Summary of the Steps in Preparing the Research Paper

7/31/2019 Summary of the Steps in Preparing the Research Paper

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8) To find answers to queries by means of scientific studies, as to who comes first, theegg or the hen

9) To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon that can beknown and understood better by research, such as why women are generallysmaller than men

10) To expand or verify existing knowledge. This usually happens when researchesreplicate newly discovered facts that may be found to expand knowledge gainedfrom a previous research or verify if the same facts are found

11) To improve educational practices, business practices, accounting practices,engineering practices, medical practices, among others, to raise the quality ofmankind. Mankind found through experience that sufficient studies on practices dopay off in the hard, practical, concrete sense to more than compensate for the costof undertaking research effort

12) To provide man with more of his basic and social needs. Throughout the hard,tedious search for new knowledge for basic and social needs, quality of life ofmankind is improved

13) To determine as unambiguously as possible either to accept or reject the nullhypothesis14) To determine whether the assumptions of such problem is assumed to be true or

false

Essential Factors for Effective Research

Three basic factors for research1. Men2. Money3. Materials

Characteristics of a good research1. Research is systematic. It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to

the discovery of the truth or solution.2. Research is controlled. All variables, except those that are tested or being

experimented upon, are kept constant (not allowed changing or varying).3. Research is empirical. All the procedures employed and the data gathered are

perceived in the same manner by all observers.4. Research is analytical. The data of all researchers have to be analyzed, presented,

and interpreted.5. Research is objective, unbiased, and logical. All the findings and conclusions are

logically based on empirical data.6. Research employs hypothesis. Experimental research requires hypothesis that needto be tested. Descriptive research, as a general rule, does not contain hypotheses butassumptions based on specific questions answered in the conclusion section.

7. Research employs qualitative or statistical methods. Data are transformed intonumerical measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance orusefulness.

8. Research is original work. Except in historical research, data are gathered fromprimary sources or first-hand sources and not from secondary sources.

9. Research is done by an expert. Only experts use valid data, carefully designedprocedures, and valid research instrument. One can be an expert through rigorous

training.10. Research is a patient and unhurried activity. A research carelessly done dueto racing against time may lead to incorrect findings and shaky conclusions.

11. Research requires an effort-making capacity. Research involves muchwork, time, personnel, and money.

12. Research requires courage. At times, the researcher encounters publicdisapproval, frustration, embarrassment, undergo hazards, discomforts, sleeplessnights, lack of appetite, sometimes, cry especially among the women but despite

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of these difficulties and problems, the researchers should be brave enough to finishand pursue the effort started. In Filipino usage, Kung walang tiyaga, walangnilaga.

Steps in Preparing a Research Paper

1. Defining the Problem2. Selecting a Method of Solution3. Gathering, Analyzing and Interpreting the Data4. Writing the Research Paper

What is a research problem?

A research problem is the main matter to be studied. The research problem may bereferred to as the topic, or the thesis subject. But, it is always a situation that concerns orsignificantly affects a group of individuals. The quality of the problem determines the

quality of the outcome of the research paper. Everything begins with a careful, well-thought out problem.

The following situations may manifest a problem (McGuigan, 1978):1) When there is an absence of information resulting in a gap in our knowledge.2) When there are contradictory results.3) When a fact exists and you intend to make your study explain it.

After identifying a particular topic of interest, the researcher may begin the processof looking more closely into the topic by a preliminary search for literature that might helpin identifying specific issues. The literature may include books about the topic or relatedtopics, or even researches previously done on it or other related topics. This initial reviewwill later help the researcher in the review of related literature and in developing aconceptual or theoretical framework. These previous works may also contribute inidentifying and defining the problem.

What are the sources of research problems?Most students of research find the task of choosing a problem one of the more

challenging phases in writing a paper. What could be very good sources of researchproblems?

1.

INTRODUCTION..

Review of Related Literature..Conceptual or Theoretical Framework...Statement of the Problem/Objectives.Hypotheses (optional) Significance of the Study

METHOD...Research Design/Method Participants .Instruments / Sources of Data Data Collection ..Data Analysis.

RESULTS .Findings.

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DISCUSSIONAnalysis and Interpretation of DataSummary, Conclusion and Recommendation

Summary of the steps in preparing the research paperSTEP 1. Defining the problem

Formulate the problem in question form. This will make it easier for you to prepare toformulate the hypothesis, or the tentative answer to the question.

Sample problems1. How adequate are the local traffic ordinances in selected municipalities in the

province of Cavite? (existence of an attribute)2. What are the problems met by the police executives in selected municipalities in the

province of Cavite? ( relationship or difference of an effect)3. What is the relationship between the economy and peace and order situation?(relationship or difference of an effect)

4. What is the relationship between educational attainment and performance?(relationship or difference of an effect)

5. What are the problems met by the barangay captains in the five biggestmunicipalities of Cavite?

The hypothesis gives direction to your research, guides about the procedure- what to doand how to go about solving a research problem.

2 types of hypothesis

H0 null hypothesis; a denial of an existence of an attribute, a relationship or adifference of an effect, always stated in the negative form.

Sample null hypothesis for the problems givena. The local traffic ordinances in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite are

inadequate.b. There is no significant relationship in the problems met by the police executives in

selected municipalities in the province of Cavite.c. There is no significant relationship between economy and peace and order situation.d. There is no significant relationship between educational attainment and

performance.e. The barangay captains of the five biggest municipalities of the in the province of

Cavite do not meet problems.

H1 - alternative hypothesis, an affirmation of the existence of an observedphenomenon

Sample alternative hypothesis for the same problemsa. The local ordinances in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite are

adequate.b. There is a significant relationship in the problems met by the police executives in

selected municipalities in the province of Cavite.c. There is a significant relationship between economy and peace and order situation.d. There is a significant relationship between education attainment and performance.e. The barangay captains of the five biggest municipalities of the in the province of

Cavite do not meet problems.

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The problems as stated and the hypothesis will help also in working on the theoretical andconceptual framework.

Theoretical framework is a symbolic construct, which uses abstract concepts, facts or laws,variables and their relations that explains and predicts how an observed phenomenon exists

and operates. An investigator is required to formulate existing theories which link hisstudy because theories are useful devise for interpreting, criticizing and unifyingestablished scientific laws or facts that guide in discovering new generalizations.

The conceptual framework presents specific and well-defined concepts, which are calledconstructs.

ExampleProblem c What is the relationship between the economy and peace and order situation?

Level Indepe

ndent variable Dependent variableTheoretical Economy Peace and order

Conceptual High Income, Mid Income,Low Income ExcellentVery GoodSatisfactoryFairPoor

Problem d What is the relationship between educational attainment and performance?Level Indepe

ndent variable Dependent variableTheoretical Educational Attainment PerformanceConceptual None, Elementary, H.S.,

College, Graduate, Post

Graduate, etc.

OutstandingVery Satisfactory

SatisfactoryFairUnsatisfactory

The solution of the main problem is possible only through identifying and solving subproblems. The researcher must identify first the sub problems that need to be solved.

Statement of the Problem (Sample1)

The main problem of the study is to determine the adequacy of the local trafficordinances in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite. Specifically, the study willseek (sought- for the research paper) answers to the following questions:

1. What local traffic ordinances have been passed in the municipalities of Noveleta,Rosario, Imus, Baccor and the City of Cavite for the past five years?

2. What is the status of the traffic situation in the subject municipalities as perceivedby the traffic enforcers in the selected municipalities?

3. How adequate are the local traffic ordinances as perceived by the traffic enforcersin the selected municipalities?

4. What are the implications of the findings?

Statement of the Problem (Sample 2)The main problem of the study is to determine the problems met by the police

executives in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite? Specifically, the study willseek answers to the following questions:

1. What are the problems met by the police executives in the municipalities of Tanza,Noveleta, Bacoor, Dasmarias, and the City of Cavite?

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2. How do the police executives in the subject municipalities and city rank theseproblems?

3. Is there a significant difference in the mean rank levels of the problems met by thepolice executives in the province of Cavite?

4. What are the implications of the findings?

Statement of the Problem (Sample 3)The main problem of the study is to determine the relationship between economy

and the peace and order situation. Specifically, the study will seek answers to thefollowing questions:

1. What is the economic situation in the municipalities of Tanza, Noveleta, Bacoor,Dasmarias, and the City of Cavite?

2. What is the peace and order situation in the subject municipalities as perceived bythe:

a. Law enforcersb. The citizenry

3. Is there a significant difference in the relationship between economy and the peaceand order situation on the basis of the findings?4. What are implications of these findings?

Statement of the Problem (Sample 4)The main problem of this study is to determine the relationship between educational

attainment and performance. Specifically, the study sought answers to the followingquestions:

1. What are the rankings of the barangays in the city of Cavite on the basis ofdevelopment during the past four years?

2. Which barangays are on the top 10 ranks and which are on the lowest 10 ranks?3. What is the educational attainment of each of the leaders in these identified

barangays?4. Is there a significant relationship in between the educational attainment of the

leaders in these barangays and their performance of their duties?5. What are the implications of the findings?

Statement of the Problem (Sample 5)The main problem of the study is to determine the problems met by the barangay

captains in the five biggest municipalities of Cavite. Specifically, it attempts to answer thefollowing questions:

1. What are the problems met by the barangay captains in the five biggestmunicipalities in the province of Cavite in relation to (a) sanitation, (b) peaceand order, and (c) livelihood programs?

2. Is there a significant difference on the problems met by the barangay captains inthe five municipalities in the province of Cavite in relation to (a) sanitation, (b)peace and order, and (c) livelihood programs?

STEP 2. Choosing the method/s of Solution

The researcher will be able to identify the method to be used in gathering the dataafter defining the main problem and the sub problems. It is just a matter of identifyingwhat data or information is required to answer the question, where the data or theinformation can be obtained and how the information may be obtained. For example,looking at sample no. 1, sub problem no. 1 What local traffic ordinances have beenpassed in the municipalities of Noveleta, Rosario, Imus, Baccor and the City of Cavitefor the past five years? The data required are the local traffic ordinances (what). This

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can be obtained from the records of the municipal office, particularly, theSangguniang Bayan, (where). The researcher may request the Mayors office or theVice Mayors office for the information (how).

This step involves methodology. Methodology is found in Chapter 3 of a thesis anddissertation. In a thesis proposal, methodology is placed as Part IV which includes the:

a. Research designb. Determination of sample size (if sample survey)c. Sampling design and techniques (if sample survey)d. The subjecte. The research instrumentsf. Validation of the instrumentg. Data gathering procedureh. Data processing methodsi. Statistical treatment

Research Design

There are four kinds of research design: Historical, descriptive, experimental and casestudy. The historical design is for studies focused on the past (what was); the descriptivedesign for studies focused on the present condition (what is); experimental design forstudies focused on the future (what will be); and case study design, for studies focused onthe past, present, and future.

Historical Design

A study that is focused on the past, or what was lends itself to the historicaldesign. Historical research is a systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of pastevents using the critical method in the understanding and the interpretation of facts.

Use the historical design if you want to:1. Look for solutions to contemporary problems and needs through past experience.2. Throw light on the present3. Give people a sense of continuity of the past to the present4. Enable communities to grasp their relationship with the past to the current issues5. Chronicle events of enduring worth which confers upon the individual

consciousness of unity and a feeling of the importance of human achievement.

Major Steps of Historical Research1. Collection of Data, with consideration of documents and remains or relics of

primary and secondary sources, of bibliographical procedure, and organization ofmaterials.

2. Criticism of the data collected, including the processes of external criticism andinternal criticism, and

3. Presentation of the facts in readable form involving problems of organization,composition, exposition, and interpretation.

Sources of historical Research1. Primary sources2. Secondary sources

Primary sourcesa. Documents-

i. Directives like1. Orders2. Memorandums3. Circulars4. Constitution5. Laws

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6. Charters7. Court decisions

ii. Executive and other official records1. Proceedings of administrative offices and bodies2. Reports of school surveys

3. Annual reports4. Courses of study5. Catalogs and procedures

iii. Newspapers and periodicals1. Personal materials2. Autobiographies3. Biographies4. Legal instruments5. Contracts6. Wills7. Deeds

b. Remainsi. Physical plantii. Equipment, apparatus, teaching aids and devices, picture of

building or furnishings, forms of diplomas and certificates,textbooks and reference books

Secondary Sourcesa. Histories/historical Studiesb. Bibliographiesc. Encyclopediasd. Books

Descriptive Design

In descriptive design, the study focuses at the present condition. The purpose is tofind new truth. The truth may have different forms such as increased quantity ofknowledge, a new generalization or a new law, an increased insight into factors which areoperating, the discovery of a new causal relationship, a more accurate formulation of theproblem to be solved and many others.

Purpose: To find new truth

Types of data-gathering instruments1. Tests2. Questionnaires3. Interviews4. Observation schedules5. Check lists6. Score cards7. Rating scales

1. Descriptive-survey- appropriate wherever the object of any class vary amongthemselves and one is interested in knowing the extent to which different conditionsobtain among theses objects.

Instrument: QuestionnaireStatistical tool: Weighted arithmetic mean

2. Descriptive-normative survey- surveys are made to ascertain the normal or typicalcondition (or practice), or to compare local test results with a state or national norm.

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3. Descriptive-status- a technique of quantitative description which determines theprevailing conditions in a group of cases chosen for the study;

Stress current conditions with the assumptionthat things will change

4. Descriptive-analysis- the method determines or describes the nature of an object byseparating it into its parts.Purpose: to discover the nature of things

What are they composed of? What is their structure? What are thesubstructures of the special organizations that occur here and there as unitswithin the larger structure? How are all these individual parts and unitassembled or integrated into an internal system? What are the forces thathold them together, and the strains that tend to tear the system apart? Whatmakes the system work? How is it regulated? And, from the point of viewof continuing research, what new questions are brought to light by

analytical work, which will serve as guides for future research?The researcher should determine:

a. The composition, structure, substructure that occur as units within the largerstructure

b. The individual parts and units integrated into an internal systemc. The forces that hold them togetherd. The strains that tend to destroy the system aparte. What makes the system work

5. Descriptive-classification-employed in natural sciences

6. Descriptive-evaluative- to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current study

7. Descriptive-comparative-the researcher considers at least two entities (notmanipulated) and establishes a formal procedure for obtaining criterion data on thebasis of which he can compare and conclude which of the two is better

8. Correlational survey-designed to determine the relationship between two variables(X and Y) whether the relationship is perfect, very high, high, marked or moderate,slight, or negligible.

9. Longitudinal survey- involves much time allotted for investigation of the samesubjects as two or more points in time

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Experimental Design

Experimental design is a problem-solving approach that the study is described inthe future on what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated.

Likewise, if experimental research is used, he has to choose one of the nine types ofexperimental design, which is most appropriate to his proposed study. These nine types are(1) single-group design, (2) two-group design, (3) two-pair group design, (4) parallel-groupdesign, (5) counterbalanced design, (6) pretest-posttest design, (7) complete randomizeddesign, (8) randomized block design, and (9) correlational design.

If the proponent has selected the most appropriate design, he has to explain why heuses such design.

Case Study Design

A case study design is a problem solving technique that the study is described fromthe past, present, and future.

It is an intensive investigation of a particular individual, constitution, community,or any group considered as a unit which includes the developmental, adjustment, remedial,or corrective procedures that suitable follow the diagnosis of the causes of maladjustmentor of favorable development.

The Cycle of Case Study

1. Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be investigated.2. Collection of data related to the factors or circumstances associated with the given

phenomenon.3. Diagnosis or identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or

developmental treatment.4. Application of remedial or adjustment measures.5. Subsequent follow-up or developmental measures applied.

STEP 3. Gathering, organizing and analyzing the data reaching a solution to the problem

Gathering dataFrom secondary sources

a. Direct quotation

A direct quotation is a clearquotation said by a person and generally involves a wholesentence; it is absolutely verbatim in the order and is specific.

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Example:

Calmorin and Calmorin states that a research process starts with a researchproblem which the researcher has identified as researchable and has implication togovernment thrusts.

b. Paraphrasing

Example:Calmorin and Calmorin states that researches begin with problems the researcher

considers researchable and has much to do with government plans.

Paraphrasing is the act in which a statement or remark is explained

Characteristics of a well-done paraphrase

1. It is not a summary.2. It does not contain words or phrases from the original (plagiarism).3. It includes all minor details from original.4. The meaning of the writing being paraphrased is clearer to the

reader than in the original text.5. It restates the thesis.6. It is usually as long as, or longer than, the original.

c. Summary

A summary is a brief restatement of all major, significant points, usually reducing theoriginal by at least half or more. For note cards, a summary may be written in abbreviatedformats such as outlines and fragments; however, all other summaries are written inparagraph and essay form.

Example:

Calmorin and Calmorin states that researches begin with researcher identifiedproblems that are both researchable and are important to the government.

From primary sources (Tests, Questionnaires, Interviews, Observation schedules,Check lists, Score cards and Rating scales)

The Research Instrument: Validity, Reliability, and Usability

The qualities of a good research instrument are: (1) validity, (2) reliability, and (3)usability.

Validity

Validity means the degree to which a test or a measuring instrument measures what it

intends to measure. The validity of a measuring instrument has to do with its soundness,whatthe test or questionnaire measures, its effectiveness, how well it could be applied.

Generally, no test or research instrument can be said to have a high or low validityin the abstract. Its validity must be determined with reference to the particular use forwhich the test is being considered. The validity of test must always be considered in termsof the purpose it serves. Validity is always specific in relation to some definite situation.Likewise, a valid test is always valid.

Types of validity

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1. Content validity. Content validity means the extent to which the content or topicof the test is truly representative of the content of the course.

2. Concurrent validity is the degree to which the test agrees or correlates with acriterion set up as an acceptable measure.

3. Predictive validity. Predictive validity is determined by showing how well

predictions made from the test are confirmed by evidence gathered at somesubsequent time.4. Construct validity. The construct validity of a test is the extent to which the test

measures a theoretical construct or trait.

Reliability

Reliability means the extent to which a test is dependable, self-consistent and stable.In other words, the test agrees with itself. It is concerned with the consistency of responsesfrom moment to moment. Even if a person takes the same test twice, the test yields the

same result. However, a reliable test may not always be valid.For instance, a research student receives a grade of 1.25 in Methods of Research. When

asked by his friends, he says his grade is only 1.5. In statistical sense, the story is reliablefor it is consistent, but not valid because there is no veracity or truthfulness to the story.Hence, it is reliable but not valid. Likewise, a reliable test or measuring instrument is notalways valid even if it may be reliable.

Methods in Testing Reliability1. Test-retest method

The same research instrument is administered twice to the same group of subjects and therelation coefficient is determined.

Limitationsa. When the time interval is short, the subject may recall his previous

responses and this tends to make the correlation coefficient high;b. When the time interval is long, such factors as unlearning, forgetting,

among others may occur and may result in low correlation of the test;c. Regardless of the time interval separating the two administrations, other

varying environmental conditions such as noise, temperature, lighting, andother factors may affect the correlation coefficient of the researchinstrument.

Statistical tool: Spearman rho or Spearman rank correlation of coefficient

rs = 1

where rs = Spearman rho

= sum of the squared differences between ranksN= total number of cases

StepsStep 1. Rank the scores of subjects from the highest to the lowest in the first set of

administration (x), and mark these ranks as Rx. The highest score receives therank of 1; the second highest, 2; third highest, 3; and so on.

Step 2. Rank the second set of scores (Y) in the same manner as in Step 1 and mark as Ry.Step 3. Determine the difference in ranks for every pair of ranks.

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6D2N3-N

D2


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Step 4. Square each difference to get D2.

Step 5. Sum the square difference to find D2

Step 6. Compute Spearman rho by applying the formula.

Sample

D2

= 82.00

rs = 1

= 1

= 0.82 (High relationship)

2. Parallel-forms method

Parallel or equivalent forms of a test may be administered to the group of subjects, and thepaired observations correlated.The two forms of the test must be constructed so that the content, type of item, difficulty,instructions for administration, and many others, are similar but not identical.

3. Split-half method

The test in this method may be administered once, but the test items are divided into twohalves. The common procedure is to divide a test into odd and even items. The two halvesof the test must be similar but not identical in content, number of items, difficulty, meansand standard deviations. Each student obtains two scores, one on the odd and the other onthe even items in the same test. The result is the reliability coefficient of a half test. Usethe Spearman-Brown formula:

rwt = 2(rht)

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Respondents X Y Rx Ry D D2

1 90 70 2 7.5 -5.5 30.25

2 43 31 13 12.0 1.0 1.00

3 84 79 6.5 3 3.5 12.254 86 70 4.5 7.5 -3.0 9.00

5 55 43 11 10.5 0.5 0.25

6 77 70 8.5 7.5 1.0 1.00

7 84 75 6.5 4.5 2.0 4.00

8 91 88 1.0 1.0 0 0.00

9 40 31 14.0 12.5 1.5 2.25

10 75 70 10.0 7.5 2.5 6.25

11 86 80 4.5 2.0 2.5 6.25

12 89 75 3.0 4.5 -1.5 2.25

13 48 30 12.0 14.0 -2.0 4.00

14 77 43 8.5 10.5 -2.0 4.00

6D2N

3-N

6(82)143-14


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1+ rhtSample

rht = 1 r wt = 2(rht)1+rht

= 1 = 2(0.90)1+0.90

= 0.90= 0.95 very high relationship

4. Internal-consistency method

This method is used with psychological tests consisting of dichotomously scored items.The examinee either passes or fails in an item. A rating of one is assigned for a pass andfor 0 (zero) a failure. Formula used: Kuder-Ricahrdson formula

rxx = [ N ] [SD2 - PiQi]N -1 SD2

SD2 = (X X)N-1

Step1. Compute the variance (SD2) of the test scores for the whole group.Step 2. Find the proportion passing each item (pi) and the proportion failing each item (qi).For instance, twelve of the fourteen students passed or got the correct answer for item 1,(pi=12/14 = 0.86); and two students failed in item 1, (qi= 2/14 = 0.14 or qi =1 pi) 1-0.86=.14

Step 3. Multiply pi and qi for each item, i.e. 0.86 x 0.14 = 0.1204; and sum for all items.This gives the PiQi value.

Step 4. Substitute the calculated values in the formula.

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Respondents X Y Rx Ry D D2

(Odd) (Even)

1 23 30 9 7.5 1.5 2.252 25 24 7.5 9.5 -2 4.00

3 27 30 6 7.5 -1.5 2.25

4 35 40 5 4 1 1.00

5 48 55 3 1.5 1.5 2.25

6 21 24 10 9.5 0.5 0.25

7 25 35 7.5 6 1.5 2.25

8 50 51 2.0 3.0 -1 1.00

9 38 38 4.0 5 -1 1.00

10 55 55 1.0 1.5 -0.5 0.25

16.50

6D2N3-N

6 (16.5)103-10

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Variance (SD2) Computation

X = XN

= 94/14 = 6.71

Kuder-Richardson Formula 20

rxx = [ N ] [SD2 PiQ

i ]N -1 SD2

= [ 10 ] [13.76 1.9541]10.1 13.76

= [1.11] [11.8042/13.76]

= 1.11(0.857862)

= 0.952 or 0.95 High relationship

Usability

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Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 f pi qi piqi1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 12 0.86 0.14 0.1224

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 12 0.86 0.14 0.1224

3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 11 0.79 0.21 0.1684

4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 10 0.71 0.29 0.2041

5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 10 0.71 0.29 0.2041

6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 10 0.71 0.29 0.2041

7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 9 0.64 0.36 0.2296

8 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 8 0.57 0.43 0.2449

9 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0.50 0.50 0.25

10 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 0.29 0.71 0.2041

7 9 10 9 9 10 9 9 9 6 4 2 0 0 1.9541

Students

_

Student X (X X) (X X)2

1 7 0.29 0.08412 9 2.29 5.2441

3 10 3.29 10.8241

4 9 2.29 5.2441

5 9 2.29 5.2441

6 10 3.29 10.8241

7 9 2.29 5.2441

8 9 2.29 5.2441

9 10 3.29 10.8241

10 6 -0.71 0.5041

11 4 -2.71 7.3441

12 2 -4.71 22.1841

13 0 -6.71 45.0241

14 0 -6.71 45.0241

94 178.8574

_ _

SD2 = (X X)2N-1

= 178.875414 1

= 13.76

_

N = 10 itemsSD2 = 13.76PiQi = 1.9541


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Usability means the degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily usedby teachers, researchers, supervisors and school managers without undue expenditure oftime, money, and effort. In other words, usability means practicability.

Factors that Determine Usability

There are five factors that determine usability, namely:1. Ease of administration,2. Ease of scoring,

i. Construction of the test is in the objective type;ii. Answer keys are adequately prepared; and

iii. Scoring directions are fully understood.3. Ease of interpretation and application,4. Low cost, and5. Proper mechanical make-up.

Sampling Designs

Whether a research design is descriptive or experimental, sampling is necessary,especially if the population of the study is too large where the 4 Ms (Man, Money,Material and Machinery) resources of the investigator are limited. It is advantageous forhim to use sample survey rather than the total population.

Sampling- the method of getting a representative portion of a population.

Advantages of Sampling1. It saves time, money and effort.2. It is more effective.3. It is faster and cheaper4. It is more accurate.5. It gives more comprehensive information.

Limitations of Sampling1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed sub classifications

because of a small number of subjects.2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results may

be misleading.3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is

lacking, the results could be erroneous.4. The characteristics to be observed may occur rarely in a population, e.g.,

teachers over 30 years of teaching experience.5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare.

Planning a Sample Survey1. State the objectives of the survey;2. Define the population;3. Select the sampling individual;4. Locate and select the source list of particular individuals to be included in the

sample;5. Decide the sampling design to be used;6. Determine the sample size to be used;7. Select the method in estimating the reliability of the sample;8. Test the reliability of the sample in a pilot institution; and9. Interpret the reliability of the sample.

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The target population is the entire group a researcher is interested in; the group aboutwhich the researcher wishes to draw conclusions.

Example

Suppose we take a group of men aged 35-40 who have suffered an initial heart attack. Thepurpose of this study could be to compare the effectiveness of two drug regimes fordelaying or preventing further attacks. The target population here would be all menmeeting the same general conditions as those actually included in the studyDetermination of Sample Size

If sample survey is used because N (total number of cases or population) is toolarge, he has to determine the sample size by using this formula:

Ss = NV + [(Se)2x (1-p)]

NSe + [(V)2

x p(1-p)]

Where:Ss = Sample size

N = Total number of populationV = Standard value (2.58) of 1 percent level of probability

with 0.99 reliability

Se = Sampling error (0.01)

p = Larger possible proportion (0.50)

For instance, the total number of population (N) is 3074. To substitute theforegoing formula, consider the following computation:

Ss = NV + [(Se)2x (1-p)]NSe + [(V)2 x p(1-p)]

= 3074 (2.58) + (0.01)

2

x (1-0.50)3074(0.01) + (2.58)2 x 0.50 (1-0.50)

= 7658 + 0.0001 x (0.50)30.74 + 6.6564 x (0.50(0.50)

= 7658 + 0.0000530.74 + 1.6641

Ss = 236

Hence, the sample size is 236 from 3074 total number of population.

Sampling Design and Technique

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There are two kinds of sampling designs:(1) Scientific sampling-where every member of the population is

given equal chance of being included for a sample(2) Non scientific sampling

Types of scientific sampling

(1) Random sampling (Convenience)

Random sampling is a sampling technique where we select a group of subjects (a sample)for study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is chosen entirely by chanceand each member of the population has a known, but possibly non-equal, chance of beingincluded in the sample.By using random sampling, the likelihood of bias is reduced.

(2) Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling is the basic sampling technique where we select a group ofsubjects (a sample) for study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is chosenentirely by chance and each member of the population has an equal chance of beingincluded in the sample. Every possible sample of a given size has the same chance ofselection; i.e. each member of the population is equally likely to be chosen at any stage inthe sampling process.

(3) Stratified random sampling*

There may often be factors, which divide up the population into sub-populations(groups / strata) and we may expect the measurement of interest to vary among thedifferent sub-populations. This has to be accounted for when we select a sample from thepopulation in order that we obtain a sample that is representative of the population. This isachieved by stratified sampling.

A stratified sample is obtained by taking samples from each stratum or sub-groupof a population.

When we sample a population with several strata, we generally require that theproportion of each stratum in the sample should be the same as in the population.Stratified sampling techniques are generally used when the population is heterogeneous, ordissimilar, where certain homogeneous, or similar, sub-populations can be isolated (strata).Simple random sampling is most appropriate when the entire population from which thesample is taken is homogeneous. Some reasons for using stratified sampling over simplerandom sampling are:

the cost per observation in the survey may be reduced; estimates of the population parameters may be wanted for each sub-population; increased accuracy at given cost.

ExampleSuppose a farmer wishes to work out the average milk yield of each cow type in his herdwhich consists of Ayrshire, Friesian, Galloway and Jersey cows. He could divide up his

herd into the four sub-groups and take samples from these.(4) Systematic random sampling*

All individuals in the population are arranged in a methodical manner, i.e., alphabeticalor chronological (age, experience, academic, academic rank), and the nth name may beselected in the construction of the sample.

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(5) Multi-stage random sampling

Done in several stages. The population individuals are grouped into a hierarchy ofunits, in a region-wide study, the provinces are chosen as the first stage; municipalities ineach of the selected provinces constitute the second stage; barangays within the sample

municipalities as the third stage; and sample rural folks within the selected samplebarangays as the fourth stage.

(6) Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling is a sampling technique where the entire population is divided intogroups, or clusters, and a random sample of these clusters are selected. All observations inthe selected clusters are included in the sample.

Cluster sampling is typically used when the researcher cannot get a complete list ofthe members of a population they wish to study but can get a complete list of groups or'clusters' of the population. It is also used when a random sample would produce a list of

subjects so widely scattered that surveying them would prove to be far too expensive, forexample, people who live in different postal districts in the UK.This sampling technique may well be more practical and/or economical than simplerandom sampling or stratified sampling.

ExampleSuppose that the Department of Agriculture wishes to investigate the use of pesticides byfarmers in England. A cluster sample could be taken by identifying the different counties inEngland as clusters. A sample of these counties (clusters) would then be chosen at random,so all farmers in those counties selected would be included in the sample. It can be seenhere then that it is easier to visit several farmers in the same county than it is to travel toeach farm in a random sample to observe the use of pesticides.

(7) Quota sampling

Quota sampling is a method of sampling widely used in opinion polling and marketresearch. Interviewers are each given a quota of subjects of specified type to attempt torecruit for example, an interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult men and 20adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could interview them abouttheir television viewing.

It suffers from a number of methodological flaws, the most basic of which is that thesample is not a random sample and therefore the sampling distributions of any statistics areunknown.

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are written lists of questions that you distribute to your users.Questionnaires differ from surveys in that they are written lists, not ad hoc interviews, andas such require more effort on the part of your users to fill out the questionnaire and returnit to you.

Three parts of a questionnaire

1. Introductiona. Reveal identityb. Identify purposec. Give instruction on what to do with the questionnaire after accomplishingd. Discuss anonymitye. Discuss importance of response

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Six thoughts1) Identifies the purpose of the questionnaire2) Discusses anonymity3) Tells respondents what to do with the questionnaire once they have

completed it4) May explain why a response is important

5) Indicate the amount of time required to complete the questionnaire6) Identify yourself

2. Instructionsa. General if one category of questions are askedb. General and before every new category of question

When asking only one major category of questions, include one set of instructions at thebeginning of the questionnaire

In more complex situations, include one set of instructions at the beginning andadditional instructions as you move from a series of rank order questions to multiple

choice questions.

3. Questions

Questions are the basic components of a questionnaire. They are designed to collectspecific pieces of information related to the general research question. The quantity andquality of information collected really depends on the quality of specific questions includedin the questionnaires. If the questions are not well written, you may not get what you want,or the information may be insufficient to answer your research question. The informationcollected will be irrelevant and your effort, money, and time will be wasted. Well-writtenquestions should be relevant and contribute to your study. The structure of the questionsshould be suitable for the kinds of information sought and the choice of words should beprecise to maximize the validity of data collected. Keep those factors in mind whenformulating your questions:

The Kind of Information Sought The Question Structure The Choice of Words

KINDS OF INFORMATION SOUGHT

Questions can usually be classified as requesting one or more of the followingtypes of information.

1. What people say they want:Attitudes.2. What people think is true:Beliefs.3. What people do:Behavior.4. What people are:Attributes.

Attitudes

Attitudes describe how people feel about something. Attitudes are evaluative in natureand reflect respondents' views about the desirability of something. Attitude questions

require respondents to show positive or negative feelings about the "attitude object" (goodvs. bad, favor vs. oppose, prefer vs. not prefer, should vs. should not, right vs. wrong, anddesirable vs. undesirable). Attitude questions can be asked in a variety of ways, sensitive towording variations and interpretation by the respondent; consequently, a series of questions(statements) is often used to provide a composite assessment of an attitude.

Examples of three ways to state an attitude item:

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a. Should land use planning be implemented on a countywide basis inSunshine County?

(1) YES

(2) NOb. In general, how do you feel about land use planning?

(1) Strongly oppose

(2) Mildly oppose

(3) Neither oppose nor favor

(4) Mildly favor

(5) Strongly favor

c. Do you tend to agree or disagree with this statement?

"Land use planning is primarily for the benefit of developers."

(1) AGREE

(2) DISAGREE

Beliefs

Beliefs are assessments of what one thinks are true or false. There is no impliedgoodness or badness, only an assessment of what exists or does not exist (correct vs.incorrect, accurate vs. inaccurate, what happened vs. what did not happen). Beliefquestions can be expressed in a variety of ways:

a. They can test knowledge of specific facts.

Is this statement true or false? "The R-value of a material is a number that indicateshow much 'resistance' a material presents to heat passing through it."(1) TRUE(2) FALSE

b. They can ascertain perceptions about something (no "correct" answer).

Do you think that the outlook on hog prices will result in a decrease in the numberof pigs furrowed next year?

(1) TRUE(2) FALSE

There is often a gray area between attitudes and beliefs. The following question is anexample:

To what extent is the use of illegal drugs a problem in our community?(1) No problem(2) A slight problem(3) A moderate problem

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(4) A serious problem

Some might respond "a serious problem" because of beliefs that illegal drugs are widelyused and produce many medical problems. Others might possess no knowledge aboutextent of illegal drug use, but respond "a serious problem" because they feel that drug use

is morally wrong. It is likely that responses would reflect both an assessment of theprevalence of illegal drug use and feelings about the moral aspects of their use.

Although sometime gray areas may be unavoidable, it is generally desirable to try tophrase questions to fall clearly into either the attitude or belief categories.

Behavior

Questions on behavior tend to elicit answers based on respondents' beliefs abouttheir behavior. Behavioral questions may concern what people have done in thepast, are currently doing, or plan to do in the future.

Examples:

a. Past behavior Were you ever a 4-H member?

(1)YES

(2)NO

b. Present behavior Are you currently feeding silage to your dry cows?

(1) YES(2) NO

c. Plans for future Do you plan to add additional insulation to your homebefore next winter?

(1) NO

(2) PROBABLY NO

(3) PROBABLY YES(4) YES

Attributes

Attributes are often referred to as personal or demographic characteristics. People tendto think of attributes as something they possess, rather than something they do. The usualpurpose for collecting the information is to explore how the other types of information(beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors) differ for people with various attributes.

Examples:

a. What is your present age?

____ years

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b. How many brood cows do you have?

______

c. What percent of your total farm income is derived from swineproduction?

(1) Less than 10 percent

(2) 10 to 25 percent

(3) 26 to 50 percent

(4) Over 50 percent

QUESTION STRUCTURE

Question structure is based on the nature of the response behavior asked of therespondent. Questions may be (1) open-ended, (2) closed-ended with ordered responseoptions, (3) close-ended with unordered response options, and (4) partially close-endedwith unordered response options.

1. Open-ended

Respondents "create" their own answers and state them in their own words.

Example:"What should be done to improve the community?"

Using open-ended questions allows people to say something they could not say otherwise,but the responses are difficult to summarize, especially if ambiguous, and difficult toquantify, since others may have felt the same way but did not express it. Also, thequestions demand of the respondents time and effort.

2. Close-ended with ordered response options

Answer choices are provided, each a graduation of a single dimension of some thought orbehavior. Respondent's task is to find the most appropriate place on an implied continuumfor his or her response. This type of question is used for many items, to determine attitude,belief, behavior, or attributes.

Example:

"What is your present age?"

(1)Under 25 years

(2)26-50 years

(3)51-75 years

(4)Over 75 years

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3. Close-ended with unordered response options

Answer choices are provided, but no single dimension underlies them.Respondents must choose from among distinct, unordered categories byindependently evaluating each choice and selecting one that best reflects their

situation. They are generally more difficult for respondents than ordered answerchoices, because they often have to balance several ideas in the mind at the sametime.

Example:

"What best describes the kind of house in which you live?"

(1) Single family dwelling

(2) Duplex or triplex

(3) Apartment

(4) Condominium

(5) Mobile Home

4. Partially close-ended questions

Although options are provided, respondents also have the choice of creatingtheir own responses. This provides for options that may have been overlooked by

the researcher. However, this also creates some problems in analyses.Example:

"Please indicate your role as a 4-H leader."

(1) Organizational leader

(2) Project leader

(3) Activity leader

(4) Other _______________________

Partially close-ended questions are easy for the respondent to complete and theresponses they elicit provide specific information and are easy to quantify. However, thequestions cannot capture the unique responses that open-ended questions can.

THE ACTUAL CHOICE OF WORDS

Writing questions would be a lot easier if we did not have to use words! The wrongchoice of words can create any number of problems from excessive vagueness to too much

precision, from being misunderstood to not being understood at all, from being tooobjectionable to being too uninteresting and irrelevant. There are no simple answers, butthere are some guidelines.

Writing questions for a particular questionnaire means doing them for (1) a particularpopulation, (2) a particular purpose, and (3) for placement next to other questions in thequestionnaire. Words that are too difficult for use with some populations may be perfectlyacceptable to others. A question that is fairly vague may satisfy the exploratory objectives

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2. 1-10 3. 11-25 4. 26-50 5. More than 50

5. Avoid biased questions.

A biased question is one that influences people to respond in a manner that does notaccurately reflect their position in the investigation. A question may be biased if (1) itimplies that the respondent should be engaged in a particular behavior, (2) unequalcategories may be represented, and/or (3) it contains words with strong positive or negativeemotional appeal (freedom, justice, socialist, bureaucrat).

Examples of biased questions:

"The 4-H Horse Show should be held on Wednesday night of fair week,

shouldn't it?

(1) YES

(2) NO

"More farmers in Florida are using Braxton than any other variety ofsoybean. Are you using Braxton?"

(1) YES

(2) NO

"How would you rate the housing in which you live?"

(1) Excellent

(2) Good

(3) Satisfactory

(4) Poor

In this last example, (4) Poor is the only negative option provided.

6. Avoid objectionable questions.

Certain information may be considered quite personal. Or, a question mayconvey implications about which the respondents have very negative feelings orfeel incriminates them. Only one or two such questions may result in a completerefusal to answer a questionnaire. Eliminate or revise the question.

Example of an objectionable question:

"What was your gross income in 1979?"

_____ Pesos

Example of a less objectionable question:

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"Which of the following categories best describes your gross income in1979?"

(1) Less than P50, 000

(2) P50, 000 to P59, 999(3) P60, 000 to P69, 999

(4) P70, 000 to P79, 999

(5) P80, 000 or above

7. Avoid questions that are too demanding.

Examples of demanding questions:

a. "Listed below are 25 programs carried out by Extension in SunshineCounty in 1979. Please rank them from first to 25th in terms of their importance."

b. "What percent of your citrus acreage is irrigated?"

_________________________

Examples of less demanding questions:

a. "What is your total citrus acreage?" ________

b. "How many acres are irrigated?" ________8. Avoid a double question.

Double questions ask for more than one piece of information in one question.The result confuses the respondent or makes it impossible to answer the question.

Example:

Do you like dogs and cats?

This question asks whether respondents like dogs and cats. Suppose they likeonly one of them. How can they answer the question? A better way to ask thequestion would be to separate it into two questions:

a. Do you like dogs?

b. Do you like cats?

Example:

Is the text informative and interesting?

If "informative" and "interesting" mean the same thing, then one of them shouldbe eliminated. If they mean different things, the question is a double question.When analyzing data, it is hard to decide whether the answers given refer to bothparts or only one part. Interpretation of the information collected is ambiguous.

9. Avoid a double negative.

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Sometimes respondents are asked to say "yes" when the answer reallymeans "no."

Example:

"Should our 4-H advisory committee not meet quarterly?"1. NO

2. YES

The following example avoids the double negative:

"How often should our 4-H advisory committee meet?"

1. BIMONTHLY

2. QUARTERLY

3. SEMI-ANNUALLY

4. ANNUALLY

10. Don't assume too much knowledge.

Most questions assume that the respondent possesses a certain amount ofknowledge. Respondents may be too embarrassed to admit their lack of knowledgeand take a wild guess. One solution is to ask them to indicate their understanding

before asking if they agree or disagree. An "uncertain" or "don't know" or doesn'tapply category may be desirable.

Example of a question that assumes too much knowledge by therespondent:

The respondent may not know the operating hours of the cannery. The followingquestion avoids the assumption of too much knowledge by the respondent:

"Are the current operating hours of the county cannery satisfactory for yourneeds?"

(1) YES

(2) NO

"The current operating hours of the county cannery are 1-5 p.m. Mondaythrough Friday. Is this schedule satisfactory to you?"

(1) YES

(2) NO

11. Word the questions technically correctly.

It is important that the information in the question be accurate, leaving no doubtthat the researcher accurately comprehends the topic under investigation and thatthe respondent has appropriate response options to choose from.

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Example of inappropriate response options to the question:

"Which of the following herbicides do you use most often in your farmingoperation?"

a. ROUNDUPb. DUAL

c. CAPTAN

d. MALATHION

SUMMARY

When writing questions it is important to give much consideration to (1) the kind of

information one is seeking; (2) the question structure, and (3) the choice of words used.Data Processing and Statistical Treatment

Data processing involves input, throughput, and output mechanisms.

Input involves the responses to the measuring instrument of the subjects of the studyThroughput includes the statistical procedures and techniquesOutput, the results of the study which are presented in data matrix form

Both quantitative and qualitative forms are involved in data processing to arrive atprecise analysis and interpretation of the results. A numerical value (quantitative) is

useless without descriptive interpretation (qualitative) of the former.Example

Research Question: What is the relationship between performance in the Pre BoardExam (X) and the Professional Board Exam (Y) based on the grades obtained by 10BSCRIM students of SSC-R?

The results are the following based on their scores in X and Y:

Tool: Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient of correlation (Because N-total number ofcases- is less than 30. If N is equal to or greater than 30, a scattergram is used to getthe correlation of X and Y.

Formula:

rxy = NXY (X)(Y)

[NX2- (X)2(NY2 (Y)2]

Where:

rxy = Correlation between X and Y

29

X Y X Y

30 35 45 47

43 44 68 7553 57 48 47

45 44 38 35

70 80 45 46


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X = Sum of Test XY = Sum of Test YXY = Sum of the product of X and YN = Number of casesX2 = Sum of the squared X score

Y2

= Sum of the squared Y scoreStepsStep 1 Find the sum of X and Y scores.Step 2 Square all X and Y scores.Step 3 Compute the sum of X2 and Y2.Step 4 Multiply X and Y.Step 5 Get the sum of the XY product for every pair of scores.Step 6 Apply the formula.

rxy = NXY (X)(Y)

[NX2- (X)2(NY2 (Y)2]

= 10(26414) (485)(510)

[10 (24905)- (485)2 (10 (28130) (510)2]

= 264140 247350

(249050-235225) (281300 260100]

= 16790

(13825) (21200)

= 16790)

17119.87149

= 0.98 (Very high relationship)

Data Processing

Converting information either manually or by machine into quantitative and qualitativeforms for use in research analysis.

30

X Y X2

Y2

XY

30 35 900 1225 1050

43 44 1849 1936 1892

53 57 2809 3249 3021

45 44 2025 1936 1980

70 80 4900 6400 5600

45 47 2025 2209 2115

68 75 4624 5625 5100

48 47 2304 2209 2256

38 35 1444 1225 1330

45 46 2025 2116 2070

485 510 24905 28130 26414


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Steps in Data Processing1. Categorization2. Coding

3. Tabulation of dataCategorization of data- the grouping of subjects under study according to the objectives orpurposes of the study. For example, the main purpose of the study is to determine theproblems met by the PNP chief executive of a certain municipality in Cavite in relation to(a) administration and supervision, (b) tools and equipment, (c) police personnel, and (d)the public.

The subjects may be categorized (1) as a whole, (2) as Criminologists and non-Criminologists, (3) according to age, and (4) in terms of experience (1-5 years, 6-10 years,11-15 years, 16- 20 years, 21 and above0.

The five rules in categorizing research information are:1. Categories are set up according to the research problem.2. The categories are exhaustive.3. The categories are mutually exclusive and independent.4. Each category (variable) is derived from one classification principle.5. Any categorization scheme must be on one level of discourse.

Coding of DataInformation from the questionnaires, interview schedules, rating scale, etc., must be

transformed into coded items to facilitate tabulation of the data. The codes may be eithernumerical or alphabetical.

Tabulation of DataOnce the raw data have been given numerical codes, they are ready for tabulation,

which means tallying and counting the raw data to arrive at a frequency distribution and tofacilitate in organizing them in a systematic order in a table or several tables.

Data MatrixPresentation of Data is usually in tabular form. This is called data matrix and the

data processing output is either quantitative or qualitative.

Three types of data matrices

1. Univariate- involving only one variable

Example: Problem: To find out the teacher-perceived adequacy of instructional materialsin certain institutions of SUCs.

Variable: the level of SUC

Table X.1. Teacher Perceived Adequacy of Instructional Materials at Four Levels of SUC

Level of SUC Mean ( ) Descriptive Interpretation

1 3.6 Very Adequate2 3.4 Adequate3 2.9 Adequate4 2.8 Adequate

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X


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Scale: 4 - Very Adequate3 - Adequate2 - Fairly Adequate1 - Inadequate

3. Bivariate matrix- involves two variablesExample: Problem: The science and mathematics teachers may be categorized into

qualified and nonqualified

Table X.2. Adequacy of Instructional Materials at Four Levels of SUC as Perceived byQualified and Nonqualified Teachers in Science and Mathematics

Level ofSUC

Qualified Mentors Nonqualified MentorsVerbal

Interpretation

Verbal

Interpretation1 3.6 Very adequate 3.8 Very adequate2 3.4 Adequate 3.4 Adequate3 2.8 Adequate 3.0 Adequate4 2.7 Adequate 2.5 Adequate

Scale:4 - Very adequate3 - Adequate2 - Fairly adequate1 - Adequate

3. Multivariate matrix has three or more variables in the table.Example: Problem: The acceptability of canned milkfish in Salmon, Spanish, French and

Japanese styles.

Variables: Salmon, Spanish, French and Japanese styles

Table X.3. The Acceptability of Canned Milkfish in Salmon, Spanish, French and JapaneseStyles.

Canning Styles

QualityAttributes

Salmon Spanish French Japanese

Color 7.2 8.0 7.4 7.0Odor 7.4 7.9 8.4 8.3Flavor 7.1 8.1 8.0 8.4Texture 7.3 8.0 8.0 8.2GeneralAcceptability 7.3 8.0 8.1 8.3Scale:

9 - Extremely like

8 - Like very much7 - Like moderately6 - Like slightly

Statistical Treatment

Computing the Mean ( )

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X X

X X X X

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Scales: 5- Excellent; 4 Very Satisfactory; 3- Satisfactory; 2- Fair; 1- Poor

f= frequency; x= weight (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)

= fxf

5 4 3 2 1 Total no.

Criteria Teachers ExcellentVery

Satisfactory SatisfactoryFairly

Satisfactory Poor

1 4 2 5 3 1 15

2 3 1 6 3 2 15

3 2 4 7 2 0 15

4 0 3 8 2 2 15

5 4 0 7 3 1 15

f= 15

Statistical Tools to Test the Significant Difference of the Variables

Testing the significant difference of variables is applicable when 2 or more variables

are involved in the study as in bivariate and multivariate matrices.

Example:Is there a significant difference in the mean rank levels of the adequacy of

instructional materials a perceived by the qualified and nonqualified science andmathematics instructors and professors in SUCs in a certain region?

Statistical Tool: Friedmans Two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) F-test

Xr

2

=

Where:Xr2 = Friedmans two-way analysis of varianceN = Number of rowsK = Number of ColumnsRi = Ranks in the ith column

33

12

NK (K + 1) Ri2

3N(K + 1)

X

5 4 3 2 1 ?

20 8 15 6 1 50 3.3

15 4 18 6 2 45 3.0

10 16 21 4 0 51 3.4 Satisfactory

0 12 24 4 2 42 2.8

20 0 21 6 1 48 3.2

15.7

3.1

Very Satisfactory

Excellent

2.60-3.39

Poor

Fairly SatisfaSatisfactory

3.40-4.19

4.20-5.00

Satisfactory

Satisfactory

Satisfactory

Satisfactory

Satisfactory

1.00-1.79

1.80-2.59

X


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Steps1. Rank the mean responses of the subjects where the lowest mean value ranks 1.2. Total the ranks of each variable to get R.

3. Compute by using formula.4. Compute the degrees of freedom (df) by using the formula, df = K-1.5. Choose the level of probability, either 0.01 or 0.05 and refer to the chi-square table todetermine if the obtained computed value of is significant or not. If the obtained value isequal to or greater than the tabular value in the table, it issignificant, if the computed valueis less than the tabular value in the table, it is insignificant.

Table X.4. Mean Rank Levels Differences of Responses on the Adequacy of InstructionalMaterials as Perceived by Qualified and Nonqualified Science and Mathematics Teachersin Different SUC Levels in a Certain Region.

Levels of SUCQualified Teachers Nonqualified Teachers

FR FR 1 3.6 1.0 3.8 2.02 3.4 1.5 3.4 1.53 2.8 1.0 3.0 2.04 2.7 1.0 2.9 2.0

Total ( R ) 4.5 7.5

Xr2 =

=

=

=

= .5(76.5)-36

= 38.25 36

= 2.25 (Not significant)

The Friedmans value (Xr2) obtained is 2.25 which is insignificant at 5 percent levelof probability. This means that the adequacy of instructional materials in the differentlevels of SUCs as perceived by the qualified and nonqualified science and mathematicsinstructors and professors are almost the same.

To test the significant difference of the multivariate matrix sample in the tablebelow, the research question is: Is there a significant difference on the acceptability ofcanned milkfish in Salmon, Spanish, French, and Japanese styles? Analysis ofVariance (ANOVA0 is the right statistical tool to be used. The formula is:

34

X

X X

12NK (K + 1)

Ri

2 3N(K + 1)

12(4)(2) (2 + 1)

[(4.5)2 + (7.5)2 ] 3(4)(2 +1)

12(8) (3)

[20.25+ 56.25] (12)(3)

1224

(76.25) 36

df= k-1= 2-1= 1

df1(0.05) = 3.841


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F= MS/MSeWhere; MS= Mean Square M Se= Mean Square Error

CANNING STYLE

Scale 9 - Extremely like8 - Like very much7 - Like moderately

6 - Like slightlyTable x.x The Acceptability of Canned Milkfish, Salmon, Spanish, French, Japanese

Styles

STEP 4. Writing the report

QualityAttributes

Salmon Spanish French Japanese

Color 7.2 8.0 7.4 7.0Odor 7.4 7.9 8.4 8.3Flavor 7.1 8.1 8.0 8.4

Texture 7.3 8.0 8.0 8.2GeneralAcceptability 7.3 8.0 8.1 8.3

XX X X