Status of MSW management system in northern India-an overview

Status of MSW management system in northern India-anoverview

Kuldeep Ojha

Received: 11 February 2010 / Accepted: 14 June 2010 / Published online: 23 June 2010� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010

Abstract Many Indian cities are facing serious problems in managing solid wastes with

rise in population and urbanization. This article assesses the existing state of municipal

solid waste management (MSWM) in northern India with the aim of identifying the major

obstacles to its efficiency and the prospects for improvisation of the solid waste man-

agement system in the region. The existing solid waste management system in the region is

found to be highly inefficient. Primary and secondary collection, transportation and open

dumping are the only activities practiced that too in a non-technical manner. Many cities in

region face serious problems in managing solid wastes. The annual waste generation

increases in proportion to the rises in population and urbanization. This paper systemati-

cally assesses the obstacles in the existing solid waste management system in the urban

areas of region and also tries to assess the potentials for its improvisation.

Keywords Municipality solid waste � Waste management system � Waste to energy

1 Introduction

From time immemorial, human beings have been utilizing resources of earth to support

themselves. In early times, the needs were less and resources were plenty as the population

was much less, and consequently, wastes were not a significant problem. Waste is a result

of human activities from the dawn of civilization, which has become more prominent

during and after industrial revolution and rise of population. Today, accumulation of waste

has become a consequence of life in an industrialized society.

India has, in the past two decades, become a potential economic world leader and is

experiencing a steady economic growth. This increased growth has led to increasing

Readers should send their comments on this paper to [email protected] within 3 monthsof publication of this issue.

K. Ojha (&)Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Indiae-mail: [email protected]

123

Environ Dev Sustain (2011) 13:203–215DOI 10.1007/s10668-010-9256-6

consumerism, especially in the urban sector. This is fast leading to depletion of natural

resources and poses a significant challenge to the country’s sustainable and ecological

development (Zia and Devadas 2000).

1.1 Waste management system

Refuse is often considered as useless, unwanted and therefore discarded. Waste is defined

as ‘‘anything rejected as worthless, or in excess of what is required’’ (New edition concise

English-dictionary 1999). Byrne considered the waste as material, which has no direct

value to the producer and so must be disposed of (Byrne 1997). Bailie declares that ‘‘for

practical purposes, the term ‘waste’ includes any material that enters the waste-manage-

ment system’’, i.e. organized program and central facilities established not only for final

disposal of waste but also for recycling, reuse, material reclamation, composting and

incineration (Bailie et al. 1996). Wastes are generally classified as per the three states of

matter, namely gaseous, liquid, or solid. Solid wastes form the subject of the present study

with respect to northern India. Balilie described solid refuse as including all waste

materials that are not hazardous; in addition, there are liquid wastes and emissions to the

atmosphere (Bailie et al. 1996). Kiely interestingly defined solid refuse to embrace wastes

from ‘‘human and animal activities, including liquid wastes like paints, old medicines,

spent oils, etc.’’ (Kiely 1998). However, the present study considers solid refuse to be

largely non-flowing. Because of this characteristic and its inability (at ambient tempera-

tures) to vaporize, its handling and management are relatively difficult compared with

those for liquid and gaseous wastes (Ogunbiyi 2001). Hence, the solid waste has to be

retained hygienically until it is physically removed for disposal. Municipal solid waste

(MSW) is all waste collected by private and public authorities from domestic, commercial

and some industrial (non-hazardous) sources. Furthermore, some researchers posited that

MSW comprises small and moderately sized solid waste items from houses, businesses and

institutions (Bailie et al. 1996; Kiely 1998). The composition and type of refuse may vary

from location to location, as well as from one householder to another (Kiely 1998; Pickford

1977). Hence, solutions should be location specific. Even domestic refuse from a single

house will vary from week to week and from season to season. MSW is a complex mixture

of biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances. Thus, a comprehensive waste man-

agement program is needed, and it should consider the inconsistencies of the refuse in

relation to the location and season. Waste management system is associated with the

identification, reduction, storage, collection, transfer and transport, reuse and recycling,

and processing and disposal of waste, keeping in view health, economics, engineering,

conservation, esthetics and all other environmental conditions involved in the complete

spectrum of solution to the problem of waste (Jalan and Srivastava 1996).The inefficient

and improper methods of waste management particularly in developing country like India

(Vrat 1979) are creating pollution problems in the air, land and water resources that are

interfering with community life and development.

The sectors of waste management, waste generation and consumption of outputs of

waste management are schematically shown in Fig. 1. Most MSW that are generated find

their way into land and water bodies without proper treatment, causing severe water

pollution. They also emit greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide and add to air

pollution. Tsiliyannis (1999) discussed the main environmental problems related to

MSWM, and in particular those concerning pollutant releases. The problems caused by

solid and liquid wastes can be significantly mitigated through the adoption of environment-

friendly waste-to-energy technologies that will allow treatment and processing of wastes

204 K. Ojha

123

before their disposal. These measures would reduce the quantity of wastes, generate a

substantial quantity of energy from them and greatly reduce pollution of water and air.

For MSW management, generally local governments are responsible, but most

administrations in developing countries like India fail to provide the service for a large

section of the population (Pfammatter 1996). The main reason for this situation is the rapid

growth of population coupled with the expansion of cities together with the diminishing

financial resources. It is reported that urban population in developing countries is

increasing at about 50 million per year all of whom demand for service provision (Choguill

1996). Thus, the local governing bodies have difficulties in keeping pace with this

development and in meeting the growing demand for MSW management services in

general and collection services in particular. However, due to a lack of capacity in the

public sector, the private sector has stepped in to fill the gap. The contribution by the

private sector to solid waste service provision is now a common phenomenon in most cities

in developing countries (Ali 1997).

1.2 Northern India

Northern India consists of states of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Delhi, Hari-

yana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir, as well as the Union Territory

of Chandigarh. Mainly, the MSW management system is a feature of cities due to higher

population density. In rural areas, it is not such a serious problem. So the paper presents

overview of waste management system in class 1 cities in northern region. The cities to be

covered under the project were classified into four categories, namely Very Big, Big,

Medium and Small. The cities were divided into the four categories based upon the

population of the city (census report, 2001) as shown in Table 1, Fig. 2.

Waste generating Sectors

Domestic Waste

Commercial Commercial Waste

General Municipal Waste

Composting Biodegradable

recycling Non-biodegradable

recycling

Incineration Landfills

Consuming sector

Fig. 1 Overall waste management system

Status of MSW management system in northern India-an overview 205

123

About 32 % of total population is centered in four major cities Delhi, Lucknow, Jaipur

and Kanpur as shown in Fig. 1. Out of total 52 million population, 15% is of big cities

population, 15% is of medium cities population and 38% is from small cities.

1.3 Methodology

At the outset, extensive literature review has been done on the available and employed

methods for MSW management in the region. Subsequently, information about policy,

legislation and general information on waste management was collected from various

government reports and research papers. Information about waste quantities and charac-

teristics was taken from National Master Plan for Development of Waste-to-Energy. Field

studies were conducted by the Authors to understand the various issues regarding col-

lection, transportation and disposal of municipal waste.

2 Generation and composition of wastes

Waste generation is the first element of waste management. It is a prerequisite to any waste

management plan to have adequate knowledge of the generators of waste, its physical and

chemical characteristics. Table 2 shows generators and types of municipality solid waste.

The composition and amount of the wastes that are generated are critical data for the

formulation of new waste management plans and technologies. Accurate estimations of

these variables are necessary to the design of resource recovery and materials cycles.

Waste minimization will not be carried out effectively without having reliable waste

composition data. An evaluation of the impacts of certain types of waste and an estimation

Table 1 Division of class 1 cities in northern region (Source—National Master Plan for Development ofWaste-to-Energy in India)

Serial no. Category Population range Number of cities

1 Very big city More than 1.5 Million 04

2 Big city Between 1.0 Million and 1.5 Million 07

3 Medium city Between 0.5 and 1.0 Million 11

4 Small city Less than 0.5 Million 96

32%

15%15%

38%

Very big cities

Big cities

Medium cities

Small cities

Fig. 2 Division of population inclass 1 cities in northern region(Total population = 52 million)

206 K. Ojha

123

of the life of landfills require sufficient waste composition data (Klee 1994). Both the

quantity and composition of waste vary widely from day to day and from season to season,

and considerable differences may be observed not only between countries but also between

neighboring localities and between types of property within the same city.

2.1 Solid waste generation

About 29682 tons of solid waste is generated every day in class I cities of northern region of

the country, of which about 13110 tons is generated from the very big cities like Delhi,

Kanpur, Lucknow and Jaipur. The big cities of the region generate about 4372 tons per day,

medium size cities generate solid waste to a tune of about 4137 tons per day (14% of the

total solid waste generated in the region). The total solid waste generation in the small cities

is about 27% of the generation in the region, which is about 8063 tons/day. Figure 3 shows

the quantum of solid waste generation in each category of cities in the region. The average

per capita solid waste generation in class I cities of the region is about 471 gms, with

maximum per capita generation of 830 grams in the city of Kanpur and Ludhiana. The

average per capita solid waste generation of the class I cities is tabulated in the Tables 2, 3.

2.2 Waste characteristics

The waste characteristics of the solid waste generated vary from very big to small cities in

the region. The average biodegradable matter in the very big cities is about 35%, (the city

Table 2 Generators of waste and types of waste

Serial no. Sources of wastes Types of waste

1 Households and institutions Mostly organic with some plastics, glass, metals, inertmaterials and hazardous waste like batteries and paint, etc.

2 Vegetable and fruit marketsrestaurants, etc

Mostly organic

3 Schools Mostly papers

4 Slaughterhouses Bones, blood, intestines, carcasses, etc.

5 Commercial centers Mostly paper and plastics

6 Animal husbandry Dung and used straw

44%

15%

14%

27%

Very big cities

Big cities

Medium cities

Small cities

Fig. 3 Per capita solid wastegeneration in northern region(Source—National Master Planfor Development of Waste-to-Energy in India)


123

of Delhi has minimum biodegradable content of about 32%) and average moisture content

is about 39%. (Kanpur has very less moisture content of 32%). The average biodegradable

matter in the region is about 38%, and the moisture content of the solid waste generated in

the region is about 39%. (The values are arrived by means of data obtained from various

secondary sources and the documentation of CPCB on Solid Waste Management Practices

in Class I cities of the country). The following Table 4 shows the variation of the per-

centage of biodegradable matter and the moisture content in the solid waste generated in

the class I cities of the northern region. Table 5 shows detailed waste composition in some

selected metro cities in northern region.

2.3 Waste to energy potential

Total estimated potential of waste to energy from MSW in India is 1700 MW out of that

cumulative installed capacity in March 31, 2005, was only 17 MW (waste energy booklet).

So it is evident that only a fraction of waste to energy potential is being utilized. Potential

Table 3 Average per capitasolid waste generation in class Icities of northern region(Source—National Master Planfor Development of Waste-to-Energy in India)

Serial no. Category Average Per capitawaste generation (grams)

1 Very big city 699

2 Big city 522

3 Medium city 490

4 Small city 456

5 Average of the region 471

Table 4 Average solid waste characteristics of northern region class I cities (Source—National Master Planfor Development of Waste-to-Energy in India)

Serial no. Category Biodegradablematter (%)

Moisturecontent (%)

1 Very big city 35 39

2 Big city 72 70

3 Medium city 45 40

4 Small city 42.6 39.5

5 Average of the region 38 39.3

Table 5 Characteristics of municipal solid waste generated by some metro cities in northern India (CPCB1999)

Serialno.

Name ofmetro city

Characteristics (% by Weight)

Paper Textile Leather Plastic Metal Glass Ash, fine earthand others

Compostablematter

1 Varanasi 3 4 – 10 – – 35 48

2 Lucknow 4 2 – 4 1 – 49 40

3 Kanpur 5 1 5 1.5 – – 52.5 40

4 Ludhiana 3 5 – 3 – – 30 40

5 Delhi 6.6 4 0.6 1.5 2.5 1.2 51.5 31.78

208 K. Ojha

123

for recovery of energy (MW) from urban waste in northern states in India is given in

Table 6.

3 Waste disposal trends in northern India

As per 74th Constitutional Amendment, it is the responsibility on local governments to

protect the environment in the areas under their jurisdiction. MSW in cities is collected by

respective municipalities of the cities and transported to assigned disposal sites. However,

limited budgetary provisions of the these municipalities coupled with lack of qualified

personnel, the land availability in metropolises, conspicuously absent waste-processing

facilities and little awareness about the municipal solid waste management rules make the

local bodies ill-equipped to manage the MSW, although it is their basic, obligatory duty.

Therefore, there is an urgent need to augment the revenues of the municipalities and

upgrade the existing infrastructure for efficient MSW management.

Data relating to the solid waste management system in small cities are not available

with respect to quantum of waste collected, transported and disposed off in safe and

hygienic manner. However, on a macro level, it can be concluded that in most of the small

cities, adequate solid waste management system does not exist in a systematic manner. The

four very big cities of Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow and Jaipur have solid waste management

systems functioning in the cities, and the solid waste is collected and transported to the

dumping stations. The solid waste is dumped in un-engineered dumpsites, and the exact

capacity of the dumping stations is not known. In Delhi, incineration is tried at Timarpur

plant and as on date, the plant is in non-working condition. Plans for revamping the system

are on, and exact details of the same are not available. In Lucknow, biomethanation-based

energy generation plant is existing; however, due to operational problems, the plant is

presently not working. The medium cities lack in proper solid waste management system,

and the solid waste is only dumped at the city outskirts and at open lands. Figure 4 shows

systematic diagram for waste collection and management in the region.

There are a number of legislations at National, State and Local level, which govern the

management of municipal solid waste like the Uttar Pradesh Municipal Corporation Act of

1959 in Uttar Pradesh, Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998, Haz-

ardous Wastes (Management and Handling Rules), 1989, Municipal Waste (Management

and Handling) Rules, 1999, Manual on municipal solid waste management, 2000, Plastic and

other non-biodegradable garbage Ordinance of July, 2000. However, even the latest manuals

fail to solve the financial problems of local bodies and the status of MSW management.

Informal sector plays a significant role in waste management in the region. Informal

sector means ‘‘unregistered, unregulated, or casual activities carried out by individuals

Table 6 Potential for recoveryof energy (MW) from urbanwastes by state (Source—Wasteenergy booklet, Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources)

Serial no. State Solid wastespotential (MW)

1 Delhi 111

2 Uttar Pradesh 154

3 Punjab 39

4 Rajasthan 53

5 Haryana 18

5 Himachal Pradesh 01


123

and/or family or community enterprises that engage in value-adding activities on a small-

scale with minimal capital input, using local materials and labor-intensive techniques’’

(Haan et al. 1998). The informal sector engaged in waste recycling mostly means to those

employees who are classified as ‘‘own account’’ workers, e.g. unpaid family workers and

those who collect and treat mostly unregistered waste material (World Bank 1995). This

sector is mainly engaged in recycling activity in the region. The segment comprises of

waste-pickers, dump-pickers, itinerant waste buyers, small and big traders and wholesalers.

Materials like magazines, newspaper, books and copies, bottles, cans, glass and metals are

stored and sold to the waste buyers, who pay for the materials by weight. These itinerant

waste buyers in turn sell to the small-scale waste traders who in turn supply the material to

big traders and wholesalers. Waste-pickers and dump-pickers collect the recyclables from

the various collection points and both official and unofficial waste dump sites.

3.1 Social aspects and hazardous waste management

One problem related to waste in the region, as in many societies, is that it is considered

dirty and filthy, and those dealing with it are perceived as inferior, second-class citizens.

Traditionally, people working with waste in India—popularly know as rag pickers—usu-

ally belong to the ‘‘untouchables’’ (the Dalits); e.g., the raddiwallhas collect or buy waste.

Hence, the prevailing, informal, waste system affects how people view waste (Snel 1999).

The waste workers live and work under extensive health risks and suffer severe exploi-

tation and deprivation. Possible health hazards include raised levels of infant mortality,

hand and leg injuries, intestinal and respiratory infections, eye infections, lower back pain,

malnutrition, skin disorders and exposure to hazardous waste (Solid Waste Management

Manual 2000).

Waste sources

1. Households 2. Institutions 3. markets and

commercial establishment

Primary collection

1. Maid-servants 2. Housewives, 3. Private and municipal sweepers

Transport

Secondary collection

1. Open depots 2. Dustbins 3. Some open burning by municipal workers

Reuse and recycling

Disposal at dump site and illegal dumping

Via Kabadiwala, rag pickers, dump pickers and traders

To consumers

Fig. 4 Typical waste collection and its management system

210 K. Ojha

123

Also, there is a growing concern for the safe disposal of hazardous waste generated

from the anthropogenic sources. Hazardous waste may be classified (Babu and Gupta

1997) into (a) solid wastes (b) liquid wastes (c) gaseous wastes and (d) sludge wastes. HPC

(2001) defines hazardous waste as any substance, whether in solid, liquid or gaseous form,

which has no foreseeable use and which by reasons of any physical, chemical, reactive,

toxic, flammable, explosive, corrosive, radioactive or infectious characteristics causes

danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or when in

contact with other wastes or environment, and should be considered as such when gen-

erated, handled, stored, transported, treated and disposed off. This definition includes any

product that releases hazardous substance at the end of its life, if indiscriminately disposed

off. The hazardous waste needs to be disposed off in secured manner in view of their

characteristic properties. Severe pollution of land, surface and ground water may occur

(Ramakrishna and Babu 1999; Rao 1999) if the options available (Wentz Charles 1995;

Parsa et al. 1996; Chakradhar et al. 1999) for hazardous waste management are not being

efficiently utilized by the waste generators. As per the ideal industrial siting criteria in

India, the industry should have enough land available within its premises for the treatment

and disposal and or reuse/recycling of the wastes generated from it (Murali Krishna 1995).

Mostly the large-scale industries and a few medium-scale industries (Ramakrishna and

Babu 1998) and none of the small-scale industries in the region own the hazardous waste

treatment facilities. Financial, administrative and infrastructural facilities are some of the

reasons attributed for the above limitations. It is interesting to note that, till 1997, there is

no secured landfill facility available in the region to dispose of HW (HPC 2001).

The HW generation in Indian States is given in Table 7 (HPC 2001). Minimum haz-

ardous waste is reported in Chandigarh (0.0069%).

4 Problems in the management of solid waste services in region

Northern region have various problems regarding MSW management. These problems are

summarized as follows.

1. The first problem regarding MSW management is the inconsistency and incomplete-

ness of data. The missing data vary from city to city and from class of city to city. The

incompleteness of data in the very big cities is comparatively lower than that of

smaller cities. Missing data and inconsistency in the data collected are summarized in

Table 7 Status of hazardous waste generation in southern India

State/union territory Code Total districts Districts in whichHW units located

Total units Total HWgeneration TPA

Delhi DEL 9 9 403 1000

Haryana HAR 17 15 309 32559

Himachal Pradesh HP 12 6 116 2159

Punjab PUN 17 15 700 22745

Rajasthan RJN 32 26 332 122307

Uttar Pradesh UP 83 65 1036 145786

Chandigarh CHN 1 1 47 305

Jammu & Kashmir JK 14 5 57 1221


123

the Table 8. Data regarding general details of the city in Table 8 include location

details, demographic details, topographical features, social structure and major

industries in the city. Data about existing solid waste management system and energy

potential include total quantity of waste generated, per capita waste generation, mode

of collection of waste, mode of transportation of waste, operation and maintenance

costs for the system, mode of disposal of the waste, quality and characteristics of the

solid waste generated and energy potential of the solid waste generated in the city.

Similarly, data about institutional details include total vehicle fleet and manpower

available and budget provisions for the solid waste management. There is practically

no data available about informal sector involved in waste management.

2. Storage problems regarding on-site storage vary from one area to another, but in most

of the cases on-site, storage is not proper. Storage is not secure and does not allow for

effective collection, causing health and environmental problems. Some of the common

problems of storage are leaving waste exposed, emitting odor and attracting flies,

rodents, and stray animals, and residents with no proper waste storage facilities. This

contributes to the inefficiency of collection. Insufficient supply of communal trash

cans results in the storage area becoming a dump site. Scavenging by rodents and stray

animals finally leaves the waste scattered all around the site, and this is unhygienic.

3. Collection and disposal problems are littering around communal trash cans results in

inefficiency of collection. Different weight and sizes of trash cans makes collection of

waste difficult. Crude dumping is widely practiced. Poor control of the site results in

haphazard tipping. There is also shortage of suitable land for disposal.

4. Other problems regarding waste management in the region are as follows:

• Population growth inconsistent with growth in waste management services

• Uncontrolled and unplanned urbanization

• Economic austerities and huge economic debt

• Insufficient public education and limited community participation

• Uncontrolled and accelerated generation of municipal waste

• Negligence of waste management by local and national authorities

• Inadequately trained human resources

• Poor budget monitoring due to lake of basic data and untimely reports

Table 8 Missing data in Urban sector (Source—National Master Plan for Development of Waste-to-Energy in India)

Section Description Data availability in

Very big Big cities Mediumcities

Smallcities

General details of thecity

Available for all the cities Availablefor all thecities

Relevantdataavailable

Available Available

Solid wastemanagement system

For all four cities (solid wastecharacteristics available forvery big cities)

PartialDataAvailable

Verypartialdataavailable


Nomissingdata

Institutional details ofthe solid wastemanagement system

Available for all four cities Availablefor allfourcities

Partialdataavailable



212 K. Ojha

123

• Labor conflict such as strikes by worker unions

• Incomplete legislation and insufficient enforcement

• Poor productivity of human resources due to untrained staff, poor pay scale, fixed

working hours, insufficient working practice and poor incentive for good

performance.

• No benchmarking to assess efficiency of services

• No proper charges

• Lack of equipment maintenance: maintenance is often reactive rather than regular

preventive maintenance with servicing and routine checkup

• Secondary priority for municipal administration and fragmented responsibilities by

various department

• Lack of supervision and waste management planning

5 Recommendations

Following are the few recommendations for effecting solid waste management services in

the region.

1. Suitable steps should be taken to reduce financial strain of urban local bodies. Strained

balance sheets of urban local bodies/state governments do not provide financial

comfort to local and private investors in the field. Participation of all stakeholders

including informal waste-recycling sector in MSWM should be promoted. Stakehold-

ers in an MSWM include residents of the region, welfare associations, non-

governmental organizations (NGOs), community-based organizations (CBOs), private

contractors/organizations, and central/state government authorities and the informal

waste-recycling sector.

2. Waste-to-energy projects are integral and important part of MSWM. Conferring an

industry status on the waste-to-energy projects should be conferred industry status so

that they get all the benefits as outlined in the industrial location policies of state

governments.

3. Formation of database regarding the waste quantity, quality from various sources

separately is also recommended in the study area with regular updating.

4. Decentralization of procedural and clearance activities that can help in faster

implementation of effective MSWM in the region. Proper coordination should be

established to ensure timely and adequate co-ordination so that the agencies

responsible for promoting waste to energy projects.

5. Compliance of MSWM rules by people and authorities should be promoted in the

region. Increase in awareness among the people about the ill-effects of mismanage-

ment of solid waste can also result in better compliance and cooperation for

implementing various programs. Therefore, special measures like proper information

educational campaign to sensitize the public through print media and multi-media,

educational campaigns in schools and colleges, and through religious leaders, are

simultaneously required should be taken in this regards.

6. Technical and financial issues regarding collection, storage, disposal, recycling and

waste to energy project should be taken care of properly by local and state authorities.

Again participation of all stakeholders including informal waste-recycling sector

should be promoted to reach on proper solutions.


123

6 Conclusion

Rapid urbanization and population growth of the region is bound to bring an increase in the

overall waste generation in the coming years. The challenges now being faced by solid

waste management in the region include reducing the quantity of waste from the source,

promoting the recycling of solid waste, improving disposal levels and reforming solid

waste management systems. The existing SWM system in the region is not so efficient. The

informal waste-recycling sector, despite its importance, is ignored by the local authorities.

There is, therefore, an urgent need to take suitable steps to stop further decay of the system

and for utilizing existing waste to energy potential in region.

References

Ali, S. M. (1997). Integration of the official and private informal practices in solid waste management. Ph.Dthesis, WEDC, Civil and Building Engineering, Lough borough University, UK.

Babu, S. & Gupta, J. P. (1997). Waste characterization and treatment. Chemical Business, October, 39–42.Bailie, R. C., Everett, J. W., Liptak, B. G., Liu, D. H. F., Rugg, F. M., & Switzenbaum, M. S. (1996). Solid

waste. In D. H. F. Liu, B. G. Liptak, & P. A. Bouis (Eds.), Environmental engineers handbook (pp.1148–1248). New York: Lewis Publishers.

Byrne, K. (1997). Environmental science (p. 206). London (UK): Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd.Chakradhar, B., Padmakaran, P., Mishra, D., & Rawlley, R. K. (1999). Development of treatment tech-

nology for stabilization of hazardous waste. In Proceedings of National Seminar on Waste Manage-ment, Samrat Ashok Technological Institute (Engineering College), Vidisha, India: D4-24-D4-32.

Choguill, C. L. (1996). Ten steps to sustainable infrastructure. Habitat International, 20(3), 389–404.CPCB. (1999). Status of solid waste generation, collection, treatment and disposal in metro cities. Delhi:

Central Pollution Control Board.Haan, C. H., Coad, A., & Lardinois, I. (1998). Municipal solid waste management: Involving micro and

small enterprises- guidelines for municipal managers. Italy: ITC.HPC. (2001) A report of high powered committee on management of hazardous wastes. Available at

http://www.cpcb.nic.in.Jalan, R. K. & Srivastava, V. K. (1996). Utilization of biomass from municipal solid waste for energy

recovery, recycling and disposal. In Proceedings of International conference on Biomass energysystem, New Delhi.

Kiely, G. (1998). Environmental engineering (1998) international ed (p. 979). Boston: Irwin McGraw- Hill.Klee, A. J. (1994). PROTOCOL: A computerized solid waste quantity and composition estimation system.

Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency.Murali Krishna, K. V. S. G. (1995). Air pollution and control (p. 307). Kakinada (A.P), India: Kaushal &

Co.New edition concise English-dictionary. (1999). Glasgow: Harper Collins Publishers, p. 1679.Ogunbiyi, A. (2001). Local technology in solid-waste management in Nigeria. In: Proceedings of the

national engineering conference and annual general meeting of the Nigerian Society of Engineers,2001 (pp. 73–79).

Parsa, J., Stuart, H. M., & Steiner, R. (1996). Stabilization/solidification of hazardous wastes using fly ash.Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE, 122(10), 935–940.

Pfammatter, R. A. R. S. (1996). Non-governmental refuse collection in low income urban areas. Dueben-dorf, Switzerland: SANDEC.

Pickford, J. (1977). Solid-waste in hot climates. In E. K. Feachen, et al. (Eds.), Wastes and health in hotclimates (pp. 36–38). New York: John Wiley and Sons Publishers.

Ramakrishna, V. & Babu, B. V. (1998). Positive decision making in waste management towards achievingsustainable development—A perspective. In Proceedings of 14th national convention of environmentalengineers, Institution of Engineers (India) (pp. 9–14). Hyderabad: A.P. State Center.

Ramakrishna, V. & Babu, B. V. (1999). Site selection criteria for hazardous waste treatment, storage anddisposal facility. In Proceedings of National Seminar on Waste Management, Samrat Ashok Tech-nological Institute (Engineering College), Vidisha, India: D2-8-D2-15.

Rao, P. N. (1999). Protection of environment and basic needs of mankind. Environment & People, 6(4), 5–8.

214 K. Ojha

123

http://www.cpcb.nic.in

Snel, M. (1999). Social stigma and the waste collection scheme. Paper presented at the 25th Water,Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC) conference on integrated development for water supplyand sanitation in Addis Abeba (pp. 350–353).

Solid Waste Management Manual. (2000). Central public health and environmental engineering organiza-tion (CPHEEO), Government of India.

Tsiliyannis, C. A. (1999). Report: Comparison of environmental impacts from solid waste treatment anddisposal facilities. Waste Management & Research, 18, 231–241.

Vrat, P. (1979). Waste management in India: the need for organized system approach. Co- untry Paper, APOSymposium on waste management, Japan.

Wentz Charles, A. (1995). Hazardous waste management. McGraw Hill International editions, Chemicalengineering series (2nd ed., pp. 80–86, 296–351). Singapore: McGraw Hill Inc.

Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources, Government of India National Master Plan for Developmentof Waste-to-Energy in India.

Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources, Government of India Waste energy booklet.Zia, H., & Devadas, V. (2000). Urban solid waste management in Kanpur: Opportunities a and perspectives.

Habitat International, 32, 58–73.World Bank. (1995). Workers in an integrated world. World development report. New York: Oxford

University Press.


123

Documents

Status of MSW management system in northern India-an overview