banghar Kahnuwan/Chhawarian Gurdaspur 315 Permanent

Chhamb BangharKeshopur-miani Jheel Keshopur, Miani Jhamela, Gurdaspur 1000 Permanent

Maghar MudianMand Bharthala Bharthala Hoshiarpur 150 PermanentNarayangarh Terkiana Terkiana/Dasuya Hoshiarpur 200 PermanentRababsar Bharowana Kapurthala 100 TemporaryLahail Kalan Lehail Sangrur 50 TemporaryGobindgarh Khokhar Gobindgarh Khokhar Sangrur 20 TemporarySital Sagar Mansar Hoshiarpur 2000 1PermanentLobana Nabha Patiala 28 TemporaryKistowal Kistowal/Patti AmritsarGoindwal Sahib Goindwal Sahib (Tarn Taran) Amritsar Permanent

1Major permanent part in Himachal Pradesh.

attention for conservation, planning strategies, andprograms for implementation. This survey has beenthe � rst ever attempt to evaluate the exact ecolog-ical status of State’s wetland resources. Locationsof wetlands of Punjab are given in Figure 1. TheStatus Index of each important site is described inTables 1 to 4.

Table 2. Man-made wetlands and Lakes in Punjab.

Wetland Name Nearest Town District Area (ha) Status

Harike Lake Harike Amritsar, 4100 Ramsar site. Large scale conservation andKapurthala management measures in progress as perFerozepur plan of the Council.

Kanjli Lake Kanjli Kapurthala 100 National Wetland. Conservation measures inprogress as per plan of the Council.

Ropar Lake Ropar Ropar 1365 National Wetland. Conservation programs inprogress.

Hussainiwala Ferozepur Ferozepur 688 Nominated to Ministry of Env. and Forests forReservoir inclusion in the list of national wetlands.

Dholbaha Dholbaha Hoshiarpur 132 Earth � lled dam. Provides water facilities,Reservoir protect from � oods but is threatened due

to siltation.Maili Dam Maili Hoshiarpur 72 Heavy siltation taking place.Mangrowal Dam Mangrowal Hoshiarpur 70 Heavy siltation taking place.Nangal Lake Nangal Ropar 400 Nominated to Ministry of Env. and Forests for

inclusion under National Lake ConservationProgramme.

Wetlands of national importance

Harike Wetland-Indian Ramsar site

Harike wetland is one of the largest freshwater wet-lands in Northern India. It was included in the Ram-sar List of Wetlands of international importance in

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460 Ladhar / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 5 (2002) 457–465

Table 3. Existing Natural Wetlands under natural and demographic stresses.

Wetland Name Natural Threats Demographic Threats

Jastarwal Jheel Overdraughting of underground Drainage as well as intensive monoculturewater in the immediate catchments. of Nelumbium.Agrochemical in� ow.

Aliwal-Kotli Drainage and intensive monoculturing ofNelumbium and Trapa.

Bareta Temporary nature attract exploitation Area being under private occupation is proneand reclamation for agriculture. to drainage & � lling up for agriculture.

Kahnuwan Chhamb Extensive growth of aquatic weeds of Major part already drained. Threat of furtherTypha, Phragmites, and Eichhornia. draining persists.

Keshopur-MianiJheel

Mand Bharthala Extensive growth of aquatic weeds of Major part already drained. Threat of furtherTypha, Phragmites, and Eichhornia. draining persists.

Narayangarh Extensive growth of Eichhornia weedTerkiana

Rababsar Reclamation for agriculture.Lehail Kalan Reduced in� ow of water from the Reclamation for agriculture.

surrounding � elds which havebeen developed for agriculture.Siltation.

Gobindgarh Khokhar Less rain water accumulation due Reclamation for agriculture through � llingto reduced in� ow of water from by the owners. Being small in area issurrounding � elds under under tremendous pressure of � lling upagriculture for cultivation.

Sital Sagar In� ow of water reducing. Profuse Encroachments, Fishingweed infestation.

Lobana Reduced in� ow of water from the Filling up for agriculture.surrounding � elds which havebeen developed for agriculture.Siltation.

Goindwal Weed infestation, domestic waste Encroachments, � shing and poaching.pollution.

1990 and is amongst the six Indian Ramsar Sites.This is a man-made, riverine, lacustrine wetlandformed as a result of construction of barrage in 1952.Located at the con� uence of two major rivers ofPunjab, Sutlej and Beas, it falls in the three districtsof Amritsar, Ferozepur and Kapurthala. The Ministryof Environment and Forests, Govt. of India recognizedthe importance of Harike Ecological zone in 1987–1988 and since then conservation and managementprograms have been implemented by various execut-ing departments (e.g., Forest, Wildlife, Fisheries, Ir-rigation, Soil Conservation, State Pollution ControlBoard, Town and Country Planning and Universities).The Punjab State Council for Science and Technology(PSCST) acts as a nodal agency for conservation and

management of this and other wetlands. Harike wet-land has an area of 41 km2 which has been surveyedon ground and by remote sensing technology. Theground survey, undertaken by Irrigation Department,shows that out of a total area of 3713.76 ha surveyed,2795.14 ha is under water. This ecologically importantwetland is:

a strategic reservoir for providing irrigation anddrinking water supplies to Punjab and Rajasthanthrough Ferozepur and Rajasthan feeder canals withtotal carrying capacity of 29000 cusecs (Ladharet al., 1994)an extremely rich biodiversity centre. Three hundredsixty species of birds, 7 species of turtles, 4 species

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Ladhar / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 5 (2002) 457–465 461

Table 4. Existing man-made wetlands and lakes under natural and human threat.

Wetland/Lake Natural Threats Demographic Threats

Harike Siltation, Weed Growth Encroachments for agriculture.Pollution, � shing, hunting

Kanjli Decrease in natural water � ow. Diversion of Kali Bein water(It is also perhaps due to overdraughting into Beas at Budha Barkat,of underground water in the upper Pollution, encroachments.catchments where Kali Bein initiates),weed infestation.

Ropar Siltation Pollution, Hunting, encroachments.Hussainiwala Weed Growth Pollution, encroachments, diversion

of water in upstream areas.Dholbaha Dam Siltation Deforestation, grazingMaili Dam Siltation Deforestation, grazingMangrowal Siltation Deforestation, grazingNangal Lake Siltation Grazing, deforestation, pollution

of snakes, 6 taxa of amphibians, 16 taxa of � shes,189 taxa of invertebrates and 38 taxa of plants havebeen reported to occur at Harike.a vital habitat for obligate and facultative wetlandand upland species of plants essential for sustain-ability of the entire ecosystem (Ladhar, 1995b) Im-portant species include Nelumbium from which theState Govt. earns the equivalent of about US $20,000per season.a staging ground for diversity of avian fauna. Harikeis an avian paradise in Northern India. Recentlyit has been reported that some very importantrare birds such as the Indian Skimmer, Yellow-eyed Pigeon, Sykes’s Knightjar and Rufous-ventedPrinia inhabit this wetland area (Kazmierczak et al.,1998)an important natural � sheries resource in the State.Twenty-six species of � sh have been reported. Re-cent � ndings of the PSCST, however, indicate thatthe number of � sh species may even be more than50.balanced in hydrological regime, maintains high wa-ter quality and recharges ground water. While theground water table in most part of the State is re-ceding badly, the areas near wetlands are rich inground water resources. The water quality of thislake is also predominantly of “A” Class as per thedesignated best use criteria in spite of the fact thathuge volumes of polluted water reach this lake fromindustries and urban centers.a buffer for protecting downstream areas from mild� oods.

This wetland is, however, under natural and demo-graphic threats. Major threats to Harike wetland arelisted below:

Weed Growth: profuse growth and in� ux of waterhyacinth is adversely affecting the ecology of thislake. It covers about 75% of the lake area therebydetracting the migratory avifauna.Siltation: Deposition of silt eroded from far-off hillcatchments and immediate areas has reduced thepond area from 41 to 28 km2. Roughly 0.2 to 0.4 km2

is converted to dry land every year due to heavysiltation. The storage capacity of this lake has beenconsiderably reduced from 8381 ha meter in 1952 to4650 ha meter in 1980 and further to 1820 ha meterin 1990.Encroachments: A 792 ha area of Harike Wetlandhas been encroached upon by unauthorized publicfor carrying out agricultural operations. The areaunder encroachment continuously increases.Pollution from industrial, urban and agricultural ac-tivities. About 700 £ 106 l d¡1 of polluted waterfrom different towns and industries reach HarikeLake (PSCST, 1998). Some of the important drainssuch as Budha Nallah, have been totally convertedinto sewers, andcarry the entire ef� uents of the megatowns like Ludhiana into the river Satlej. Interest-ingly, however, due to self-puri� cation processes,the water quality of this lake generally falls undercategory ‘A’.Fishing and Poaching: Harike wetland is a part ofHarike Bird Sanctuary. Thus � shing and poaching

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462 Ladhar / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 5 (2002) 457–465

of wild animals stands is banned in the sanctuaryunder the Wildlife (Protection) Act. However, illegal� shing and poaching does take place and have beencauses of concern.Grazing: Indiscriminate grazing in the catchmentsand right in the wetland zones is damaging the wet-land ecology.

Kanjli Wetland

Named after Village Kanjli, this wetland locatednear Kapurthala town (4 km from the city) is fed byKali Bein, which originates near the village of Dhanoain the Hoshiarpur district and merges with river Sut-lej (earlier Beas) upstream of Harike Reservoir. Spreadover about 100 ha at 31± 320 North latitude and 75± 760

East longitude, this wetland was included in the list ofwetlands of national importance in 1988. The maxi-mum depth of water is recorded to be 25 feet. This wet-land supports diversity of resident and migratory avi-fauna, nurtures large number of � sh species, controlshydrological regime and is important from religiousand recreational points of view. Still, it is threateneddue to profuse growth of water hyacinth, pollution,reduction in water in� ow, encroachment, cutting and� lling. With regard to water quality, marked temporalvariations have been reported in a PSCST sponsoredstudy (Punjab Pollution Control Board, 1999). Waterquality generally conforms to Class ‘B’ as per desig-nated best use classi� cation but falling to Class ‘D’ atone location in December.

Large scale � lling of Kali Bein at its upper terminalend with subsequent use for cultivation causes over ex-ploitation of groundwater resources and a reduction inthe water � ow which will ultimately affect the KanjliWetland. Reduction in oozing out of water near the vil-lages Dhanoa, Himatpur and Vadhaya in Hoshiarpurdistrict has also occurred due to diversion of Beaswater through the Mukerian Hydel Channel becausethe ground water recharging from Beas has drasticallydeclined. To maintain water levels in Kali Bein, it isdesirable to monitor the ground water balance of thesevillages and take appropriate measures such as reopen-ing the Budhu Barkat regulator and thereby stoppingthe diversion of upper part of Kali Bein into the Beas.This may also help in controlling water hyacinth. Thereis, however, an apprehension of water logging in areasnear tail end of Kali Bein if � ow of water into it isincreased. Thus an in-depth ecological review is beingcarried out.

Ropar Wetland

Ropar Wetland spreads over an area of 1365 ha. Itwas formed in 1952 with the construction of RoparBarrage over the Sutlej River for diversion of waterinto Sirhind canal and Bist Doab Canal. This wetlandis an important ecosystem for waterfowl and has greatpotential for � sheries, forest, agriculture, horticulture,wildlife and recreational activities besides serving animportant role in ecological andhydrological functions.This is an unique wetland being located in the lap ofShivalik Foothills, which is an important habitat forthe scaly anteater and a number of other vulnerablespecies. One hundred nineteen species of birds and20 species of � shes have been reported in this wet-land area (Randhawa, 1990). Because of its tremendousecological value, in 1992 the Ministry of Environmentand Forests, Govt. of India included this wetland in thelist of wetlands of national importance for undertakingconservation and management activities.

Wetlands of potential nationalsigni� cance

Nangal Lake

Nangal Reservoir, located in the Ropar district, isa balancing reservoir which was established as partof a major hydro-electric project in 1961 for provid-ing irrigation water and electricity to the distant ar-eas including parts of Punjab and Haryana. Situatedon river Sutlej at 31± 230 1000 North latitude and 76±

220 1000 East longitude, this reservoir is very impor-tant from socio-economic, ecological, hydrological andrecreational considerations. Besides serving as an im-portant refueling base for migratory avifauna, this lakesupports diversity of species of local birds, � shes, rep-tiles, some important mammals and plants. One hun-dred � fty-four species of birds have been reported atthis Wetland. Being a unique ecosystem, this wetlandhas been nominated to the Ministry of Environment andForests, Govt. of India for inclusion under the NationalLake Conservation Program (PSCST, 1994).

Hussainiwala Wetland

The Hussainiwala ecological zone, the � rst ma-jor man-made wetland in this region, was formed in1922 with the construction of barrage over river Sutlej.Spread over about 688 ha area in the Ferozepur district,this reservoir with a storage capacity of 2234 ha meter

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Ladhar / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 5 (2002) 457–465 463

Table 5. Wetlands of state importance in Punjab.

Sr. No. Name of Wetland Nearest Village District Area (ha)

Natural Wetlands1. Keshopur-miani Jheel Keshopur Gurdaspur 4052. Chhawrian Banghar Chhamb Kahnuwan Gurdaspur 1223. Jastarwal Jheel Jastarwal Amritsar 1354. Mand Bharthala Bharthala Nawan Shahar 150

Manmade Wetlands5. Dholbaha Reservoir Dholbaha Hoshiarpur 132

is the source of water supplies through Gang Canalof the State of Punjab and Rajasthan. Furthermore,this wetland is a great habitat for � sheries, providesrefuge to the wildlife including migratory waterfowl,supports agricultural activities, has tremendous recre-ational potential and above all performs critical hydro-logical roles. Although located just about 40 km down-stream of Harike Wetland, this wetland is strategicallysituated near Indo-Pakistan border and some stretch ofSutlej River upstream of Hussainiwala, passes throughPakistan. Major threats to this wetland include infesta-tion of water hyacinth, pollution due to agro-chemicals,� shing and poaching, and reducedwater � ow during thesummer.

Wetlands of state importanceThe state of Punjab has a number of other natu-

ral and man-made wetlands, which are of considerablesigni� cance performing vital ecological functions. Thesurvey has shown that only a few wetlands of naturalorigin remain and those are in need of immediate atten-tion. Some of the man-made wetlands suchas Dholbaha

Table 6. Extinct natural wetlands of the State of Punjab.

Wetland Name Nearest Town District Earlier Area (ha) Present Status

Bhupinder Sagar Patran/Samana Patiala 1280 Under cultivationChhangli Chhamb Ferozepur Ferozepur 1000 Under cultivationChhangli Talao Chhangli Ferozepur 140Chhamb Gurditiwala Ferozepur Ferozepur 100Fazilka Fazilka Ferozepur 30 Mainly under cultivation.

Some � sh farming alsobeing done.

Sangreri Sangreri/Bareta Mansa 41 Under cultivationDharamkot Dham Derababa Nanak Gurdaspur 12 Under cultivationGaunspur Chhamb Dasuya Hoshiarpur 100 Under cultivationJandwal Chhamb Jandwal Hoshiarpur 100 Under cultivationRahon De Chhamb Rahon/Nawanshahr Jalandhar 300 Under cultivation

reservoir, Maili Dam, Mangrowal Dam, Nangal Lakeface stress from heavy siltation due to erosion in thecatchment areas. Immediate site-speci� c conservationmeasures are required to be undertaken at the importantwetland sites, which have been recognized/designatedas the wetlands of state importance. Five wetlands havebeen identi� ed of the state importance of which fourare natural and one man-made (Table 5).

Extinct wetlands in PunjabThe natural wetlands of the state, which occupied

an area of more than 9300 ha, have been under mas-sive stress particularly after the green revolution era.Thirty two natural wetlands, which existed during early1940s are now extinct because of their reclamation byman supported by the consolidation process of the gov-ernment. Important extinct wetlands include Bhupin-der Sagar, Gaunspur Chhamb, Chhangli Chhamb, andRahon-de-Chhamb. The list of important extinct wet-lands and their current status is given in Table 6. All ofthese have been reported to be drained and leveled forfarming.

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DiscussionIt was observed that wetlands in the State are gener-

ally under pressures due to human indifference. Whilesome wetlands are being over-exploited through mono-culture, others are being drained and put to other uses ofnon-wetland nature. In contrast, at many places, localresidents, who prefer cultivation of wetland crops likeNelumbium and Trapa, and practice � sh culture, areworried about the continuous loss of wetlands sinceeconomic returns from wetlands are diminishing. Theirworry is mainly because of the fact that the drainagesystem in adjoining areas is converting wetlands intodry lands. Those wetland cultivators who are tradi-tionally expert in raising crops of obligatory wetlandspecies like Nelumbium and Trapa do not wish to con-vert their wetlands for dry land farming. Such concernwas shown by the bene� ciaries of Jastarwal and AliwalKotli Chhamb in Amritsar District. However, mono-culture of only two crops and intensive use of agro-chemicals pose a threat to the ecological sustainabilityof these ecosystems.

On the other hand, some people who are not aware ofvalues of Nelumbium and Trapa and who do not harvestnatural � sheries, are concerned about the persistence ofwetlands. They want to convert these places into drylands for cultivation of wheat and other crops as thesecrops have been more remunerative during the last twodecades. They press for drainage of these places. Dur-ing such considerations, actual bene� ts of wetlands likeground water stability, ecosystem diversity, vital habi-tats of � ora and fauna particularly migratory birds, rolein � ood control and recreation are not considered. At-titudes against the preservation of wetlands are preva-lent among the owners or bene� ciaries of Maghar-Mudian, Miani-Jhamela, Kahnuwan-Chhamb, LehailKalan, Gobindgarh Khokhar, Terkiana, and Bharowanawetlands. The large wetlands like Maghar-Mudian andKahnuwan-Chhamb cannot be drained by the local pub-lic, so efforts are being made to get it done through thegovernment. However, the smaller wetlands like theone at Gobindgarh Khokhar and Chechian Kulian areeither being drained or � lled up by the bene� ciariesthemselves to make them cultivable.

There are other wetlands which are naturally dryingup. The main reason for this is drastically reduced in-� ow of surface run-off from the surrounding highlands,which have been/are being developed and brought un-der intensive cultivation with the advancement of tech-nology. This is happening at Mann-Chopra Chhamb inGurdaspur district, Lehal Kalan in Sangrur and Baretain Mansa. Here, drainage has not taken place, but with

the intensive cultivation in the surrounding high landswhere bunds have been strengthened, water does not� ow into wetlands. Season after season the low landsare more and more devoid of water and are being cul-tivated from the fringes inwards.

Threats to the state wetlands

This survey shows that wetlands are under variousthreats that are usually human related. As a conse-quence, all major natural wetlands have either beenalmost lost or are under tremendous pressure of rede-velopment. Major threats to the state wetland ecosys-tems identi� ed by the PSCST on the basis of physicalsurveys are:

1. Drainage of low lands and their transformation intoagricultural croplands or other uses for short-termgains. Indiscriminate consolidation and reconsoli-dation has given free hand to owners or bene� ciariesfor wetland area reclamation.

2. The Public’s general negative attitude towards wet-lands which is considered to be a free ‘gift’ of land.Pressure of all sorts is being put forward to encroachupon the wetland.

3. Reduction of the � ow of water into the natural wet-lands from the surrounding agricultural uplands dueto intensive and modern agricultural activities. Thishas converted many of them into terrestrial habitatsmaking them prone to encroachments for agricul-ture. Natural wetlands, which are not fed by riversor streams, have been adversely affected.

4. Filling up of low lands by transferring soil fromother areas to make them cultivable. Smaller andshallower wetlands are more prone to this practice.

5. Cultivation of single wetland crop like Nelumbium,Trapa, in some wetlands and severe effects of inten-sive use of agro-chemicals on the other associated� ora and fauna.

6. Indiscriminate discharge of domestic and indus-trial ef� uents and solid wastes into low lands, openspaces, streams and rivers.

7. Siltation of man-made wetlands due to erosion fromdenuded surrounding catchments, which are undermultitude of threats like deforestation and graz-ing further add to assaults in� icted by demographicprocesses.

Measures undertaken

Survey and Mapping: Harike and Kanjli Wetlandshave been surveyed and mapped. All other wetlandsare yet to be surveyed in detail for mapping.

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Ladhar / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 5 (2002) 457–465 465

Fencing in strategic areas for Wildlife Development:7317 running m fence at Harike about 3354 run-ning m fence at Kanjli Wetland have been erected atstrategic locations to prevent interference and checkencroachment of wetland area. Work is further con-tinuing at these places as well as at Ropar Wetland.Afforestation: Native tree species mainly Acacia,Terminalia, Eugenia, Salix, Melia, Ficus, Zizyphus,Dalbergia are planted at 79 ha area of HarikeWetland, 26 ha of Kanjli Wetland and 10 ha areaof Ropar Wetland to strengthen the habitat charac-teristics.Weed Control: Control of water hyacinth at Harikeand Kanjli Wetlands has been carried out in an inte-grated manner by involving manual, mechanical andbiological methods. Effects of biological agents ofNeochetina eichorniae and N. bruchi being releasedat Harike Wetland have shown encouraging results.But the process is extremely slow. Use of mechanicalsystem involving motorized winches and � xed sta-tion movable mesh mechanism (conveyor belt sys-tem) has proven useful.Water Quality Monitoring: So far water qualitymonitoring studies at Harike Wetland shows that itgenerally conforms to Class ‘A’ during most of theyear. Similarly water quality of Kanjli Wetland con-forms Class ‘B’. Sometimes it, however, degrades toclass ‘D’. Water quality of Ropar Wetland generallyconforms to class ‘A’.Soil Conservation: Measures like putting up of veg-etative structures, staggered trenching, tree plan-tation, minor gully plugging, earthen check dams,and land terracing have been taken in some criticalcatchment areas of Harike Wetland.Public awareness: A � lm ‘Destination Harike’ wasproduced both in English and Punjabi and has beenshown at various forums including Doordarshan.Publicity material like posters on wetland birds havebeen published and hoardings have been installed atdifferent locations.Removal of encroachments: 169 ha area in HarikeWetland and 8 ha area in Kanjli Wetland earlier oc-cupied by unauthorized public have been cleared ofencroachments. These areas are being brought un-der plantation of native tree species.

Development of Wetland Information and Manage-ment Systems: The conservation and managementactivities in the wetlands could be easily monitoredand new projects may be ef� ciently prepared byusing a computer based information system. Withthis view the Council initiated the program for de-velopment of Wetland Information and Manage-ment System by employing a Geographical Infor-mation System. The main objective of designingthis system is to establish and design a suitableprogram for wetlands so as to keep easy track ofprevious and current activities together and to pre-pare future course of action for conservation andmanagement of wetlands and to present all the in-formation in graphic form. This system can bereplicated and used for any other wetlands in thecountry.

ReferencesAnonymous , 1990. Wetlands of India—A Directory. Ministry of En-

vironment and Forests, Govt. of India, New Delhi.Jerath, N., Ladhar, Satnam Singh, Parwana, H. K., Dua, D. K., Jain,

S. K., Kaur, P., 1995. Punjab Environment: Status Report, 1995.Punjab State Council for Science and Technology, Chandigarh.

Kazmierczak, K., Undeland, P., Allen, D., Singh, R., 1998. Bird-watching Areas—Harike Bird Sanctuary, India. Oriental BirdClub Bulletin 27. Rubythroat Publications, Hampshire, U.K.

Ladhar, S. S., 1995a. Inventory and Ecological Status of Wetlandsand Lake Ecosystems of Punjab, PSCST Document.

Ladhar, S. S., 1995b. Wetland and Lake Ecosystems—the refuges ofprecious Biological Diversity. Proceedings of National Seminaron Environment and Development . March 14–15, 1995. GuruNanak Dev University, Amritsar.

Ladhar, Satnam Singh, Chauhan, M., Handa, S. M., Jerath, N., 1994.Ramsar Sitesof India: HarikeLake,Punjab. World Wildlife Fund-India, New Delhi.

PSCST (Punjab State Council for Science and Technology) ,1994. Nangal Reservoir–The Lake of National Importance.Chandigarh, India.

PSCST (Punjab State Council for Science and Technology) , 1998.Action Plan for Ecodevelopment of Harike Wetland. Chandigarh,India.

Punjab Pollution Control Board, 1999. Kanjli Wetland—A Reporton Water Quality. Patiala, Punjab, India.

Randhawa, A. S., 1990. Ropar Wetland—A Serene and Scenic En-vironment . R. C. Nayyar, Deputy Commissioner, Ropar, Punjab,India.

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