Summer 1990 Quarterly Review - Theological Resources for Ministry

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V O L. 10, NO. 2 S U M M E R 1990

A J o u r n a l of Scholar ly Reflect ion for Minis t ry

QUARTERLY REVIEW

Creative Worship: Rules, Pa tte rn s and GuidelinesL. Edward Phillips

"Then as Now":W esley's No tes as a Model for United M ethodists Today

A W. M artin, Jr.

"Observe the Gradation!":Jo hn Wesley's Notes on the New Testmaent

David Tripp

Theological E duca tion and Education for Church Leadership

Charles M. Wood

New Leadership Pattern s in KoreaDouglas E. Wingeier





VOL. 10, NO. 2 SUMMER1990

CONTENTS

Edi to r i a lSharon J . Hels 3

Cr e a t iv e W o r sh i p : Ru l e s , P a t t e r n s a n d G u i d e l i n e sL. Edw ard Phillips 9

"Then as Now": W esley's Notes as a Model for UnitedMethodists Today

A W. Martin, Jr. 25

"Observe the Grada t ion! " : John Wesley ' s Notes on theN e w T e s t a m e n t

David Tripp 49

T h e o lo g i ca l E d u c a t i o n a n d E d u c a t i o n f or Ch u r c h L e a d e r sh i pCharles M . Wood 65

N e w L e a d e r s h i p P a t t e r n s i n K o r e aDouglas E. Wingeier 83

Review and Comment

T h o m a s G . L o n g . Preaching and the Literary Form s of theBible

Reviewed by David M. Greenhaw 105

F r e d e r i c k E . Ma se r . The Story of John Wesley's Sisters: SevenSisters in Search of Love

Reviewed by W Stephen Gunter 107





QR 1 0 / 2 ( 1 9 9 0 ) 3 - 7

E d i t o r i a l

In 1898 Char l e s Moldenke , a b ib l i ca l scho la r wedded to t he

t h e o r y t h a t M o s e s w r o t e t h e P e n t a t e u c h , a c kn o w l e d g e d t h e

exis tenc e of Eg yp t ian pa ra l le l s to th e b ib l ica l s to ry of Jo se ph

and Po t ipha r ' s wi fe , bu t i n s i s t ed t ha t t hey cou ld be accoun tedf o r b y M o s e s ' h a v i n g d o n e r e s e a r c h a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f

He l iopo l i s i n h i s you th . He shou ld have recons ide red h i s a s

sumpt ions be fo re t hey pu t h im in such a r i d i cu lous pos i t i on .

Today , m os t o f u s f ind the M osa ic au tho rsh ip t h eo ry to be

n o t s o m u c h i n c o r r e c t a s i r r e l e v a n t . T h e r e m a y b e s o m e

res idu a l shock va lue i n t h e ba re fac t s o f t h e do cum en ta ry

hypo thes i s (wh ich migh t exp la in t he su rp r i s ing success o f

R i c h a r d F r i e d m a n ' s b o o k , Who Wrote the Bible?), B u t o n t h e

wh ole , "au thors h ip" i s no t a w ork in g conc ept in b ib l ica l s tud ies

anymore . I t has been rep l aced by more i n t e l l ec tua l ly i n t e re s t i ng and h i s to r i ca l l y reasonab le t heo r i e s abou t o ra l and wr i t t en

t rad i t i ons and the i r bas i s i n l oca l communi t i e s . We canno t

p r e t e n d t h a t m o d e r n b ib l ic a l r e s e a r c h h a s n o t h a p p e n e d , n o r i s

t he re reason to do so .

B u t t h e c h u r c h c o n t i n u e s t o b e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e a u t h o r s h i p

of the Bib le because for the church , o f course , God i s the

o r ig ina t ing sou rce o f Sc r ip tu re . W e hav e ev idence o f t h i s con

cer n in our very mid s t . In th e 1988 Disc ip l ine th e rev is ions of

Doc t r ina l S t anda rds and Our Theo log ica l Task inc lude an em

phas i s on the no rma t ive s t a tu s o f Sc r ip tu re . I t was a l readyt h e r e i n t h e 1 97 2 s t a t e m e n t , w h i c h g av e u s O u t l e r ' s s y n t h e s i s ,

t h e W es leyan quad r i l a t e ra l . Bu t now th e quad r i l a t e r a l i t s e lf ha s

b e e n e x e g e t e d , a n d S c r i p t u r e h a s b e c o m e n o t o n ly t h e r e c o r d

o f Go d ' s dea l ings w i th hum an i ty , bu t t h e au tho r i t a t i v e " sou rce

from which we der ive our theo logica l a ff i rmat ions and the

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QUARTERLY REVIEW, SUM MER 1990

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cr i t e r i a by wh ich we a ssess t h e adequacy of ou r un de r s t a nd ing

and wi tness" (Par . 69) .

Now tha t we have commi t t ed ou rse lves t o t h i s pe rspec t ive ,

th e nex t s tage wi l l be to ask once again how we sho uld rea d th e

Scr ip tu re . W e a re no t exac tly on ou r own he re . Th e s t a t em en tg ives due weight to the need for scholars to dea l wi th the

l i te rary and h is tor ica l in t r icac ies o f anc ien t tex ts , which of ten

inc ludes Molde nke ' s Pe r i l , o r , w ha t t o do w i th An c ien t N ea r

Ea s t e rn pa ra l l e l s . B u t t h e p r im ary t a sk i s ou rs : we a re t o l ook

at th e Bib le as a sour ce of t r u th in w hich o ur l ives a r e m irro red

and we f ind bo th u l t imate comfort and chal lenge f rom God.

Rahner has quo ted Benge l (whom Wes ley consu l t ed i n t he

p roduc t ion o f h i s Notes on the New Testament, as David Tripp

w ri tes in th i s i ssue) on th i s po in t : "Apply you rse l f whol ly to th e

passage , and apply the passage whol ly to yourself." R a h n e rh imse l f sa id t h a t sc r ip tu re shou ld be read a s if one w ere gaz ing

in to t h e eyes of one ' s l ove r , wh ich m ak es i t som e th in g we m igh t

ac tua l ly want to do .

In doc t r ina l t e rm s , t ha t is w ha t t he i n sp i ra t i on o f sc r ip tu re

i s a l l abo ut : G od 's au th or sh ip of th e Bib le ha s to do w i th Go d 's

lov ing se l f -d isc losure in the tex t , ra ther than the d ic ta t ion of

p r iv il eged in fo rma t ion to p rop he t i c ind iv idua l s . T he em phas i s

on th e un i ty o f t h e t ex t me an s t ha t God ha s l ef t no th in g ou t

tha t we need to be i n r i gh t re l a t i onsh ip wi th God . The inne r -

rancy o f t ex t s does no t mean tha t t he re a re no inco r rec t o r

c o n t r a d ic t o r y s t a t e m e n t s i n t h e B ib le , b u t t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g

in i t per ta in ing to our sa lva t ion tha t i s a l i e .

I t i s f r igh ten ing to th ink of handl ing scr ip ture cr i t i ca l ly bu t

miss ing the love of God tha t i s revealed there . But i t i s a l so

f r igh t en ing to t h ink o f doc t r ina l a s sumpt ions a l l owing Chr i s

t i ans t o mi shand le t he ev idence , o r p i e ty be ing u sed a s an

excuse for il l- formed jud ge m en t . Th e a tm os ph ere o f t h e chu rch

o r t h e academ y does i n f luence t h e k inds of ques t ions a dd res sed

to t h e t ex t ; bu t one shou ld no t supp ly answ ers t o t h e o the r . Th epoin t was dr iven home to me years ago by a co l lege professor .

Re l ig ion cou rses were he ld i n c l a s s rooms in t he basemen t o f

th e cha pel , and th e f igurative w eigh t o f ch ur ch au t ho r i ty over

us was no t los t on h im. His constan t re fra in was , "Let ' s keep

some men ta l space be tween the ups t a i r s and the downs ta i r s ! "



EDITORIAL

T he po in t i s t h i s . Two hu nd re d ye a rs o f b ibl ica l re se a rch ha s

no t co r ru p ted ou r p r i s t i n e v i ew of God ' s word bu t has t au gh t

us how to be more a t t en t ive , d i sce rn ing , and even in sp i red

rea de r s of ou r sac red t ex t s . In sp i ra t i on op e ra t e s no t on ly i n t h e

d iv in e -h um an m ix tu re ca ll ed God ' s W ord , bu t a l so w i th inrea de rs . In m ost cases , a ll we rea l ly have to do is overcom e our

le tha rgy , s it down, rea d th e Bib le , and ask for he lp wh en we h i t

someth ing we don ' t unde rs t and . (En te r b ib l i ca l scho la rsh ip . )

Real exper ience wi th the tex t i s an an t ido te to a l l k inds of

t h e o r y a b o u t t h e a u t h o r i t y of S c r i p t u r e .

In t he i r way , each a r t i c l e in t h i s i s sue add re sses t h e ques t ion

of "norms" and "s tanda rds ." Fi rs t , th e re i s a b ib lica l pa t te rn for

ou r worsh ip , t h e pascha l mys t e ry of t he de a th and re su r rec t ion

of Je su s Chris t , th a t i s th e bas i s fo r th e Word -and-tab le serv ice .

As L . Edw ard Ph i l l i p s wr i t e s , t rue c rea t iv it y i n wo rsh ip comesf rom be ing conn ec t ed to t he sa c ram en ta l i t y o f t h e l it u rgy , and

i t s ab i l i ty to express the mystery of fa i th : "Appropria te ly crea

t i ve worsh ip re f l ec t s t h i s heaven ly worsh ip o f t he sa in t s and

ang els before th e th r on e of God." W i th th i s b ib lica l s tand ard ,

the n , we can eva lu a t e t h e t rea su res i n ou r he r i t ag e : t h e rev iva l ,

t h e Sun day Schoo l , and th e Ang l i can -aes the t i c pa t t e rn s .

T h e s e c o n d t w o a r t i c l e s c a n b e r e a d t o g e t h e r i n

po in t / c ou n te rpo in t fa sh ion . A. W. M ar t in , J r . con tend s t h a t

Wes ley ' s Notes on the New Testament should be c la imed byU ni t ed M ethod i s t s , bu t t h a t W es ley ' s "doc t rina l expos it ion" o f

Sc r ip tu re i s ha rd ly t h e bes t mo de l fo r b ib l ica l i n t e rp r e t a t i o n .

In fac t , Wes ley ' s wr i t i ng on the New Tes t amen t s i s a p r ime

exam ple of w ha t f i rs t yea r semin a ry s tu de n t s l ea rn not to do.

Wes ley u sed a co r rup t New Tes t amen t t ex t . He u sed typo logy

a s a w a y t o r e l a t e t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t t o t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t ,

t u r n in g th e Old T es t am en t i n to a se r i e s o f p roph ec i e s a bou t

J e s u s C h r i s t. H e h a r m o n i z e d t h e w r i t in g s of t h e N e w T e s t a

men t and u sed i t t o au tho r i ze l a t e r chu rch doc t r ines . And

f ina lly, he cons ide rd t h e New T es t am en t to con ta in p re d i c t i onsabou t t he end o f t he wor ld . Wha t can we do wi th t he Notes?

M art in couns e ls tha t we l i s ten to b ib lica l scho lars w ho can he lp

us p lace Wesley 's Notes i n a t o t a l i n t e rp re t i ve p i c tu re .

T he Br i t i sh Me thod i s t Ch urc h beg ins wi th a d i f fe ren t pos i

t ion on Wesley 's Notes: they are s tandards for fa i th to which

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QUARTERLY REVIEW, SUMM ER 1990

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c a n d i d a t e s f or o r d i n a t i o n m u s t g iv e t h e i r a s s e n t . T h u s t h e r e i s

m o r e p r e s s u r e t o c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h t h e Notes, and Dav id Tr ip p

offer s us on e way to apprec ia te w ha t Wes ley has g iven u s . J a m e s

Ba r r ha s w r i t t en th a t "b ib li ca l c r i t i c i sm i s a l i t e ra r y mo de o f

o p e r a t i o n , w h i c h c a r r i e s w i t h i t h i s t o r i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s ,[ r a th er tha n] a h i s to r ica l mo de o f ope ra t ion , wh ich ca r r i es w i th

i t l i t e r a r y c o n s e q u e n c e s " (Holy Scripture: Can on, Autho rity,

Criticism, Wes tmins te r , 1983) . To look ca re fu l ly a t Wes ley ' s

Notes on the New Testament i s to s ee tha t Wes ley was an

e x t r e m e l y s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r , a l e r t t o i m a g e r y a n d l i t e r a r y

n u a n c e . I n t h e m a t t e r o f h i s t o r ic a l c o n s e q u e n c e s , W e s l e y w a s

l i m i t e d b y t h e t h o u g h t o f h i s t i m e , w h i c h w a s o n l y b e g i n n i n g

t o a s k t h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t r e s u l t e d i n m o d e r n c r i t i c i s m . B u t

W e s l e y h i m s e l f p o s se s s e d t h e s p i r i t o f t h a t m o d e r n i n q u i r y

w h e n h e w r o t e : "...I t r u s t , w h e r e i n s o e v e r I h a v e b e e n m i s t a k e n ,

my mind i s open to conv ic t ion . I s incere ly des i r e to be be t t e r

in fo rmed . I s ay to God an d m an , 'W ha t I kno w no t , t eac h th ou

me! '" W e m i g h t s p e c u l a t e t h a t W e s l e y w o u l d h a v e m a d e a

f i r s t - r a te b ib l i ca l s cho la r in the twen t ie th cen tu ry .

C h a r l e s M . W o o d ' s a r t i c l e , "T h e o l og i c al E d u c a t i o n a n d

Ed uc a t ion fo r C hu rch L ead er sh ip , " bu i ld s l ike a long c rescendo .

He beg ins w i th some bas ic genera l i za t ions : min i s t ry i s a word

tha t app l ies to a l l Chr i s t i ans , church l eader sh ip i s a subse t o f

tha t ca tegory . In the loca l church , we a re a l l in min i s t ry ,w h a t e v e r o u r f u n c t io n . B u t w e c a n b e t r a i n e d i n t o c h u r c h

lead er sh ip , an d th a t i s w ha t s em ina ry i s for . Wood ha s a d i s t inc

t i v e , p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t y l e , a n d i t m a k e s s o m e d e m a n d s o n

rea de rs . B ut on th is so l id fou nda t ion h e can offer th e fo l lowing

i n s i g h t o n t h e s p i r i tu a l m a t u r i t y i n c h u r c h l e a d e r s :

Pas to r s and those in s imi la r pos i t ions o f l eader sh ip

need to know themse lves wel l . . .Se l f -decep t ion , a s we l l

as th e de cep t ion o f o th er s , i s an easy and a t t r a c t iv e f ea

tu re o f r e l ig ious l ead er sh ip . . . .Pe r sons p re pa r in g for suc hw o r k m u s t k n o w t h e i r o w n h e a r t s i n t h i s r e g a r d ; t h e y

m u s t b e w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e i r ow n s t r e n g t h s a n d

w e a k n e s s e s w h e n f ac e d b y s u c h c h a l l e n g e s , a n d w i t h t h e

o p p o r t u n i t i e s w h i c h b o t h t h e s t r e n g t h s a n d t h e w e a k

ne sse s af ford for ge nu in e an d effect ive service .



EDITORIAL

7

T h e c h u r c h i n K o r e a h a s m u c h t o t e a c h u s a b o u t itself, a n d

eventu a l ly , abo ut ourse lves , i f w e ar e non-Asian Ch ris t ia ns , as

Doug las E . Winge ie r d i scove red in a s tudy t r i p t o Korea two

yea rs ago . H i s e s say i s an i n fo rma t ion -packed gu ide t o t h e Lan d

of Morning Calm tha t i s fasc ina t ing on i t s own but might a l sose rve a s backg ro und rea d ing to two a r t i c l e s t ha t have app ea re d

in th e spr in g , 1989 i ssu e of Qua rterly Review: J u n g Y o u ng L e e ' s

T in -Y an g a s a Theo log ica l Pa rad igm ," and A. Su ng Pa r k ' s "The

Theo logy of H an : T he Pa in of t h e Oppressed . " W inge ie r ' s

a r t i c l e ra i se s t h e i s su e o f imp l i c i t "no rms" o f l eade r sh ip : h i e ra r

chy and pa t r i a rchy . In t he Korean Mask Dance he sees t he

reve rsa l of t he se pa t t e rn s , and th e chan ce to look in Ko rea fo r

t h e C h u r c h ' s m i s s i o n t o t h e p o o r a n d u n i m p o r t a n t p e o p l e i n

society.

Sharon J. Hels





QR 10/2 (1990) 9-23

C r e a t i v e W o r s h i p :R u l e s . P a t t e r n sa n d G u i d e l i n e s

L . E d w a r d P h i l l ip s

W ha t does t h e word "c rea tive" me an? Usua l ly i n ou r ch u rc h

l ingo i t means "exci t ing," "different ," "engaging," and such. The

oppo si te o f c rea t iv e wou ld be "bor ing ," "pred ic tab le ," o r "d u l l " -

l abe ls t h a t no one wa n t s ! Con seque n t ly , c rea t ive wo rsh ip o f t en

m e a n s n e w i d e a s o n h o w t o m a k e S u n d a y m o r n i n g s m o r e

exc i t ing wi th ban ne rs , o r mu s i c , d i f fe ren t app roach es t o r i t ua l s ,

o r new r i t ua l s a l t oge the r . Bu t be fo re a wo rsh ip p l a nn e r ru sh eshead long in to c rea t iv it y , a m ore fund am en ta l que s t ion sho u ld

be ra i sed : w ha t so r t of no rm s do we employ w he n we ma ke a

decis ion to s ing a hymn, have a process ion , p ray a prayer , o r

d isp lay a banner?

U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t m i n i s t e r s a n d w o r s h i p l e a d e r s h a v e s o

much f reedom in o rde r ing the i r worsh ip se rv i ces t ha t , a t f i r s t

g l ance , i t may appea r t ha t t he re a re no no rms . I f we were t o

examine the o rde r o f Sunday worsh ip f rom a dozen d i f fe ren t

U n i t e d M etho d i s t chu rch es , we wou ld f ind tha t t h ey d if fe r f romeach o ther , some in fa i r ly rad ica l ways . Moreover , th i s var ie ty

L. Edward Phillips is pastor of Central United Methodist Church in SouthBend, Indiana and a member of the Memphis Annual Conference. He iscurrently completing his dissertation on liturgies at the University of NotreDame in South Bend, Indiana.

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QUARTERLY REVIEW, SUMMER 1990

occu rs no t on ly f rom chu rch to chu rch , bu t f rom pas to r t o

pas to r , so t ha t worsh ip va r i e s acco rd ing to each pas to r ' s t a s t e .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e n e w United Methodist Hym nal c o n t a i n s

d i rec t ions fo r ye t ano the r o rd e r o f wo rsh ip , o ft en com ple t e ly

unfami l ia r . Because of a l l o f these in f luences , worsh ip s ty leof ten ch ang es so ab ru pt ly th a t con greg at ion s can suffer f rom

"l i tu rg ica l wh ip lash ." As one layp erso n sa id : "We ha d ju s t

go t t en u sed to t he way ou r p rev ious min i s t e r l ed worsh ip , and

now ou r new m in i s t e r has chang ed eve ry th ing !" Som e chu r

ches hav e expe r i enced such a va r i e ty of wo rsh ip s ty l e s t h a t t h ey

h a v e b e c o m e t o t a l l y a p a t h e t i c a b o u t w o r s h i p : " J u s t d o

wha teve r you wan t , Pas to r . We don ' t ca re . "

Mo s t o f t h e t im e , how ever , t h e o r de r o f wo rsh ip i s a com

p r o m i s e b e t w e e n w h a t t h e p a s t o r w a n t s a n d w h a t t h e c o n g re g a

t i on expec t s . W he re do the se exp ec t a t i ons o r ig ina t e? H ow does

a l eade r dec ide w ha t i s app rop r i a t e fo r wo rsh ip i n a U n i t e d

M ethod i s t cong rega t ion? Th i s b r ing s u s back to t h e ope n ing

ques t ion : W ha t a re t h e ope ra t ive no rm s by wh ich we o rde r and

eva lua t e ou r worsh ip?

Th i s e s say i s an expe r imen t i n dev i s ing a me thod fo r t he

eva lua t ion o f wo rsh ip wi th in Am er i can M ethod i sm . F i r s t , I wi ll

t e s t seve ra l ru l e s t ha t gove rn the deve lopmen t o f worsh ip

pa t t e rn s i n Un i t ed Method i s t cong rega t ions . Second , I wi l l

desc r ibe fou r bas i c pa t t e rn s t ha t a re ope ra t ive i n ou r worsh ip .Las t , I wi l l sugg es t som e gu ide l ines for p l ann ing and eva lua t ing

w o r s h i p t h a t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s e r u l e s a n d p a t t e r n s .

R u l e s

In the las t few decades , l i tu rg ica l scholars have d iscerned

seve ra l l aws tha t a re ope ra t ive i n t he evo lu t ion o f Roman

Ca tho l i c and Or thodox l i t u rg i e s . These l aws a re he lp fu l i n

t rac ing the va r ious l i nes o f l i t u rg i ca l deve lopmen t , a me thod

usual ly ref err ed to as "com para t ive l i tu rgy ." I wo uld l ike tosugges t t h a t t h e evo lu t ion o f Pr o t e s t a n t worsh ip , even w hen i t

is not based on a fixed l i turgy, also fol lows similar rules, 2

R u l e n u m b e r o n e : Orders of worship are conservative.

On ce a pa t t e rn i s e s t ab l i shed , i t r e s i s t s chang e un t i l so me one

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CREATIVE WORSHIP

or g rou p - o r c i r cum stanc e - c han ges i t. I t i s m uc h eas ie r to ad d

so m e t h i n g t o t h e o r d e r o f w o r sh i p t h a n i t is t o o m i t so m e t h i n g

a l r e a d y i n p l a c e . T h u s , w h i l e p a s t o r s o s t e n s i b l y h a v e t h e

au tho r i ty to o rde r wo rsh ip as the y p lease , r a r e ly do th ey chan ge

every th ing . Ins tead , th e o rder o f wo rsh ip i s t r e a te d l ike an a t t i c

in wh ich ev ery th ing i s s to red , old a long w i th new.

O n e c h u r c h I a t t e n d e d h a d a n i n f o r m a l g r e e t i n g a m o n g

m e m b e r s of t h e c o n g r e g a t io n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e S u n d a y

serv ice . Th e chu rch r ece ived a new pas to r , wh o w an ted to ha ve

a g re e t in g o f peac e a f t e r th e confess ion , as i t app ear s in th e new

United Methodist Hymnal. Bu t , r a t h e r t h a n o m i t t i n g t h e g r e e t

ing a t th e beg inn ing , wh ich see m ed to be so popu la r , sh e s imply

added ano ther a f t e r the p rayer . The se rv ice then had two

g r e e t i n g s .E s t a b l i sh e d p a t t e r n s a r e c o n se r v a ti v e b e c a u se c o n g r e g a t i o n s

l ike to know wh at th ey ma y expec t in wo rsh ip . Ju s t t r y ch ang

ing the words to the Lord ' s P rayer , and see what r esponse you

g e t ! E v e n t h o u g h t h e r e a r e v e r y g o od c o n t e m p o r a r y v e r s i o n s ,

peop le l ike the o ld s t andards , e i the r " t r espasses" as in the

M eth od i s t t r ad i t ion , o r "deb ts" as m an y EU B congrega t ions sa id

i t. I susp ec t tha t one r eason fo r th e upro ar over cha ng ing th e

w o r d s of t h e o ld h y m n s i s t h a t t h e se h y m n s w e r e a b o u t al l m o s t

U n i t e d Me t h o d i s t s c o u l d c o u n t o n r e m a i n i n g t h e s a m e , y e a r

af ter year . They const i tu ted a sor t of " f ixed" l i turgy.S ince worsh ip i s conserva t ive , we mus t be ca re fu l abou t

i n t r o d u c i n g c h a n g e i n t o o u r w o r sh i p s e r v ic e s b e c a u se w e m a y

be s t a r t ing a p rac t i ce which wi l l con t inue fo r many year s .

R u l e n u m b e r t w o . The order of worship grows until it becomes

unmanageable; some parts are then removed.

Th is l i turgical a t t ic I ref er r ed to above can only hold so m uc h.

T h e r e a r e l i m i t s . T i m e l i m i t s m a y b e t h e m o s t s a c r o sa n c t :

" P r e a c h e r , j u s t g e t u s o u t b y n o o n - o r e ls e ." W h e n t h e o r d e r

t a k e s o n m o r e t h a n t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n c a n r e a so n a b l y d o w i t h i n

th e expec ted l imi t s , so m eth ing ha s to go . Fo r ins t an ce , an

e n t e r t a i n i n g c h i l d r e n ' s s e r m o n i s a d d e d t o w o r sh i p , so t h e

psa l t e r i s d roppe d , even thou gh t h e psa l t e r ha s be en a pa r t of

Ch r i s t i an l i tu rgy s ince th e ea r l i es t t ime s . Or a per iod o f shar i ng

11




con grega t ional " joys an d conce rns" i s p laced before th e pas tora l

p rayer , and th e per iod of s i l en t p rep ara t io n befo re p rayer i s

o m i t t e d .

Th ese exa m ples i l lus t r a t e a second f ea tu re o f th i s ru le .

Usua l ly th e o lder pa r t s o f th e se rv ice give way to th e new er

p a r t s . Few of us r ea l ly know wh y we a lways d id th e psa l t e r , an d

c h i l d r e n ' s s e r m o n s s e e m t o b e so p o p u l a r . T h e d a n g e r h e r e i s

t h a t w h e n e l e m e n t s t h a t h a v e b e e n p a r t of Ch r i s t i a n w o r sh i p

fo r cen tu r i es a r e omi t t ed , our l i tu rgy looses h i s to r i ca l con

t inu i ty . I t i s im po r ta n t to un de r s t an d th e h i s to r ica l s ign i fi cance

of our var iou s acts of wo rship , so th a t ou r decis ion to include or

om i t th e m i s base d on m ore t ha n our im pres s ion o f "what wo rks

best ."

R u l e n u m b e r t h r e e : Acts of worship take on secondary mean

ings when the original mean ing is unknow n or forgotten.

Th e r easo n an ac t o f wo rsh ip i s ke p t i s som et im es d i f f e ren t

f rom th e r eason i t was beg un . Th e churc h I p res en t ly se rve

obse rves a per io d of s i lence a t th e en d of Su nd ay service , before

the pos t lude . The congrega t ion s t ands a t s t r i c t a t t en t ion fo r a

ful l f i f teen seconds before the organ breaks the s i lence. I d id

no t beg in th i s cus tom, bu t f rom my f i r s t Sunday there I found

i t to be an especial ly f i t t ing way to conclude worship . Not long

ago I co m m en ted to a par i s h ion er how mea n ingfu l I found th i sp rac t i ce to be . 'You know , pas to r , " h e sa id , "Funn y th in g abo u t

tha t . W e use d to hav e an aco ly te come fo rward du r ing tha t t i m e

to ex t ingu i sh th e cand les . T he o rga n i s t a lways wai t ed un t i l t h e

cand les w ere ou t , so th a t we cou ld al l wa tch th e ch i ld ren befo re

th e m ad ru sh fo r the door . W el l, we hav en ' t had an aco ly te

ex t ingu i sh the cand les in some year s . I guess nobody ever go t

a rou nd to t e l l ing our o rgan i s t to s t a r t p lay ing sooner. " My

in te rp re ta t ion o f th i s pe r iod o f s i l ence had no th ing to do wi th

i t s o r ig in . I had a t t ached a secondary mean ing .

I was once ac tive in a ch urc h in wh ich t h e cho i r d i r ec to r w orea c ler ical s to le so th a t h e could be "color -coded to th e l i turgical

season , ju s t l i ke th e pas to r ." T he h i s to r i ca l me an ing o f ves t i -

tu re was to ta l ly los t , bu t no one in the congrega t ion minded .

T h e y d i d n o t k n o w w h a t v e s t m e n t s m e a n t a n y w a y.

12



CREATIVE W ORSHIP

W e m us t be ca re fu l abo u t m ak ing up ex p lana t ions fo r ac t s of

w o r sh i p w e d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d . W e m a y b e p la c i n g a m e a n i n g o n

so m eth ing tha t i s to t a l ly un re la t ed to i t s o rig in . Th i s does no t

mean tha t every secondary mean ing i s inva l id . However , i t i s

usua l ly bes t to es t ab l i sh th e o r ig ina l m ean ing , w he n th a t i sposs ib le , so tha t we a re no t comple te ly a l t e r ing the mean ing ,

o r apo log iz ing for som eth ing th a t h as a dub ious o r ig in .

Ru l e n u m b e r fo u r: The order of worship usually follows some

predetermined patterns.

M u c h o f t h e t i m e t h e s e p a t t e r n s a r e u n c o n sc i o u s . By u n c o n

sc io u s I m e a n t h a t c o n g r e g a t i o n s u su a l ly a c c ep t t h e m w i t h o u t

t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e m , o f te n w i t h o u t e v e n k n o w i n g t h a t p a t t e r n s

are be ing fol lowed. M oreover , ch urc he s som et im es fo llow m oreth an o ne pa t t e rn , o r bor row from one pa t t e rn to fill i n a no the r .

T h e p a t t e r n s t h a t U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s u s e a r e n u m e r o u s .

They come f rom ch i ldhood r eco l l ec t ions , memor ies o f co l l ege

and sem inary days , r eso urc e books , and o th er e xper i enc es .

However , fo r our purposes the pa t t e rns can be g rouped in to

four ca tegor ies : Rev iva l , Sunday- schoo l , Angl i can-aes the t i c ,

a n d W o r d - a n d - t a b l e .3

Ea ch o f the se typ es ha s a bas ic pa t t e rn ,

and a character , or "e thos."

P a t t e r n sT he f ir st ty pe, th e Revival , develop ed ou t of th e revival

m e e t i n g s a n d c a m p m e e t i n g s of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e

per s on wh o was m os t in f luen t i a l in es t ab l i sh ing th e fo rm of th e

rev iva l was Ch ar les F inn ey , p robab ly th e mo s t im po r tan t figure

i n A m e r i c a n Ch r i s t i a n i t y i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . F i n n e y

was a lawyer , not a theologian, by t ra in ing, and he took a

dec ided ly un- theo log ica l and a -h i s to r i ca l app roach to th e bus i

ness of revivals . Conversion, according to Finney, was not a

m at t e r o f th e Holy Sp i r it ; i t came as a r es u l t o f th e r igh tt e c h n i q u e . If e v a n g e l i s ts u se d t h e ri g h t m e t h o d s , t h e n t h e y

wo uld ge t r e su l t s . T he o rd er o f th e day ca l l ed for "new

m e a s u r e s . "4

T h e se n e w m e a s u r e s i n c l u d e d su c h i n n o v a t io n s a s

the p ro t r ac ted mee t ing , v i s i t ing evange l i s t s , adver t i s ing , the

"mourners '" or "anxious" bench, a l tar cal l s , t ra ined choirs , and

13




song l eade r s . To F in ney , h i s to r i ca l t r ad i t io n was i r r e l evan t , an d

corpora te worsh ip was no t very impor tan t . Conver s ion was the

a l l - im p o r t a n t b u s i n e s s of Ch r i s t i a n i t y .5

Conver s ion o f the los t , F inney be l i eved , was bes t ach ieved

th ro ug h a th ree- fo ld pa t t e rn o f m ee t ing . Th e f i rs t pa r t inc ludedth e "p re l iminar i es : " hy m n s ing ing , spec ia l mu s ic , in t rod uc

t i ons , t e s t i m o n i e s , p r a y e r s , a n d l o v e o f f e r i n g s - a l l o f w h i c h

we re ca lcu la ted to se t th e mood for conver s ion . Nex t cam e t he

"message ." No te , "message" r a th er th an " se rmon ." Th e chan ge

was s ign i f i can t . The evange l i s t was t ry ing to communica te a

me ssage to th e aud ien ce , wh ich had as i t s a im th e conver s ion

of th e lost . Th e f inal par t , th e "al tar cal l" or "harvest" imm edi

a te ly fo l lowed the message . Here peop le were asked to come

forward to g ive the i r l ives to Je su s . S ing ing he lp ed to keep th e

emot iona l l eve l a t an in tense h igh dur ing the a l t a r ca l l .

T he r ev iva l pa t t e rn was very e f fec tive in m ak ing con ver t s . I t

r em ain s e f fec tive fo r som e chu rch es , a l thou gh m os t o f us would

agree tha t r ev iva l s a r e no t as p roduc t ive as they once were .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e p a t t e r n - p r e l i m i n a r i e s , m e s s a g e , a l ta r c a l l -

b e c a m e e m b e d d e d i n t h e P r o t e s t a n t m i n d a s t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e

c h u r c h m e e t i n g . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t i t b e c a m e t h e p a t t e r n , n o t

jus t fo r r ev iva l s , bu t fo r Sunday worsh ip . Sunday morn ing was

tu rned in to an evange l i s t i c se rv ice .

T h e l ine of in t era ct io n in a revival i s ho r izon tal : f rom th esp e a k e r t o t h e h e a r e r , p r e a c h e r t o t h e l o s t. T h e p a t t e r n w a s n o t

in te nd ed to be th e wo rsh ip o f th e chu rch . F inn ey d id no t r ea l ly

care abo u t wo rsh ip , pe r se . Ev en so , th e r ev iva l beca me th e

s t a n d a r d p a t t e r n , c o m p l e t e l y su p p l a n t i n g t h e c o r p o r a te a c t i o n

of l i tu rgy in many churches .

The r ev iva l may s t i l l be the mos t p reva len t bas ic pa t t e rn

a m o n g U n i t e d Me t h o d i s t c o n g r e g a t i o n s . O n e of t h e c h u r c h e s

on th e c i rcui t I serv ed f resh ou t of se m ina ry did no t l ike to hav e

th e o f fe r ing an d p ra yer s a f t e r th e se rm on beca use as one

m em be r said , " it m igh t in t e r f e re w i th the inv i t a t ion to com eforward ." N ot th a t anyon e ever came fo rward dur in g th e Su n

day se rv ice , bu t th e inv i t a t ion ne ed ed to be th er e ju s t in case .

T h e s e c o n d i m p o r t a n t p a t t e r n i s t h e S u n d a y sch o o l. If t h e

rev ival was a im ed a t th e gu t to ge t an em ot iona l r espo nse , th e

14



CREATIVE WO RSHIP

Su nd ay schoo l wa s a im ed a t th e hea d to edu ca te : conver s ion

t h r o u g h t e a c h i n g .

P r i o r t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e r e w e r e f e w S u n d a y

sc h o o ls i n A m e r i c a. Bu t , b y t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,

v i r t u a l l y e v e r y P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h h a d a S u n d a y sc h o o l p r o

g r a m . 6 F o r m a n y Me t h o d i s t c o n g r e g a t i o n s , t h e S u n d a y sc h o o l

su p p l a n t e d t h e c l as s m e e t i n g . A n d , fo r m a n y r u r a l c o n g r e g a

t i o n s , t h e S u n d a y sc h o o l a s se m b l y w a s t h e m a i n w e e k l y e v e n t ,

wh i l e wo rsh ip l ed by an o rd a ine d p rea ch er occu r red on ly every

o t h e r S u n d a y , o r o n c e a m o n t h .

T h e S u n d a y sc h o o l a s se m b l y w a s l e d b y a su p e r i n t e n d e n t ,

c h o se n fr o m t h e l a it y , r a t h e r t h a n b y a n o r d a i n e d m i n i s t e r . T h e

e m p h a s i s w a s p l a c e d o n p a r t i c i p a t i o n . I n m a n y c h u r c h e s a s

sem bl ie s w ere he ld before a nd af ter c lasses . T h e f ir st p ar t wouldi n c l u d e g a t h e r i n g m u s i c a n d so n g s w i t h u p l i f ti n g m e ssa g e s .

O f t e n t h e " t h e m e of t h e d ay " w a s a n n o u n c e d . T h i s t h e m e o f t h e

day was no t based o n th e l i tu rg ica l ca lendar , b u t on spec ia l

e m p h a se s su c h a s Mo t h e r ' s D a y , F a t h e r ' s D a y , B i b l e S u n d a y ,

o r "Women ' s Day ." 7 A f t e r t h e c la s s m e e t i n g , t h e su p e r i n t e n

de n t took the ro l l an d in t rodu ced v i s i to r s . Co l l ec t ion wa s t ak en ,

a n d r e p o r t s w e r e g i v e n . O f t e n , o n e of t h e c la s s m e m b e r s

p r e p a r e d a d e v o t i o n a l - p o e m s o r r e a d i n g s w i t h s i n gi n g a n d

Bib le l esson . T h e assem bly a lways conc luded wi th a h ym n and

a d i smissa l p rayer .T h e S u n d a y sc h o o l a s se m b l y i n c l u d e d e l e m e n t s t h a t t h e

rev iva l would no t to l e r a t e - su ch as "p rograms" l ed by ch i ld ren ,

p rocess ion s to songs l ike "Onward , Chr i s t i an So ld ie r s ," an d th e

rec i t a t io n o f c r ee ds o r Bib le ver s es . In th e r ev iva l , t h e con

grega t ion i s bas ica lly pass ive , bu t in th e Su nd ay schoo l , t h e

congrega t ion i s ve r y ac t ive .

The d idac t i c charac te r o f the Sunday schoo l assembly was

con t inued in the s ix t i es and seven t i es by so -ca l l ed "pop" l i tu r

gies . In pop l i tu rg ies , worsh ip i s o f t en a means to r a i se theconsc iousness o f the congrega t ion r egard themes such as eco l

ogy, or sexism , or w ar and p eac e. T h e dida ct ic s ty le can be qu i te

bana l : "Good mo rn ing ." Re spo nse , "Good mo rn ing ." "Why a re

we here? " "We a re he re to p ra i se th e Lord ." ( Ju s t once I wi sh

15




a congrega t ion would r espo nd , "If you don ' t know, wh y a re yo u

up there!")

T he th i rd p a t t e rn I ca ll An gl i can-aes the t i c . Th i s i s th e p a t

t e r n t h a t b e g a n t o d e v e l o p i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d

w a s p u b l i sh e d i n t h e M e t h o d i s t D i sc ip l in e s a n d h y m n a l s . T h i sp a t t e r n i n t r o d u c e d e l e m e n t s f ro m t h e E p i sc o p al Ch u r c h , m a n y

of wh ich ha d no t even bee n in p rac t i ce a t th e t im e of W es ley .

T h e se e l e m e n t s i n c l u d e r o b e d c h o i r s a n d o r g a n s , v e s t m e n t s ,

a l t a r c a n d l e s , d i v i d e d c h a n c e l s , G o t h i c a r c h i t e c t u r e , a n d

acolytes .

Angl i can-aes the t i c l i t u rgy r e l i es on p r in ted o rder s o f wor

sh ip . T he app eal i s to "good tas te ," an d "be auty of form ."9

City

ch urc he s cou ld af fo rd i t wh i l e m an y smal l , r u r a l chu rch es cou ld

no t . Th e ac tua l o rder i s bas ica l ly Angl i can morn ing p raye r ,fol lowed by an " in te rmiss ion" th a t inc lude d th e an no un ce m en ts

and th e co l l ect ion . Af te r th i s comes th e se rm on and inv i t a -

t i o n . 1 0

T h e A n g l i c a n - a e s t h e t i c p a t t e r n d ev e l op e d w h e n M e t h o d i sm

w a n t e d t o a p p e a r m o r e li k e a c h u r c h a n d l e s s l ik e a m o v e m e n t .

H o w e v e r , b y t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e r e v iv a l

p a t t e r n w a s t o o s t r o n g to b e a b a n d o n e d a l t o g e t h e r . I n s t e a d , t h e

revival pat tern was made to look and sound l ike a service f rom

t h e Book of Comm on Prayer. T h e A n g l i c a n - a e s t h e t i c t y p e ,

the n , is im po r ta n t no t fo r i t s o rder , bu t because o f i t s e thos .W orsh ip shou ld be p lea san t to l i s t en to , bea ut i fu l to beho ld , and

have a p leas ing fo rm; there fo re , the o rder was p r in ted in hym

na l s and , fo r churches tha t cou ld a f fo rd dup l i ca t ing mach ines ,

in week ly bu l l e t ins .

T h e f o u r t h p a t t e r n i s W o r d - a n d -t a b l e . T h i s r e p r e se n t s so m e

t h i n g n e w fo r U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s .1 1

W ord-and- tab le i s th e fo rm

of th e a l t e r na te r i tu a l s se r i es begu n in 1972 , and i s th e fo rm

t h a t h a s b e e n i n c l u d e d in t h e n e w U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t H y m n a l .

I t r ep res en t s an a t t e m pt to es t ab l i sh one bas ic o rde r of worsh ip

w ith two pa r ts : a) a service of th e word, and b ) a service of HolyCommunion ( ca l l ed "Euchar i s t " in the hymnal ) . Th i s pa t t e rn

developed out of the l i turgical revolut ion that took place in

s i x t i e s a n d s e v e n t i e s . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , a l m o s t e v e r y

den om ina t ion r ev i sed i t s l i t u rg ica l books : Ro ma n Catho l i cs ,

16



CREATIVE WORSHIP

E p i sc o p a l i a n s , L u t h e r a n s , P r e sb y t e r i a n s , U n i t e d Ch u r c h o f

Chr i s t , a s wel l a s U ni t e d M etho d i s t s . Th e fo rms for th i s r en ew al

a re based on m od er n l itu rg ica l scho la r sh ip and a re d rawn f rom

scr ip tu ra l and pa t r i s t i c sources , such as the o rder o f worsh ip

g i v en b y Ju s t i n M a r t y r a r o u n d 1 50 C .E .1 2

W ord-and- tab le pays spec ia l a t t en t io n to th e theo log ica l

m ea n i ng o f o rd er . Of cou r se , every o rd er o f wo rsh ip ha s

theo log ica l impl i ca t ions , bu t in the Word-and- tab le pa t t e rn ,

the theo log ica l mean ing o f o rder i s c l ea r ly acknowledged . 1 3

The first half, t h e "word se rvice ," beg in s wi th t h e ga the r ing

of th e congrega t ion , swif tly moves to a g re e t in g and hy m n, and

then to prayer , usual ly a col lect of the day.

Fo l lowing th i s , t h e sc r ip tu res a re r ead . P rov i s ion is m ad e fo r

th re e l essons and a Psa lm. Th e use o f th e l ec t ionary i s the reb y

encou raged , wh ich en su re s a f a ir ly b road se lec t ion o f t ex t s over

t h e c o u r se of t h r e e y e a r s . T h e s e r m o n i s p r e a c h e d i m m e d i a t e l y

af t e r th e r ead ing o f l essons . Theo log ica l ly , th i s i s m ea n t to

express the uni ty of "Word" read and "Word" preached. The

serm on , the re fo re , occur s fa ir ly ea r ly in th e se rv ice .

Af te r the se rmon come responses to the Word . Th i s sec t ion

a lways inc lud es in te rc esso ry p ray er ( a l i t any w i th congrega t ion

a l r esp ons e i s p re fe rab le to a pas to ra l p ray er ) , and i t ma y a l so

inc lud e confess ion , c r eed s , o r som e so r t of su ng r espon se . Th i s

is a lso th e p lace w h er e ba pt ism s or re-af f i rmat ion s of fa i th ar einc luded .

Th e t r ans i t io n to th e Tab le se rv ice beg ins w i th th e o f fe r to ry .

T he of fer tory i s no t ju s t a col lect ion of m on ey, b u t may inclu de

th e b read and wine th a t t h e cong rega t ion i s o f fe r ing to God fo r

t h e E u c h a r i s t .

The euchar i s t i c p rayer opens wi th a r espons ive d ia log be

t w e e n t h e m i n i s t e r a n d t h e p e o p l e :

The Lord be with you.

R, And also with you.Lift up you hearts.

R, We lift th em up to th e Lord.

Let us give thank s to the Lord our God,

R, It is right to give our than ks and praise.

17




Fo l lowing th i s , t he p re s ide r o f fe r s t he eucha r i s t i c p raye r .

The words o f t he eucha r i s t i c p raye r may va ry f rom se rv i ce t o

se rv ice , b u t t h e r e a re e l e m en t s t h a t a r e a lways i nc luded : 1)

Thanksgiv ing for c rea t ion and for sa lva t ion , 2 ) the "Sanctus"

(Holy , ho ly , ho ly . . . ) , 3 ) the words of ins t i tu t ion , 4 ) a passage" r e m e m b e r i n g " (anamnesis) t he who le o f Chr i s t ' s work , 5 ) an

invocat ion (epiclesis) of t h e H o ly Sp i r i t upon t h e b read an d w ine

as wel l as upo n th e cong regat ion , and 6) a c los ing t r in i ta r ia n

fo rmu la .

Af t e r com m unio n , t h e r e i s a c lo s ing p ray e r o f t hanksg iv ing ,

a hym n , and a b l e s s ing and d i smissa l .

Th i s i s t h e bas i c o rde r : W ord and Tab le . I t does no t a s sum e

t h a t s o m e t h i n g i s a d d e d o n c o m m u n i o n d a y s . R a t h e r , some

thing is left out on days when commun ion is not celebrated.

W o r d - a n d - t a b l e a s s u m e s t h a t r o t e p a t t e r n s m a k e p a r t i c i p a

t i o n e a s i e r - t h e r e i s l i tt l e v a r i a t i o n i n c o n g r e g a ti o n a l r e s p o n

ses . Moreover , r e sponses a re s imp le ra the r t han " f lowery" o r

"wordy ," as in the Angl ican-aes the t ic pa t te rn , o r heavi ly d idac

t ic as in pop l i tu rgy .

Word -and - t ab l e emphas i zes p raye r and p ra i se a s a co rpo ra t e

ac t ion of t h e p eop le o f God . Sund ay wo rsh ip i s no t an evange l i s

t ic serv ice ; i t i s a serv ice for th e a l ready -con ver ted , th ose go ing

on to pe r fec t ion , t o u se a Wes leyan t e rm. Moreove r , t he re i s

l i t t l e t ha t i s a rb i t ra ry—unl ike t he p re l imina r i e s o f t he rev iva l ,o r t h e p rog ram o f t h e Sun day schoo l .

To summar i ze , t hese fou r pa t t e rn s , Rev iva l , Sunday -schoo l ,

A n g l i c a n - a e s th e t i c , a n d W o r d - a n d - ta b l e , a r e t h e m o s t c o m m o n

i n U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t w o r s h i p .1 4

E a c h o f t h e s e p a t t e r n s h a s a

p l ace i n ou r t rad i t i on , and each i s su i t ed t o pa r t i cu l a r nee ds .

However , p rob lems can occu r when a pa r t i cu l a r se rv i ce

inc ludes mor e t h an one o f t h e t ypes a t t h e sam e t ime , a s i s o f t en

t h e c as e . W h e n t h i s h a p p e n s , t h e p a t t e r n s g e t al l d i s t o r t e d a n d

co l l apsed . E lemen t s f rom the Word -and - t ab l e ge t twi s t ed in to

the rev iva l pa t t e rn . Or , we have a g rand Ang l i can -aes the t i cp rocess ion wi th cho i r , min i s t e r s , and banne rs , bu t end i t wi th

" - N o w l e t u s t u r n a n d g r e e t o u r n e i g h b o r w i t h a h a n d s h a k e

and a smi l e" f rom th e Sunday -schoo l pa t t e rn .

I a t t ended one chu rch tha t began the se rv i ce t h i s way : f i r s t

18



CREATIVE W ORSHIP

the cho i r sang a gospe l cho rus : "Turn Your Eyes upon Jesus ; "

th en we w ere t o ld t o g re e t ou r ne igh bors and fill ou t a t t en da nc e

forms; nex t , the aco ly tes came forward to l igh t the candles ,

wh i l e t h e o rgan p l ayed ; t h e n we had a re spons ive g ree t ing ; t h i s

was fo l lowed by a hymn. (Al l o f the above was led by a layperson .) ; fo llowing th i s , th e pa s tor ad ded w ords of we lcom e t o

v i s i t o r s .

F ina l ly , t he pas to r p rayed an invoca t ion p raye r .

I d id n ' t t h in k t h a t se rv i ce wou ld eve r ge t off t he g rou nd! T h i s

ord er o f w orsh ip i l lu s t r a te s qu i te c lear ly th e confla t ion of pa t

t e rn s . I t had a beg inn in g from th e rev ival , t h e Sun day schoo l ,

t h e An g l i can -aes the t i c s ty le , and W ord -and - t ab l e , a ll c r unc hed

t o g e t h e r . N o d o u b t t h e w o r s h i p l e a d e r s k e p t a d d i n g t o t h e

beg inn ing o f t h e se rv i ce eve ry th in g th a t se em ed to be an

app rop r i a t e way to s t a r t . My guess i s t ha t be fo re l ong , t he

congrega t ion wi ll compla in and so m eth ing wi ll be cu t .

A lo t o f t he va r i e ty i n Un i t ed Method i s t worsh ip pa t t e rn s i s

a re s u l t o f con f l a ti on o f t he se i ncon gruo us pa t t e r n s . I have

v i s i t e d m a n y c h u r c h e s w h i c h h a v e t a k e n t h e p a r t s o f t h e

Word -and - t ab l e o rde r , twi s t ed i t i n to t he rev iva l pa t t e rn , and

add ed var io us ae s th e t i c f lour ishes. T he pro blem w i th th i s i s

t ha t a l l t oo o f t en t he mix ing has been done wi thou t much

unders t and ing o f t he o r ig ina l pa t t e rn s . I t i s no t a s i f Un i t edM e t h o d i s t s h a v e n o n o r m a t i v e p a t t e r n s ; w e h a v e t o o m a n y

pa t t e rn s , and we don ' t know i t !

Guide l ines for Creat ive Worsh ip

I f t h e r u l e s a n d p a t t e r n s g iv e n a b o ve r e p r e s e n t t h e a c t u a l

d e v e l o p m e n t of U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t w o r s h i p , t h e n a n y p r o g r a m

of l i tu rg i ca l rene w a l w i th in a cong rega t ion mi gh t bene f i t f rom

ackno wled ging the m . To th a t e ffect , I wo uld l ike to offer severa l

gu ide l ines fo r be in g c rea t ive i n worsh ip .F i r s t , be ve r y cau t iou s i n im p le m en t ing any m^ jo r chang e in

th e wo rsh ip se rv i ce . T he o rde r o f wo rsh ip p rope r ly be longs t o

th e cong rega t ion , j u s t a s t h e wo rsh ip be longs t o God . T he re

f o re , t h o s e w h o p l a n t h e w o r s h i p s h o u l d d e t e r m i n e w h a t is t h e

bas i c pa t t e rn wi th in t h e cong rega t ion ' s h i s to r y and do i t a s we l l

19



QUARTERLY REVIEW , SUMMER 1990

as i t can be done . Even confla ted pa t te rns can have a sor t o f

in t e r na l sense fo r t hos e w ho fo llow the m Su nda y a f t e r Sund ay .

Above a l l, p l a nn e rs shou ld nev e r a rb i t ra r i l y change th ings .

Ra the r , t h ey shou ld wo rk slowly w i th t h e cong rega t ion , l ea rn

i t s h i s t o r y , a n d g r a d u a l l y r e - w o r k w h a t e v e r s e e m s i n a p p r o p r i a t e .

S e c o n d, e n c o u r a g e r e p e t i t i o n m o r e t h a n i n n o v a ti o n . T h e

p a r t s o f t h e s e r v i c e w h i c h c h a n g e e a c h w e e k - h y m n s , l e s s o n s ,

s e r m o n , p r a y e r s - a r e m o r e e ff ec ti ve i f t h e c o n g r e g a t io n i s

tho rough ly fami l i a r wi th t he ove ra l l s t ruc tu re , and can rec i t e

th e re sp ons es f rom m em ory : " T he Lo rd be wi th you ." "And al so

w i th you ." Li tu rgy i s no t w ord s on a page . W he n people can say

i t by hea r t , i t i s t he i r s . Moreove r , r epe t i t i on makes pa r t i c ipa

t i on much eas i e r fo r ch i ld ren , t he v i sua l ly impa i red , t he men

t a ll y hand icapp ed , and tho se who a re i l l i t e ra t e .

T h i r d , r e s p e c t t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d e t h o s o f t h e v a ri o u s p a t

t e r n s . I t i s poss ib le t o bo r row from one pa t t e rn t o ano the r , bu t

p l anne rs mus t be ve ry c l ea r abou t t he ove ra l l s t ruc tu re and

e tho s of t h e va r ious t ypes , and ve ry aware o f i ncong ru i t i e s t h a t

m igh t deve lop . If, fo r exam ple , w orsh ip p l a nn e rs a re t h in k in g

abou t chang in g to t h e W ord -and - t ab l e pa t t e r n o f t h e new hym

na l , t h en t he y shou ld t ake m uc h t im e to i n t ro duc e i t t o t h e

congrega t ion , p re fe rab ly i n s tud y g roups ou t s ide o f wo rsh ip .

F i t t i ng the va r ious pa r t s o f t he Word -and - t ab l e o rde r i n toano the r , mo re fami l i a r pa t t e rn , suc h a s t h e rev iva l , wi l l no t g ive

th e cong rega t ion a fa ir imp ress ion o f W ord -and - t ab l e .

Fo u r th , have a rev iva l m ee t ing o r a Su nda y school a s sembly ,

b u t h o l d t h e m a t a t i m e o t h e r t h a n t h e m a i n S u n d a y w o r s h i p

se rv i ce . Rev iva ls a r e an im po r t an t pa r t o f Un i t ed M etho d i s t

he r i t age , and they may have a powerfu l r i t ua l mean ing fo r

many chu rches . L ikewise , t he Sunday schoo l a s sembly may be

an imp or t a n t p l ace w he re ca t ech es i s fo r worsh ip can occur . Bu t

evange l i sm and educa t ion and wo rsh ip a re a ll t oo im po r t an t t o

b e c r a m m e d t o g e t h e r i n t o o n e h o u r o n S u n d a y m o r n i n g . T h i si s no t to say th a t t h es e min i s t r i e s a re un re l a t ed . How ever , t h e

bes t evange l i sm and educa t ion wi th in worsh ip a re t he wi tness

an d exa m ple of fa i th fu l Ch ris t i an s g iv ing w orsh ip serv ice to

God.

20



CREATIVE WORSHIP

Fina l ly , a ll ow l i t u rgy to exp ress t h e m ys te r y o f God in J e s us

Chr i s t . By d i sce rn ing the ru l e s and pa t t e rn s t h a t a re ope ra t ive

w i th in t h e o rde r o f wo rsh ip , a wo rsh ip p l ann e r ha s some too l s

w i th w h ich to ana lyze and eva lua t e t h e se rv ice , and to i n t e rp re t

n o r m s . I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e W o r d - a n d -t a b le p a t t e r n i s t h e m o s tapp rop r i a t e fo rm fo r worsh ip . Because o f t he b ib l i ca l and

s a c r a m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r of t h a t p a t t e r n , a f u n d a m e n t a l n o r m c a n

be e s t ab l i shed : worsh ip shou ld exp ress t he pascha l mys t e ry :

the b i r th , l i fe , c ruc i f ix ion , resurrec t ion , and ascension of Jesus

Chr i s t . Fa i th fu l wo rsh ip l eade rs and p l an ne r s wi ll have a sens e

of awe and reve ren ce be fo re t h i s fund am en ta l m ys t e ry o f sa l

va t ion .

Our hymns dec l a re t h i s awe- fu l l mys t e ry :

Holy, holy, holy! all th e saints adore T hee,

Casting down their golden crowns around the glassy sea,

Cherubim and Seraphim falling down before Thee,

Which wert, and art, and evermore shall be.

Approp r i a t e ly -c rea t ive worsh ip re f l ec t s t h i s heaven ly wor

sh ip of t h e sa in t s and ange l s be fo re t h e t h r on e o f God , C har l e s

W es ley pu t i t t h i s way:

Finish, then , Thy new creation;

Pu re and spotless let us be;

Let us see Thy great salvation

Perfectly restored in Thee;

Changed from glory into glory,

Till in heaven we take our place,

Till we cast our crow ns before T hee,

Lost in wonder, love, and praise.

W he n ou r wo rsh ip exp r esses t h i s , i t i s c rea t ive i n t h e way i tought to be . I t i s re -crea t ing us in to the image of Chris t .

N o t e s

1. This approach is loosely based on the method of Anton Baumstark, Juan

2 1



Q U A R T E R L Y R E V I E W , S U M M E R 1 9 9 0

Matcos, Robert Taft, and other liturgical scholars in the scho ol of comparativeliturgy. The foundational work is A. Baumstark, (Eng. Trans.) ComparativeLiturgy (West minster, Maryland: New ma n, 1958). For a good summ ary of themethod, s ee R Taft, "The Structural Analysis o f Liturgical Units : An E ssay inMethodology," Worship 52 (1978), pp. 314-329; reprinted in Taft, Beyond East

and West: Problems in Liturgical Understan ding, (Washington, D.C.: Th ePastoral Press, 1984), pp. 151-164.

2.1 prefer to call th em "rules" because th ey are no t absolute laws, like t helaws of nature. Neverth eless, I want to argue that, m ost of the time, they gov ernthe evolution of Protes tant w orship. Th e list of rules I give here is not definitiveby any mean s.

3. Jam es F. Wh ite , Introduction to Christian Worsh ip (Nashville, AbingdonPress 1980), pp. 134-6, for a similar typology.

4. See Charles Finney, L ectures on the Revivals of Religion. (Cambridge,Mass: Harvard University Press, 1960), first pub lished in 1854.

5. Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People, (New

Haven and London : Yale University Pr ess 1972), pp. 458-46 1.6. See Robert W. Lynn and Elliott Wright, The Big Little School: Sunday

Child of American Protestantism (New York: Harper and Row 1971).

7. A very entertaining example is Marion Lawrance, Special Days in theSunday School (New York: H. Revell Co., 1916).

8. Th e order for morn ing worship h as always been printed in the Discipline,but until th e turn of the century, it was little more tha n a bare outline. A morecomplete order was printed in the hymnal of the MEC after 1896, and in thejoint hym nal (MEC and MECS) of 1905. See Wm . N. Wade, "A History of PublicWorship in the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Methodist EpiscopalChurch, South, from 1784-1905." (Unpublished dissertation, University ofNotre Dame, 1981).

9. Sec t he turn of the century collection of services, psalms, and collects byCharles L Roberts, Divine Service (Cincinnati: Jen ning s and Pye, 1903). A n oteat the beginning states: "The cry in our Church, in the matter of the form inPublic Worship, is, 'Back to Wesley.' This liturgical movem ent is felt in manyChurches, and for several years has been gather ing form and force. Thethought is not to substitute 'liturgy,' for 'life,' but rather to invest life with abeauty o f form." (p. 5).

10. Companion to The Book of Services (Nashville: Abingdo n Press 1988),pp . 36-7.

11 . However, it is closer to the intention of John Wesley. Sec Paul F.Sanders, "An Appraisal of Jo hn W esley's Sacramentalism in the Evolution ofEarly Am erican Methodism." (Unpu blished Th.D . dissertation, Un ionTheological Seminary, New York, 1954).

12. Hoyt L. Hickman, ed. The Worship Resources of the United MethodistHymnal (Nashville: Abingd on, 1989) 14-6. Th e reference cited is JustinMartyr, I Apology, 63-65.

13. Companion, 27-70.

14 . My research in ethnic minority congregations is limited, but I suspect

22



CREATIVE WO RSHIP

that these four patterns will be present, though undoubtedly in a sl ightly

altered form.

2 3





QR 10 /2 (1990 )25 -47

"Then A s Now": W esley's N ot es A s A M odelfor U nite d M ethodists Today

A , W . M a r t i n , J r .

J o s e p h T a r k i n g t o n , a n e a r ly n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y M e t h o d i s t

c i rcu i t r ider , once descr ibed th e l i t e rary co nte n ts o f h i s sad

d lebag: the Bib le , the Discipline, a n d a h y m n b o o k ; e i t h e r

F l e t c h e r ' s Appeal o r J o h n W e s l e y ' s Sermons; and some books

for sa le .1

U nles s he ha d cop ie s o f t h em for sa l e , W es ley ' s

Explanatory Notes U pon the New T estament 2 s e e m t o h a v e b e e n

a b s e n t . A m o d e r n e x p e r t o n M e t h o d i s m t h i n k s , h o w e v e r , t h a t

i t was "qui te l ike ly" tha t the Notes were s t anda rd sadd lebag

e q u i p m e n t fo r m o s t i t i n e r a n t p r e a c h e r s of t h e t i m e .3

Whateve r t he ro l e o f t he Notes as baggage , i t can be shownt h a t d u r i n g a t l e a s t p a r t of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u i y M e t h o d i s t

min i s t e r s were expec t ed to s tudy them. In fac t , t hey appea red

on th e requ i red s tudy l i s t for min i s t e r s of t h e Meth od i s t Ep i s

copa l Ch urch , Sou th , un t i l 1910.

T h e i r s t a t u s in t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y is a n o t h e r s t o r y .

Theo log ian Sch ub er t O gden ' s j u dg m en t in 1974 on th e p lace o f

d o c t r i n a l s t a n d a r d s i n t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h a l m o s t

ce r t a in ly app l i ed t o t h e Notes: " the vas t msy or i ty of i t s m em be rs ,

m in is te r ia l as wel l as lay , wou ld s t i ll be ha rd p ress ed s imply to

n a m e t h e s t a n d a r d s o f d o c t r i n e of t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s tC h u r c h - t o s a y n o t h i n g o f h a v i n g a n y o p e r a t io n a l u n d e r -

A. W. Martin, Jr., is Don E. Schooler associate professor of Biblical Studies atthe Wimberly School of Religion at Oklahoma City University,

25




s t a n d i n g of t h e i r c o n t e n t s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c h u r c h ' s c o n t i n u

i n g w i t n e s s . "4

Discus s ion l ead ing up to th e 1988 Ge ne ra l Co n

f e r e n c e s u r e l y i n c r e a s e d M e t h o d i s t s ' a b i l i t y t o n a m e t h e

s t a n d a r d s , b u t i t i s t o o e a r l y to sa y w h e t h e r m o r e a c q u a i n t a n c e

w i t h t h e i r c o n t e n t h a s o c c u r r e d .I t i s c lea r , how ever , tha t the G ene ra l Conference o f198 8 took

a c t io n w h i c h s e e m s d e s i g n e d t o p e r s u a d e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s t o

t r e a t t h e Notes se r ious ly once aga in as a doc t r ina l au th or i ty in

t h e c h u r c h .

B u t t h e r e a r e s o m e p r o b l e m s w i t h t h i s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n of

the church ' s supreme leg i s la t ive body , espec ia l ly in the a reas

o f b ib li cal in te r p re ta t i on , ecu m enic a l r e la t ions , and soc ia l con

ce rns . Th is pa pe r wi l l dea l w i th t h e f ir st are a only , b ib l ical

in t e rp re ta t ion . I sha l l ( I) r ev iew th e confe rence ac t ion , ( II )

i n d i c a t e s o m e t h i n g o f t h e p r o b l e m s , a n d t h e n ( II I) m a k e s o m e

p r e l i m i n a r y o b s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t d e a l i n g w i t h t h e m t o d a y .

I . W es ley ' s N ote s a t th e 1988 G en era l Co nferen ce

T h e f i r st th in g th e confe rence d id wa s to r ea f f i rm th a t th e

Notes a r e r e f e r r e d t o a n d p r o t e c t e d a s a "s t an d a r d" u n d e r t h e

f irst r es t r i c t iv e ru le of th e deno m ina t ion ' s cons t i tu t ion : "The

Genera l Conference sha l l no t r evoke , a l t e r , o r change our

Ar t ic les of Re l ig ion o r es tab l i sh an y new s ta nd ard s o f doc t r ine . "

Th is pos i t ion , wh ich was f i r s t approved by the Genera l Con

fe rence o f 1808 , ha d bee n app roved by th e 1968 spec ia l con

f e r e n c e w h i c h u n i t e d t h e M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h a n d t h e

Evange l ica l U n i ted Br e t h r en . T he 1988 confe rence spec if ica lly

i n c l u d e d t h e " t h e S t a n d a r d S e r m o n s of W e s l ey " a n d " t h e E x

p l a n a t o r y Notes U p o n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t " w i t h t h e A r ti c l es of

Re l ig ion and the Evange l ica l Un i ted Bre th ren Confes s ion o f

F a i t h a s d o c t ri n a l n o r m s . 0

S e c o n d l y , i n a c c e p t i n g t h e r e v i s e d d o c t r i n a l s t a t e m e n t

p r e p a r e d b y i t s C o m m i t t e e o n O u r T h e o l o g i c a l T a s k , t h e

G e n e r a l C o n f e r e n c e a p p r o v e d v a r i o u s r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e Notes.

At one po in t in pa r t i cu la r , in the s ec t ion on "Our Doc t r ina l

H e r i t a g e , " t h e C o n f e r e n c e a p p a r e n t l y w e n t b e y o n d descriptive

s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l r o l e i n M e t h o d i s m a n d m a d e

w h a t s e e m s t o b e a prescriptive r e c o m m e n d a t i o n a s t o u s e o f

26



THEN AS NOW

t h e Notes t oday : "Wi th in t he W es leyan t rad i t i on , t h en a s now,

t h e Sermons a n d Notes furn ished models o f doct r ina l exposi

t i on . "6

Th e ph ras e " then a s now" m ake s a som ew ha t awkw ard

sentence , s ince the verb " furn ished" i s in the pas t t ense , bu t

t h i s v e r y a w k w a r d n e s s p e r h a p s u n d e r l i n e s a c l a i m t h a t t h e

Notes a n d Sermons are to be used today . Since the Notes a r e

based d i rec t ly on the New Tes t amen t , i t appea rs t ha t t he

recommenda t ion he re i s t ha t t hey a re an example t o fo l l ow in

de r iv ing doc t r ine f rom Scr ip tu re .

A th i r d pos i t i on t ak en by th e Gen era l Confe rence , t ho ug h

no t necessa r i l y re l a t ed to t he Notes di rec t ly , has impl ica t ions

for our way of looking a t th e m today . Thi s is th e d im in ish ing of

a n i m p o r t a n t e m p h a s i s i n t h e d o c t r i n a l s t a t e m e n t t h a t s e r v ed

th e chu rc h f rom 1972 to 1988: t h e v i ew th a t t h e p r e s en tau th o r i t y o f o ld doc t r ina l s t an da r ds i s l imi t ed because t he y

were h i s to r i ca l l y cond i t i oned by the t imes i n wh ich they were

w ri t te n . Th e 1988 confere nce , for exam ple , e l im inate d th e 1972

s t a t em en t t ha t " the Ar t i c l e s and th e Confess ion a r e no t to be

rega r ded a s pos i t ive , j u r id i ca l no r m s fo r doc t r ine , d em and ing

unqua l i f ied a s se n t on pa in o f excom mu nica t ion . "7

A n d t h e

fo l lowing commentary on the Art ic les and the Confess ion of

Fa i th in l igh t of th i s p r inc ip le f rom th e 1972 Discipline is also

gone :

They are and ought to remain as imp ortant landm arks inour complex heritage and o ught rightly to be retained inthe Discipline. The U nited M ethodist Church would bemu ch the po orer if they we re simply relegated to th e atticof history's discards. Bu t, since they are not accorded a nystatus of finality, e ither in c ontent or rhe toric, ther e is noobjection in principle to the continued development of stillother doctrinal summaries and liturgical creeds that maygain acceptance and use in the ch ur ch -w ith ou t displacingthose we already have. This principle of th e historical interpretation of all doctrinal statements, past and present,is crucial. Such statements never have been and ought notto be legal tests for mem bership. We should interpre tthem , appreciatively, in their historic contexts, seeking always to appropriate the contributions of our Christianpast even as we also stretch forward toward the Christian

27




future." 0

In fa i rness t o t he Commi t t ee on Our Theo log ica l Task and

to t h e Gen era l Confe ren ce , two o th e r a spec t s o f t h e 1988 rep o r t

must be no ted . Fi rs t , i t does refer in var ious p laces to the needto " ref lec t c r i t i ca l ly" on our "b ib l ica l and theo logica l in

he r i t ance" (1988 Discipline, par . 69) . Aff i rm at ions a long th i s

l ine can reasonably be unders tood to imply a recogni t ion of

h i s to r ica l and soc ia l l imi t a t i on s on th e founda t iona l doc um en t

s t hemse lves . Second , t he new sec t ion on "Our Doc t r ina l Hi s

to ry" conta ins a foo tno te which seems to recognize the pos

s ib i li ty o f even se r iou s def ic iencies in th e s ta nd ard s of doc t r ine .

T h e n o t e s t a t e s t h a t "t h e n e e d t o i n t e r p r e t t h e A r t ic l e s i n t h e

l igh t o f the i r h i s to r ica l contex t and b iases i s re f lec ted in the

Reso lu t ion o f In t e n t " app roved a t t h e Gen era l Confe rence o f1 9 7 0 .

9

Thi s re so lu t ion i s f rom the Theo log ica l S tudy Commis

s ion th a t p rep a re d the 1972 s t a t em en t and i s ve ry m uc h in t h e

sp i r i t o f the mater ia l , quoted above , which was e l iminated in

1988. R e g a r d i n g a n t i - R o m a n C a t h o l i c s t a t e m e n t s i n t h e A r

t ic les o f Rel ig ion , for ex am ple , th e "w hereas" pa r t o f th i s r eso lu

t ion ho ld s th a t we m ay now "free ly re lega te th e po lem ics in

thes e a r t ic l e s (and the an a th em as o f T re n t a s we l l) to ou r

memor i e s . . . . , " and the re so lu t ion i t se l f dec l a re s "ou r o f f i c i a l

i n t e n t h e n c e f o r t h t o i n t e r p r e t all our Art ic les , Confess ion , a nd

o the r ' s t anda rds o f doc t r ine* in consonance wi th ou r bes te c u m e n i c a l i n s i g h t s a n d j u d g m e n t . . . . " I f t h i s f o o t n ot e m e a n s

tha t t h e G ene ra l Confe rence o f 1988 t ru ly app roves t h e R eso lu

t i on o f In t e n t o f 1970 , t h en th e e l imina t ion of s t a t em en t s l i ke

the ones quoted above may not be too s ign i f ican t . Yet the

t roub lesome ques t ion rema ins why va r ious c l ea r re fe rences t o

t h e l e ss t h a n p e r m a n e n t n a t u r e o f o u r d o c tr i n a l a u t h o r i t i e s

have bee n exc luded .

T h e 1 9 88 G e n e r a l C o n f e re n c e h e l d t h a t U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s

no longe r have th e op t ion of say ing th a t m aybe th e Notes rea l ly

a re no t a doc t r ina l s t anda rd in t he chu rch . And i t s t a t ed t ha t

th e sp i r i t ua l desce nda n t s o f Jo hn W es ley m us t a lso t ry t o

decide how to use h is Notes today as a "model of doctrinal

expos it ion . " Th i s is a fo rmidab le t a sk wh ich p res en t s a n um be r

of ser iou s difficul t ies.

28



T H E N A S N O W

II . Problems wi th the Use o f Wes ley ' s Notes

At va r ious po in t s t he Un i t ed Method i s t Church today i s i n

d i sag reem en t wi th t h e W es ley o f t h e Notes, bo th in t he ways

h e u s e d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d i n t h e c o n t e n t h e f o u n d t h e r e .H ere a r e some o f t h e p rob lem s re l a t ed to h i s b ib l ica l i n t e rp r e t a

t i on .

1. Wesley uses an inadequate Greek New Testam ent text.

A ltho ugh h e probably us ed th e be s t in form at ion avai lab le in h i s

t im e, he was wo rk ing in th e very ear ly days of e ffor ts t o es ta b

l i sh a c r i t i ca l Greek t ex t .1 0

Ex am ples o f read in gs accep ted by

h i m wh ich c r i ti ca l ed i t i ons of t h e New T es t am en t today wou ld

omi t wi thou t ques t ion a re t he l ong fo rm o f t he Lo rd ' s P raye r

in Lu ke 11 and th e Tr in i t a r i a n fo rm u la i n 1 Jo hn S:8.n

O f t h e

l a t t e r Wes ley wr i t e s , " I t mus t now appea r t o eve ry reasonab le

man , how abso lu t e ly necessa ry t he e igh th ve rse is." I t i s neces

sary , h e c la ims, bec aus e St . Jo h n "could no t th in k of th e tes

t imony of the Spi r i t , and water , and b lood [5:7], . .wi thou t

th in k in g of t h e t e s t im on y o f t h e Son and Ho ly Ghos t , yea , and

men t ion ing i t i n so so l emn an enumera t ion . " Aware o f t he

ev idence of th e "vast m ajor i ty of an c ie n t copies and t rans la

t ions ," which do no t conta in the des i red words , Wesley s t i l l l e t

doc t r ina l cons ide ra t i ons , in t h i s ca se h i s be l i e f t h a t t h e Tr in i ty

i s f requen t ly a nd c l ear ly re fe r red to i n t h e New Te s t a m en t ,

cont ro l tex tua l dec is ions . O ne carefu l s t ud en t of W esley th e

t ex t c r i t i c ha s conc luded th a t on occas ion W es ley wou ld m ak e

a dec is ion about accept ing a read ing "because of the poss ib le

e f fec t .. . on t h e p l a in , un l e t t e r ed m en to w ho m h i s li fe -work w as

given .

The new doc t r ina l s t a t emen t , app roved a t t he 1988 Genera l

Con ference , spec if ica l ly a ff i rms t h e im po rtan ce of re ce n t tex

tua l s t ud i e s . I t i s a safe a s s um pt ion th a t New Te s t a m en t G reek

cou rses t augh t a t Un i t ed Method i s t semina r i e s t oday wou ldus e th e la tes t c r i t i ca l G ree k tex ts . I t can a l so be safe ly as sum ed

t h a t N e w T e s t a m e n t p r of e s s or s i n U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s c ho o ls

wou ld see one goal o f tex tua l c r i t i c i sm as unc ove r ing as ear ly a

tex t as poss ib le , tha t i s , ge t t ing as c lose to what the b ib l ica l

29





T H E N A S N O W

bel i e f t ha t t he Old Tes t amen t p red i c t s even t s i n t he l i f e o f

J e s u s . On th is po in t they can appeal to an Angl ican Art ic le o f

Re l ig ion, accep ted by Wes ley fo r con t inue d u se by M etho d i s t s

in the New World and s t i l l one of the i r normat ive Art ic les o f

Religion today, w hic h affi rms th e val id i ty of a chr istologicalu n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e O ld T e s t a m e n t .

1 7

I t shou ld be no ted ,

however , t h a t t h e m od ern C onfess ion o f Fa i th , wh ich cam e

from th e Evange l i ca l U n i t ed B re th re n wing o f t h e deno min a

t i o n , h a s e q u a l s t a n d i n g w i t h t h e A r t i c l e s i n t h e U n i t e d

M ethod i s t Ch urc h and i s s i l en t on th i s m a t t e r . Th i s s il ence

s h o u l d n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d t o m e a n t h a t t h e E U B b i s h o p s w h o

authorized the Confess ion would refuse to f ind Chris t in the

O l d T e s t a m e n t , b u t it d o e s r e m i n d u s t h a t m u c h O l d T e s t a m e n t

s tu dy today by Chr is t ia ns i s no t p r im ari ly chr i s to log ica l . In our

t ime i t i s impor t an t t o know wha t t he wr i t e r s o f t he Hebrew

Bib le wan ted to say on the i r own t e rms and in t he i r own

si tua t ions . This v iew i s a ff i rmed in the 1988 doct r ina l s ta te

m en t by th e words , "As we work wi th ea ch t ex t , we t ak e i n to

account what we have been ab le to learn about the or ig ina l

con tex t and in t en t ion o f t ha t t ex t (1988 Discipline, par. 69)."

Al tho ugh th e s t a t em en t re fe r s t o und e rs t an d in g " indiv idua l

tex ts in l igh t o f th e i r p lac e in the Bib le as a whole ," w hich could

open the doo r t o f i nd ing Je sus i n t he Old Tes t amen t , t hese

words do no t have to m ea n tha t . F u r th e r , t he new do c t r ina l

s t a t em en t approv es h is to r ica l s tud y of th e Bib le ; i t i s ha rd to

conce ive o f h i s to r i ca l und e rs t an d in g tha t does no t t ake se r ious

ly the v iew tha t b ib l ica l t ex ts were addressed to par t icu lar

peop le a t spec i f i c momen t s i n t he pas t ra the r t han to pe rsons

in th e fu tu re . I t wo uld probably be safe to say th a t th e h is to r ica l

cri t ical approach st i l l provides the basis for bibl ical s tudy at

Un i t ed Method i s t semina r i e s , un ive rs i t i e s , and co l l eges , and

th a t th e f irst o rde r of th e day in th e s tu dy of H eb rew Bib le

wou ld be t o unde rs t and wha t t he anc i en t wr i t e r s were say ing

in the i r own contex t . Courses in b ib l ica l theo logy usual ly dea lw i t h t h e m e s in o n e t e s t a m e n t o r t h e o t h e r , a l t h o u g h s e m i n a r y

cata logs reveal an occas ional course which a t tempts to see how

t h e t e s t a m e n t s r e l a t e t o e a c h o t h e r . O t h e r m e t h o d s o f s t u d y

which de -emphas i ze h i s to r i ca l ana ly s i s , such a s s t ruc tu ra l i sm

3 1




and canon ica l c r i t i c i sm, a re ga in ing s t r en g t h bu t i t i s r easonab ly

safe to a f f irm th a t typo logy an d p red ic t ion - fu l f il lmen t pa t t e rn s

a r e n o t f a v o r e d a p p r o a c h e s i n U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s e m i n a r i e s

t o d a y .1 8

3. Wesley imposes unity u pon the New Testament H e d o e s

t h i s b o t h b y h a r m o n i z i n g t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t w r i t e r s a m o n g

the m se lv es an d by f inding l a te r o r thod ox Ch r i s t i an doc t r ine

w i t h i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t .

W e s l e y a n h a r m o n i z e s b o t h t h e g e n e r a l v i e w p o i n t s o f t h e

d i f fe r e n t N e w T e s t a m e n t w r i t e r s a n d s pe ci fi c p a s s a g e s w h e r e

th er e i s confl ic t . H e s ta tes th a t Pe te r ag r ees w i th Pau l ; a f t e r

hav ing r ead Pau l ' s l e t t e r s w i thou t be ing "a t a l l d i sgus ted" by

w h a t P a u l w r o t e a b o u t h i m ( 2 P e t . 3: 16 ); J u d e i n t u r n c o n f ir m s

P e t e r ( I n t r o , t o J u d e ) , a n d J a m e s d o e s n o t c o n t r a d i c t P a u l

(Ja m es 2 :14, 21-22) . W es ley ca n f ind " jus ti fy ing fa i th" im pl ied

in Hebre ws 1 1 , no t too d if fi cu l t to do s ince he th in ks th a t Pa u l

wr o te Heb rew s ( In t ro , to He b . ; He b . 11 :1 ). Ea ch gospe l w r i t e r

k n e w t h e p r e v i o u s g o s p el ; t h a t is , M a r k k n e w M a t t h e w ' s g o s pe l ,

L u k e k n e w t h e g o s p e l s o f M a r k a n d M a t t h e w , a n d J o h n k n e w

th e o the r th r ee ( In t ro , to gospe l s ; Jo h n 1 :1). Con t rad ic t io ns o r

d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g t h e g o s p e l a c c o u n t s m u s t b e h a r m o n i z e d

(Luke 22 :58); " the four gospe l s a re . . fo u r pa r t s , wh ich , jo ined

t o g e t h e r , m a k e o n e s y m p h o n y : [ s j o m e t i m e s o n e of t h e s e o n l y ,s o m e t i m e s tw o o r t h r e e , s o m e t i m e s a l l s o u n d t o g e t h e r " ( L u k e

23 :24). Th ere f o re , J e su s spoke s even wo rds from t h e c ros s, even

tho ug h the y a r e s ca t t e red in d i f fe ren t g ospe l s (Luk e 23 :24), two

d i f fe ren t d r i nk s w ere g iven to J e su s a t th e c ruci f ix ion (Mat t .

27 :34), J e su s ca r r i ed t h e c ros s fo r a wh i le be fo re S im on o f

Cy rene took i t up (M at t . 27 :32) , and th e r e were two te m ple

c leans ings th re e ye ar s ap ar t (Mat t . 21 :12). D i f fe ren t acco un ts

o f J u d a s ' d e a t h a r e h a r m o n i z e d b y s a y i n g t h a t a p p a r e n t l y t h e

rop e b ro ke befo re h e d ied (Acts 1:18), th u s a l lowing th e d i s c ip le

to d ie bo th by hang ing and by hav ing h i s in s ides bu r s t open .W h e n M a r k a n d L u k e r e f e r t o o n e d e m o n i a i n s t e a d o f

M at t he w ' s two , th ey a r e wr i t ing abou t " the fie rcer o f th e two"

(Matt . 8:28).

W es ley ' s imp os ing o f l a t e r o r th odo x theo logy on th e N ew

32



THEN ASNOW

Te sta m en t can be seen in th e ways h e find r e fe renc es to th e

Tr in i ty and to Je su s ' d iv in ity , o f t en a t po in t s w he re the y do no t

comple te ly f i t . He d i scover s the T r in i ty in the Lord ' s P rayer ,

for ex am ple (M att . 6:13) . In Ac ts 10:48 h e f inds th e T rin i ty

somehow impl ied in the r e fe rence to "bap t i sm in the name o f

th e Lord ." At Lu ke 4 !18 h e t a ke s Jes us ' word s , "The Sp i r i t o f

th e Lord i s up on m e," and com me nts : "How i s th e do c t r ine o f

the ever b lessed Tr in i ty in te rwoven , even in those sc r ip tu res

w he re on e wo uld l eas t expec t i tl How c lea r a dec la ra t ion o f t h e

g r e a t T h r e e - O n e i s t h e r e i n t h o se v e r y w o r d s A n e x a m p l e

of unco ver ing r e fe renc e to Je su s ' d iv in i ty app ear s in W es ley ' s

co m m ent on Je su s ' send ing ou t of th e twelve apos t l es ; h e d id

so "exercis ing his supreme author i ty , as God over a l l" (Mat t .

10:5). Pa ul ' s hea l ing of a cr ipple in Acts 14:11 ins pi re s W esleyt o c o m m e n t , " T h e J e w s w o u l d n o t o w n Ch r i s t ' s G o d h e a d ,

90

t h o u g h t h e y s aw h i m w o r k n u m b e r l e s s m i r a c le s , " L o o k i n g a t

M a r k 13:32, w he re Jes us r e fe r s to " tha t day o r th a t hour" which

no one knows , Wes ley t akes the words "ne i ther the Son" and

c o m m e n t s a b o u t J e su s : "A s m a n h e w a s n o m o r e o m n i sc i e n t

t h a n o m n i p o t e n t . Bu t a s G o d h e k n o w s a l l t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s

o f i t "2 1

W he rea s fo r W es ley in h i s Notes there i s no place for admit

t i n g d i s c r e p a n c i e s e i t h e r w i t h i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t o r b e t w e e n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d t h e d e v e l o p ed C h r i s t i a n

m e s s a g e of t h e l a t e r C h u r c h , tw e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y U n i t e d

M etho d i s t s a t th e 1988 G ene ra l Conference ( see 1988 Dis

cipline, par . 69) accep ted th a t "Scr ip tu re wi tnes ses to a var i e ty

of d iver se t r ad i t ions , some o f wh ich r e f l ec t t ens ion s in in te r

p r e t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e e a r l y Ju d e o - C h r i s t i a n h e r i t a g e . " T h e

de lega tes ' openness to h i s to r i ca l s tudy o f the b ib l i ca l t ex t ,

men t ioned ear l i e r , cou ld ce r t a in ly be under s tood to inc lude

recogn i t ion o f how la t e r genera t ions adap ted i t t o new s i tua

t i ons . Th eir su pp or t of cr i t ical ref lect ion r eg ard ing "our b ibl icaland theological inher i tance" and of " imaginat ive and cr i t ical

though t" in r e l a t ion to " the Bib le and our common Chr i s t i an

h i s to r y " su g g e s t s t h a t j u d g m e n t s c o n t i n u e t o b e n e c e s sa r y

abo ut th e val id i ty of la t er do ct r inal ex posi t ion s of th e Bible . At

t h e s a m e t im e , t h e 1 9 8 8 s t a t e m e n t e m p h a s i z e s t h e p r i n c ip l e of

33




u n i t y w i t h i n S c r i p t u r e , a l th o u g h t h e n a t u r e o f t h a t u n i t y i s

neve r c l ea r ly de f ined : t he "d ive rse t rad i t i ons" a re "woven

t o g e t h e r i n t h e B ib le i n a m a n n e r t h a t e x p r e s s e s t h e f u n d a m e n

ta l un i ty of God 's revela t ion as rece ived and exper ienced by

peop le i n t h e d ive rs i t y of t h e i r own l ives ." T he n ew s t a t em en talso affi rms the importance of a " l iving core" or " 'marrow' of

Ch r i s t i an t ru th" t o be found in t h e B ib l e .

M any B ib l e cou rse s i n U n i t e d M etho d i s t sem ina r i e s focus on

the exeges is o f ind iv idual books or severa l works by a s ing le

au th o r . T he y inc lude wide u se of redac t ion c r it i c ism and th e

sea r ch fo r t h e t heo log ic a l v i ew po in t s o f d i f fe ren t b ib li cal

wr i t e r s . A f req uen t re s u l t o f t h i s app roach i s t o em phas i ze

va r i e ty wi th in t he B ib l e . Canon ica l c r i t i c i sm migh t appea r i n

e i th e r exeges i s o r i n t rod uc to ry cou rses , howev er , and i t wou ld

tend to s t ress b ib l ica l un i ty by s tudying ind iv idual works in

t h e i r la r g e r c o n t e x t i n t h e c a n o n .2 2

In cou rses on b ib lica l theo l

ogy th e que s t ion o f un i ty and va r i e ty w i th in t he B ib le wou ld

necessa r i l y a r i se . One app roach to b ib l i ca l t heo logy wou ld

s t re s s t h e v iewp o in t s of d i f fe ren t w r i t e r s , o r s t ra t a , wi th in t h e

Bib le , and once again var ie ty would be taken ser ious ly . But

cou rse wh ich s t re s s d i f fe ren t b ib l ica l t h em es cou ld u nd e rs t an d

thos e t h em es a s dep ic t i ng a "l iv ing co re" o r " fundam en ta l

un i ty ."

W es ley ' s ha r m on iz ing app roach to t h e gospe l 's wou ld a lm os tce r t a in ly be re j ec t ed in semina ry New Tes t amen t cou rses .

Fo rm and t rad i t i on c r i ti c s wou ld o f ten a s sum e , w he n s imi l a r

bu t d i f fe ren t acco un t s ex i s t o f a t each in g of Je su s o r an eve n t

in h i s l if e, t ha t a rem em be red w ord o r i nc ide n t has been re to ld

d i fferen t ly ov er th e cou rse of t im e. Redac t ion cr i t i cs wo uld

show th e f reedom o f t h e gospe l w r i t e r s t o ad ju s t t he i r m a te r i a l

to express the i r theo logica l v iews more c lear ly . Both New

T e s t a m e n t s c h o l a r s a n d h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e e a r ly C h u r c h , if t h e r e

i s any d i s t i nc t ion be tw een th e two , wou ld be a l e r t , i n a way th a t

W es ley wa s no t , t o t h e ways i n wh ich th e Ch urc h we n t bey ondbib lical roo ts to develop mo re com plex doct r in a l v iews or even ,

on occas ion , to f ind pos i t ions in th e Bib le th a t w ere a t bes t on ly

m a r g i n a l l y t h e r e .

34



THEN AS NOW

4. W esley sees the New Testament as written for and about the

future. H e goes fa r beyo nd th e mak ing of gen e ra l c l a ims t h a t

th e Bib le wa s w ri t te n for be l iev ers o f a l l age s or fo r th e draw ing

of lesso ns for h i s day . H e d iscovers d i re c t b ib l ica l re f ere nc e to

chu rch and wo r ld h i s to r y r i g h t down to h i s t im es and even in to

th e n i ne t e en th c en tu ry . I t i s p r im ar i l y i n h i s no t e s on th e Book

of R e v e l a t io n t h a t t h i s a t t i t u d e a p p e a r s .

W e s le y i n t r o d u c e s h i s c o m m e n t a r y o n R e v e la t io n b y a d m i t

t i ng th a t for a l ong t im e on ly t h e ope n ing and c lo s ing ch ap te rs

o f t h e book w ere mean ing fu l t o h im . T he n th e works of Beng e l ,

p r i m a r i l y a c o m m e n t a r y , g a v e h i m t h e k e y t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g

th e " in t e rm ed ia t e pa r t s . " H e took Ben ge l ' s wo rk o f abo u t tw e lve

hu nd re d pages , no t a l l o f wh ich he wou ld de fend , u s ing s om e

of i t as Be nge l w ro t e i t b u t abr idg ing " the m os t nec ess ary of h i sobse rva t ions ; a l lowing my se l f t he l i be r ty t o a l t e r some o f t he m ,

and to add a few no te s wh ere he i s no t fu l l . "2 3

W e s l e y m a i n t a i n s

tha t t he Book o f Reve la t i on i s "no t on ly t he sum, and the key

o f a l l t h e p ro phec i e s wh ich p rec eded , bu t li kewise a su pp lem en t

to all " (Rev. 1:3); t h e n h e go es on to say,

Our Lord foretold many things before his passion; but notall things ; [f]or it was n ot yet seasonable. Many thin gslikewise his Sp irit foretold in the w ritings of th e apostles,so far as the necessities of those tim es requ ired, now he

comprises them all in one short book; therein presupposing all the other prophecies, and at the same time, explaining, continuing, and perfecting them in one thread (Rev.1:30).

G i v e n t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s a n d t h e a m o u n t o f s p a c e W e s l e y

al lows for the no tes on Revela t ion , there i s no way to ignore

w ha t Wes ley does w i th t h e book w he n w e cons ide r u s ing h i s

Notes as a "model of doctrinal exposi t ion."

In a nu t she l l Wes ley ho lds t ha t Reve la t i on cove rs f rom the

"old Je ru sa le m to th e New " (Rev . 1 :3). H e accepts and expl ica tes

in de t a i l an e l abo ra t e sy s t em w her eby a pe r iod of 1111 yea rs ,

know n as a ch ron os , w h ich s t re t ch ed f rom Trcyan 's pe r sec u t ion

of th e Je w s in 98 CE to " the f irst c r usa de aga ins t th e W aldens es"

i n 1 2 0 9 C E ( R e v . 6 : 1 1 ) i s o v e r l a p p e d b y a n o n - c h r o n o s

wh ich"s eem s to beg in i n t h e yea r 800 , (when C har l e s t he G rea t

35




ins t i t u t ed in t h e wes t a new l i ne o f em per o rs , o r o f m any k ings )

to end in t he yea r 1836 . . . . " (10 .6 ) Spec i f i ca l l y re fe r red to i n

Rev ela t ion are suc h ev en ts as th e fal l o f Ro m e (8:12) and th e

"Arian ca lami ty ," which was " the in le t to a l l heres ies and

c a l a m i t i e s , a n d a t l e n g t h t o M o h a m e t a n i s m i t s e l f ( 8: 10 ).Reg a rd ing Reve la t i on 8 :13 W es ley s t a t e s t h a t " to p re pa r e for

th e t h i r d wo[e ] , Inn oce n t I and h i s successo rs , no t on ly en

deavo red to en l a rge t h e i r ep i scopa l j u r i sd i c t i on beyo nd a l l

bounds , bu t a l so t he i r wor ld ly power , by t ak ing eve ry oppor

tun i ty of enc ro ach in g upon t h e em p i re , wh ich a s ye t s tood in

the way o f t he i r un l imi t ed monarchy ." In 9 :15 " the number o f

ange l s l e t loose ag re es [wi th ] t h e nu m be r o f [ t he ] f i rs t l and m os t

eminen t Ca l iphs" o f t he Sa racens . Wes ley sees t he woman o f

cha p te r 12 a s t h e t ru e chu rc h , and he r fl igh t t o t h e w i lde rness

re fe rs t o h e r s t ay i n " those coun t r i e s o f Eu rop e wh ich l i e on th i s

s ide [of] the Danube," especia l ly Bohemia , where she "was fed ,

t i ll God provided for he r p len t i fu l ly a t th e Reform at ion ." (12:6)

T he beas t of 13:1 re fe r s t o t he R om an papacy . Reg a rd ing h i s

own day , Wesley concludes :

We are now come to a most impor tant time. The non-chronos haste ns to an end. We live in the little tim ewh erein S atan h ath grea t w rath : and this little time isnow upon th e decline. We ar e in the time, times, and half

a tim e, wh erein t he w oman is fed in the wilderness; yea,the last pa rt of it, the half t ime, is begun. We a re ...towards th e close of th e forty-two m onth s of th e bea st;and w hen his nu m ber is fulfilled, grievous things will be."(12:12)

24

O ne m ay w ond er wh a t t h e "p la in un le t t e red " peop le fo r

w h o m W e s l e y w r o t e w o u ld h a v e m a d e o f c o m m e n t s l ik e t h e s e .

F r o m t h e U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s t a n d p o i n t to d a y p e r h a p s W e s l e y' s

s t a t emen t t ha t " some have mi se rab ly hand led th i s book" (1 :3 )

shou ld be appl ied to Wesley himself! As w e have seen , t he 1988

doc t r ina l s t a t emen t g ives i t s app rova l t o t he impor t ance o fs tud ying b ib l ical pass ages in th e l igh t o f th e i r o r ig ina l co ntex t .

A l t h o u g h W e s le y c o m m e n t s o n t h e t i m e s w h e n R e v e la t io n w a s

w ri t te n (2 :10 , 13 ; 3 :10 ; 6 :2), h e i s p r im ari ly c onc erne d w i th

re la t ing i t to th e fu tu re ; h i s app roac h ha s l i t t l e to do w i th " the

36



T H E N A S N O W

carefu l h i s to r i ca l . . . s tud ies of r ec en t year s" un le ss U ni t e d

M e t h o d i s t s a r e p r e p a r e d t o b u y i n t o A d v e n t i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

or the Hal L indsay approach . S tud ies o f the "o r ig ina l con tex t "

o f th e book of Rev e la t ion in U ni t e d M etho d i s t ins t i tu t io ns o f

h ig he r l ea rn ing today would su re ly inc lude focus on th e h i s to r i

ca l an d po l it ica l c i r cu m stan ces o f th e ch urc h in As ia M inor ne ar

th e end o f th e firs t cen tu ry , and th er e wou ld p robab ly be

cons iderab le r e fe rence to economic and soc ia l d imens ions o f

t h e c h u r c h ' s p l i g h t .2 5

III . T h e P r e se n t S i t u a t i o n

In th e a rea o f b ib li ca l in t e rp r e ta t ion th er e i s a deep gu l f

b e t w e e n W e s l e y ' s Notes a n d l a t e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y U n i t e d

M ethod i sm. E f fo rt s to tu r n Wes ley in to a m od ern b ib l ica l c r it i c

ahe ad o f h i s t im e can ha ve , a t bes t , on ly l imi ted success .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e f o ur p r o b l e m s w e h a v e e x a m i n e d sh o w

th a t th e r e i s l i t t l e fu tu re in t ry ing to us e the Notes as a "m odel

of doc t r inal exposi t ion ." I f we we re s im ply t ry in g to f ind succ inct

su m m ar ie s of bas ic P r o t es t a n t d oc t r ines , li ke jus t i f ica t ion by

fa i th , o r key Wesleya n em ph ase s , li ke ho l iness , t h e Notes could

be mined fo r s t i l l -va luab le s t a t ement s . Bu t any r easonab le

un de r s t a nd ing o f th e t e rm "model" in r e l a t ion to th e Notes

forces us to de a l wi th both the content o f W e s l e y 's c o m m e n t son the Bib le , e spec ia l ly the New Tes tament , and the methods

he uses to der ive the con ten t . On bo th coun t s we canno t ge t

very fa r us ing th e Notes t o b r idge the gulf.

At f irs t g lance dea l ing w i th th e prob lem of W esley 's G ree k

t e x t s e e m s e a sy e n o u g h . O n e c a n a r g u e t h a t s i n c e W e s l e y u se d

the bes t t ex t and the bes t t ex tua l c r i t i c i sm ava i l ab le in h i s day

h i s modern d i sc ip les can use h im as a mode l by s imply go ing

land do ing l ikewise . B u t th e c on ten t o f W es ley ' s dec i s ions on

tex tua l mat t e r s ce r t a in ly i s no t a lways accep tab le ; as we have

se e n , h e k e e p s so m e p a s sa g e s t h a t a r e a l m o s t u n i v e r sa l l ye l imina ted today . And h i s methods in making t ex t dec i s ions

serve on ly par t o f the t ime . Modern t ex t c r i t i c s would make

every ef for t to keep personal doct r inal v iews or considerat ions

abou t the impac t on r eader s f rom af fec t ing the i r cho ice among

poss ib le r ead ings , and Wesley does no t . Us ing h im as a mode l

37




in the area of tex t c r i t i c i sm would be a mat ter , a t bes t , o f

accep t ing h i s attitude of o p e n n e s s t o n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e

field or his purpose of ge t t i ng th e B ib le i n to m ore un de r

s t andab le Eng l i sh . Bu t s ince a t t i t ude and pu rpose a re a l so

invo lved in t he way he goes abou t mak ing h i s t ex t dec i s ion

(m e thod ) and in t he dec i s ions t he m se lv es (con ten t ) , we a re l e ft

i n t h e pos i t i on o f say ing th a t som e o f W es ley ' s a t t i t u de s a nd

purposes a re s t i l l accep tab l e and some a re no t .

S imi l a r d if f icu l ti e s ex i s t wi th t h e o th e r t h re e p rob lem s d is

c u s s e d in P a r t I I . O n e m i g h t a r g u e t h a t t h e c o n t e n t of

deve loped Chr i s t i an doc t r ine wh ich Wes ley f i nds i n bo th Tes

t am en t s ma y s t il l be va l id bu t t h e ways in wh ich he f inds Ch r i s t

i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d t h e T r i n i t y i n t h e N e w a r e h a r d l y

accep tab l e . B u t t h e r e i s a d i ff icu lty wi th t h e con ten t he f i ndsalso. I t i s one th ing to ta lk about doct r ine accepted today from

th e pe rsp ec t ive o f l a t e r Ch r i s t i an t rad i t i on ; it i s an o th e r m a t t e r

to be l i eve , a s W es ley d id , t h a t t h e C hr i s t i an co n te n t i t s e lf e x i s t s

i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t o r t h a t t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t p r e s e n t s a

un i f ied su m m ar y of Ch r i s t i an doc t r ine . T he que s t ion of un i ty

in th e Bib le i s s t i l l a major con cern , an d we m ig ht a rg ue th a t in

s t rugg l ing wi th we a re t a k ing We s ley a s a mo de l . B u t how m uc h

i s t he re i n Wes ley tha t can rea l ly be emu la t ed? Hi s ways o f

finding un i ty ar e difficult or im pos sible to acc ept , an d t h e

con ten t o f t en comes f rom ou t s ide t he B ib l e o r t he t e s t amen tu n d e r s t u d y . N o r a r e W e s l e y 's a t t i t u d e a n d p u r p o s e m u c h h e l p ;

h e a s s u m e s t h a t u n i t y m u s t b e p r e s e n t i n t h e B i b l e a n d m u s t

be cons i s t en t wi th doc t r ines wh ich a re roo ted in t rad i t i on a s

we l l a s i n t he B ib l e . The modern s tuden t o f t he B ib l e , on the

o the r hand , wi l l no t i gno re t he ques t ion o f un i ty bu t wi l l t ake

var ie ty ser ious ly ; conclus ions about un i fy ing mot i fs wi l l be

made, in so far as poss ib le , on the bas i s o f induct ive s tudy of

ind iv idua l au tho rs i n t he B ib l e .

I n r e g a r d t o W e s l e y 's v i ew t h a t t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t t a l k s

abou t t h e fu tu re , l i t t l e i n e i t he r t he co n te n t o f w ha t he says o r

th e way h e goes abo ut f inding i t in th e Scr ip tu re i s usab le . O ne

migh t no t e t ha t Wes ley o f t en shows in t e re s t i n t he h i s to r i ca l

s i t ua t ion in w h ich a wo rk was w r i t t e n and c l ea rly u nd e rs t an ds

th a t i t s au th o r h ad a m essag e for h i s own day . Fr om th i s fac t,

3 8



THEN AS NOW

w e m a y a r g u e t h a t w e a r e e m u l a t i n g W e s l e y w h e n w e s t u d y t h e

anc ien t books in r e l a t ion to th e i r h i s to r i ca l se t t ings . Bu t to

follow h im in h i s in t e re s t abo u t th e pas t , o ft en inc iden ta l to h i s

c o n c e r n f o r c o n t e m p o r a r y a p p l i c a t i o n , a n d t o i g n o r e t h e

m e t h o d s h e u se s t o m a k e t h e o ld w o r d s p e r t i n e n t t o h i s d a y c a n

hard ly be ca l l ed us ing Wesley and h i s Notes a s m o d e l s . W e

would s imply be copy ing what we a re comfor tab le wi th and

ignor ing what we do no t l ike . Or to s t a r t wi th Wes ley ' s words

which ma y s t i ll se em a l ive for u s - i n su ch a reas as per son a l

p i e t y , f o r e x a m p l e - w o u l d m e a n t a k i n g t h e c o n t e n t o f so m e

s t a t e m e n t s a s v a li d b u t n o t o t h e r s . A n d su c h a n a p p r o a c h m i g h t

a t t imes imply tha t the i r h i s to r i ca l o r soc ia l con tex t was no

longer imp or ta n t . Am y way we go we a re a f fi rming t h a t on ly

pa r t s o f w ha t Wes ley says and so me of h i s me tho ds a r e accep t able , so we a re hard ly us in g h i m as a mode l .

The t e rm "model o f doc t r ina l expos i t ion" appear s in the

h i s to r i ca l sec t ion o f th e new theo log ica l s t a t e m en t , and i t would

seem th a t th i s i s w he re i t r ea l ly be longs . For peop le of Wes ley ' s

day , g iven the i r knowledge and assumpt ions , the Notes m a y

have se rved wel l . B u t we ga in l i t t l e o r no th in g , eve n if we w an t

to t ake them ser ious ly once aga in , by t ry ing to make them, o r

W e s l e y 's w a y s o f p r e p a r i n g t h e m , o r h i s p u r p o se s a n d a t t i t u d e s

w he n th e wro te th em , in to mo del s . T he word "now" i s an

in t rus ion in to a h i s to r i ca l summary . In r egard to con ten t andm e t h o d , a s w e l l a s a i m s a n d a t t i t u d e s b e h i n d t h e m , t h e Notes

are unc er t a in g u ides . As mo del s , t he y be long to " then" and no t

to "now."

Bu t if t h e Notes wil l ha rdl y serve as a mo del , how can we us e

th em today? Reaf f i rming t ha t th ey a re a " s t andard ," un de r an y

reaso nab le def in i t ion o f th e word , does no t he lp becaus e dif

f i cu l t i es l ike those wi th the "model" under s t and ing a re s t i l l i n

p l a y . I m p l y i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e a s t a n d a r d a n d t h e n i g n o r i n g

t h e m se e m s t o h a v e b e e n t h e o r d e r of t h e d a y d u r i n g m u c h o ft h i s c e n t u r y .2 7

T h e 1 9 88 G e n e r a l Co n f e r e n c e h a d t h e o p p o r

t u n i t y t o de c i de t h a t t h e Notes were no t r ea l ly a s t andard , and

i t t u rn ed i t down, p res um ably becau se of th e ev idence th a t

h i s to r ica l ly th e Notes hav e been so cons idered . B u t if t h e Notes

wi ll no t work as mo de l s o r norm at ive s t an dard s , and i f we do

39




not have the r igh t to have them "re legated to the a t t ic o f

h i s t o r y ' s d is c a r d s " o r t o i n c l u d e t h e m a m o n g t h e " d a te d

b e n c h m a r k s i n t h e s t o r y o f t h e C h u r c h ' s c o n t i n u i n g m a t u r a

t ion," w ha t is left?

A l t h o u g h i n s i s t i n g t h a t t h e Notes a r e a s t a n d a r d , t h e r e c e n t

G e n e r a l C o n f e r e n c e h a s l e f t s o m e r o o m f o r t r e a t i n g t h e m a s

less than normat ive . The ob l iga t ion to " ref lec t c r i t i ca l ly on our

b ib li cal an d theo log ica l i nhe r i t an ce" and th e pe rmiss ion to u s e

" imag ina tive and c r i ti ca l t ho ug h t " i n t h e e f fo r t " to u nd e rs t an d

be t t e r t he B ib l e and ou r common Chr i s t i an h i s to ry" su re ly

a l low for re jec t in g som e of th e pos i t ion s W esley took in h is

e x p o s it io n of t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d s o m e o f t h e w a y s h e w e n t

abou t b ib li cal i n t e rp r e t a t i on . B u t w ha t c r i t e r i a sha l l be u sed for

d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h p o s i ti o n s a n d w h i c h m e t h o d s t o a c c e p t a n dwhich to re jec t?

In t h e a re a o f b ib li ca l i n t e rp r e t a t i on , o ne poss ib le app roach

to b r ing ing Wes ley ' s Notes ac ross t h e gu l f o f m ore t ha n two

cen tu r i e s i s t o exp lo re t h e imp l i ca t ions o f t h e p r im acy o f Sc r ip

tu r e a s an au tho r i t y i n de t e r m in in g fa i t h and p rac t i ce . W es ley ' s

c la im to be a m a n of one book i s we l l -know n an d th e fact th a t

he found t ime to p repa re no t on ly New Tes t amen t bu t a l so Old

T e s t a m e n t Notes sup por t s t he c l a im. T he 1972 doc t r ina l s t a t e

m en t t ook th e p r inc ip l e of p r im acy se r ious ly , and th e 1988

af f irma t ion h as a t t em p te d to g ive i t even mo re we igh t . W ha thappens i f a t some po in t Wes ley ' s unde rs t and ing o f t he B ib l e

does no t ag r ee w i th w ha t t h e B ib l e itself, or some po r t i on of t h e

Bib l e , means? Wou ld we no t have to conc lude tha t t he B ib l e

o v e r r i d e s W e s l e y 's u n d e r s t a n d i n g ?

H o w c a n w e d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r W e s l e y h a s in f a ct

m i sund ers to od th e B ib le? O ne way may show up wh en "we d raw

upon the ca re fu l h i s to r i ca l , l i t e ra ry , and t ex tua l s t ud i e s o f

r e c e n t y e a r s , w h i c h h a v e e n r i c h e d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

Bib le ." W e m ay a t t im es f ind o urse lves looking a t w ha t ap

p roaches a consensus among b ib l i ca l scho la rs wh ich re j ec t s aW es leyan v i ew. At such po in t s , even tho ug h we rea l i ze t ha t t h e

"assu red re su l t s " o f i nves t iga t ion in any gene ra t ion may be

chal lenged in the nex t , we would be on fa i r ly safe ground i f we

leave Wesley 's pos i t ion in the a t t ic . Bib l ica l scholars in Uni ted

40



T H E N A S N O W

M etho d i s t sem inar i e s a l r eady a re an ecume nica l lo t ; i n add i

t ion , they mee t o f t en wi th o ther scho la r s f rom a lmos t every

conce ivab le back groun d . So on var iou s ma t t e r s o f b ib li ca l in t e r

p re ta t ion there i s a lways the poss ib i l i ty tha t f rom i t em to t ime

very b road ly based pos i t ions wil l deve lop . For exam ple , scho la r s

f ro m a t r e m e n d o u s r a n g e of d e n o m i n a t i o n a l lo y a l ti e s su p p o r t

th e im por ta nce o f un de r s t an d in g bib li ca l wr i t ings in th e l igh t

o f the i r h i s to r i ca l and social con tex t s . The y do th i s in a way th a t

goes f a r beyond W esley ' s use o f h i s knowledg e o f th e anc ien t

wor ld ; th ey would ho ld th a t appre c ia t ion o f an an c ien t wo rk in

i t s con tex t i s f ar mo re imp or tan t th an h e cons idered i t t o be for

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r a p p l y i n g i t i n l a t e r t i m e s . O l d T e s t a m e n t

i n v e s t i g a t o r s w h o a r e Ch r i s t i a n w o u l d a g r e e o n m a n y p o i n t s

w i t h J e w i sh e x p e r t s o n t h e H e b r e w B i b l e a s t o t h e m e a n i n g o ft h e S c r i p t u r e h e l d in c o m m o n , e v e n t h o u g h C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r s

would s t il l d i sagree as to even th e nu m be r o f books in th e Old

Tes tament , t o say no th ing o f the ex ten t to which i t can be

i n t e r p r e t e d t h r o u g h Ch r i s t i a n e y e s. F o r t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t ,

scho la r s would o f t en agree abo u t an au th or ' s bas ic m essa ge in

i t s soc ia l se t t ing , a l though they migh t deba te sharp ly abou t

how to app ly the message in s i tua t ions two mi l l enn ia l a t e r . In

so far as scholar ly invest igat ions get to the hear t of the b ibl ical

m ean ings , the r e fo re , We s ley ' s v iews would be sub jec t to co r rec

t ion un de r the s t an dar d o f b ib li cal p r imacy .For the Book o f Reve la t ion , to t ake an example we saw

e a r l i e r , U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t s a n d o t h e r m a i n l i n e P r o t e s t a n t s ,

Ro m an Catho l i cs , and c onserva t ive o r evange l i ca l inves t iga to r s

would a l l examine in de ta i l wha t was go ing on in As ia Minor

dur ing the second ha l f o f the f i r s t cen tu ry CE . In h i s bas ic

approa ch to th i s wo rk Wesley s imply m us t be l e ft on th e f ar s ide

of th e gulf; h e be longs to the " then" an d no t th e "now."

I t m u s t b e a d m i t t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t , s i n c e so m e N e w T e s t a

m e n t s c h o l a r s t o d a y a r e g i v i n g m o r e i m p o r t a n c e t o m e t h o d s

t h a t a r e l e s s c o n c e r n e d a b o u t h i s t o r i c a l m a t t e r s t h e d a y m a y

come w he n some Wesley an pos i t ions once r e l eg a ted to th e a t t i c

w i ll b e b r o u g h t d o w n s t a i r s a g a i n - a l t h o u g h i t i s d o u b t fu l t h a t

W esley 's app roac h to Reve lat ion ca n ever be dus ted off! Biblical

s tud ies in the fu tu re wi l l i nev i t ab ly a r r ive a t new pos i t ions ,

4 1





T H E N A S N O W

its byproducts. It allows us to appreciate the a ncien t creedsand confessions afresh and the n to repossess thei r livingtr u th in th e light of radically new experience. This holdstrue for the Apostle's Creed, the Augsburg Confession, the

W estminster Catechism. It holds for W esley's Sermons. Itholds for th e Notes, and especially it holds for the Articlesand Confession.

T h e s e w o r k s m u s t b e v i e w e d , h e s a i d , " i n a n e w t w i n

pe rsp ec t ive of i n t e rp re t a t i o n - o f ou r he r i t ag e , on th e one ha nd ,

a n d . . . o ur c o n t e m p o r a r y c r is i s o n t h e o t h e r. " T h e y w e r e w h a t

O u t l e r c a ll ed " la n d m a r k d o c u m e n t s , " a t e r m t h e G e n e r a l C o n

ference of 1972 accepted wi th spec i f ic re ference to the Art ic les

of Re l ig ion , t h e EU B Confess ion o f Fa i th , and th e M etho d i s t

G ene ra l Ru les . In 1980 th e Gen era l Confe rence sa id t h a t t he se

t h r e e s h o u l d b e c a l le d " f o u n d a t i o n d o c u m e n t s , " a n d n o wa n o t h e r C o n f e r e n c e h a s d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e y f i t b e t t e r u n d e r

th e t i t l e "Our Do c t r ina l S t a nd a rd s ar id G ene ra l Ru les" and th a t

t h e Sermons a n d t h e Notes shou ld be i nc luded . We can con t inue

to t ry d i f feren t t i t l es every o th er G en era l Co nfere nce i f we l ike ,

b u t n a m e c h a n g e s w i ll n o t d o m u c h t o h e l p t h e d e n o m i n a t i o n

tak e O ut l er ' s " twin per spec t ive" ser ious ly . "Then" an d "now," as

we have seen , can no t be eas il y ro l l ed t oge the r ; t h e e ig h te en th -

c e n t u r y d o c u m e n t s r e p r e s e n t " t h e o n e h a nd , " a n d w e t o d a y a r e

"on th e o the r ." Th e c lear and v is ib le inc lus ion of th e Notes, a n d

of cou rse t he Sermons, under "doc t r ina l s t anda rds" makes i t

a lmo s t imposs ib l e t o l eave th em in t h e " then ," bu t b r ing ing

th em in to t h e "now" wi ll be no easy t a sk . A t t em p t in g to c ro ss

th e gu l f w i tho u t s ink ing o r l o sing th e ca rgo shou ld be a ma jo r

cha l l enge fo r U n i t e d Me tho d i s t s a s we move in to t he twen ty -

f i rs t cen tury ,

N o t e s

1. History of American Methodism, ed. Emory Stevens Bucko (Nashville:Abingdon, 1964),III, 146047. The grandfather of the well-known novelistBoo th Tarkington, Tark ington w as admitted on trial in the Illinois C onferencein 1825 (W illiam Warren Sw eet, Religion on the Am erican F rontier, 1738-184 0,Vol. IV. The Method ists, [Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1946], p. 285).

2. Hereafter abbreviated as Notes. They are available in various reprinteditions; I have used th e third Am erican edition, published in 1812 in New York

4 3




by Daniel Hitt and Th om as Ware.

3. Richard P. Heitzenratcr, "At Full Liberty: Doctrinal Standards in EarlyAmerican Methodism," Quarterly Review V (Fall, 1985), p. 21. Heitzenratcrmentions Wesley's medical manual, Primitive Physick, as standard equipmentalso, as docs W ade Crawford Barclay (Early American Methodism, 1769-1844,

Vol. II. To Reform the Nation. [NY: Board of Missions & Church Exte nsion ofthe Methodist Church, 1950], p. 12).

4. "Doctrinal Standards in th e Un ited M ethodist Church," Perkins Journal

XXVIII (Fall, 1974), p. 20

5. General Conference of 1988, Daily Christian Advocate (hereafter-DCA),May 2,19 88 , p. 253. Th e section o n "Our Doctrinal History," wh ich referred tothe 1968 opinion , was approved 916 to 41 by the con ference; the official listingof the Sermons and Notes as part of the se ction o n "Our Doctrinal Standardsand General Rules" wa s approved by a vote of 887 to 45 (DCA, May 2,1 98 8, p .524). I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. William I. Smith, a member ofthe Oklahoma Conference delegation to General Conference, for providing acopy of the report of the Committee on Our Theological Task.

6. Th is com me nt appears as part of the discussion of "Doctrinal Standardsin American Methodism" (1988 Discipline, Par. 57, p. 64). I am not clear ifanother statement about the Sermons and Notes, in the section on "theWesleyan 'Standards' in Great Britain," is meant to be purely descriptive or ifit can be unders tood as prescriptive also: "These writings, th en, con tained thestandard exposition o f Me thodist teaching . They provide a model and m easurefor adequate preaching in th e Wesleyan tradition" (1988 Discipline, Par. 67, p.52). W hy is "provide" used inste ad of "provided" if th e se nte nc e is on ly descriptive? If it is in some way prescriptive, then does it apply only to BritishMethodists?

7. Th is is the former of "two general principles . . .on which th ere has beenbroad and basic agreement," according to the 1972 (1984 Discipline, Par. 67, p.49). The latter principle is repeated with slight modifications in the newdocument: from 1972, "The Un ited M ethodist C hurch stands urgently in nee dof doctrinal reinvigoration for the sake of authentic renewal, fruitful evangelism, and the effective discharge of our ecumenical commitments" (1984Discipline, Par. 67, p. 50); in 1988, "The United Methodist Church standscontinually in need of doctrinal reinvigoration for the sake of authenticrenewal, fruitful evangelism, and ecumenical dialogue" (1988 Discipline,Par.67 , p. 60).

8. Compare the 1984 Discipline, Par. 67, pp. 49-50 with that of 1988, Par.67, pp. 59-60. Also om itted from the 1972 statemen t on th e Sermons and Notesis the view that their function "was not to impose an inflexible system ofdoctrine or to inhibit responsible intellectual freedom , but rather to provide a

broad and flexible framework of doctrine wh ich would define the outside lim itsfor public teaching in the societies in disputed cases. These standards weremore flexible than any of the classical creeds or confessions or articles; theygave the Methodists a measure of protection from doctrinal eccentricity, andthey gave Methodist laypersons a new role in the assessment of doctrinalstandards. This particular collegia! formula for doctrinal guidance w as uniquein Christendom. It committed the Methodist people to the biblical revelation

44



THEN AS NOW

as primary withou t propo sing a literal summ ary of that revelation in any singlepropositional form. It anchored Me thodist theolo gy to a stable core, but allowedit freedom of movement in the future unfolding of history" (1984 Discipline,Par. 67, pp. 42 4 3; compare 1988 Discipline, Par. 67, p. 52).

9. 1988 Discipline, Par. 67, p. 60. Dr. Wayne Coffin provided me a copy ofthe "Resolution of Intent" from the Journal of the 1970 General Conference,pp. 254-55 . Referring to a m otion to rem ove "derogatory references" to R omanCatho licism from the Article of Religion, the resolution h eld that it was bettersimply to see ten of the thirty-nine Anglican Articles of Religion as comingfrom a "time of reckless strife." Wesley's keep ing of se ven of them , as part of a"hasty abridgment," in th e Method ist Articles is seen as an act that be longs t oour past; "it is .. .on e of the virtues of historical insight t hat it enables me n [sic]in a later age to recognize the circumstances of earlier events and documentswithout being slavishly bound to their historical evaluation, especially in asubsequen t epoch w hen relationships have bee n radically altered" (p. 255).

10 . It seems likely that Wesley used the Greek New Testament prepared byJohann Albrecht Bengel (A.W. Harrison, "The Greek Text of Wesley's Trans

lat ion of the N ew Testament," Proceed ings of the Wesley Historical Society IX[1914], 105-13). On Bengel sec Werner Georg Kumm el, The New Testament:The History of the Investigation of Its Problem s, trans. S., McLean Gilmour &How ard C. Kee (Nashv ille: Abingd on, 1972), pp. 47-48, 468.

11 . See the discussion of these passages in Bruce M. Metzger, A TextualComm entary on the Greek New Testament (New York: Un ited Bible Societ ies,1971), pp. 154-56, 716-18. Another good example is the presence of the name"Jeremiah" in Mt. 27:9; it is considered a "firmly established" reading today(Metzger, p. 66); Wesley saw it as "evidently a mistake."

12. Harrison, p. 113; he refers to Wesley's statement in the preface to theNotes: "I write chiefly for plain unlettere d m en, wh o und erstand on ly theirmoth er-tongue, an d yet rev erence and love th e word of God, and have a desireto s ave th eir souls" (p. iii).

13 . A resolution on "Sexist Language and the Scripture," approved at the1980 General Conference, recommended "that scriptural references used inapproved publications of T he U nited M ethodist Church be faithful to acceptedtexts. . . ." (The Book of Resolutions of the United Methodist Church, 1984[Nashvil le: United M ethodist Publishing H ouse, 1984], p. 242). Although t heresolution w as removed by t he 1988 General C onference as "time-dated" (DCA,Advance Edition, G-12), I doubt that any United Methodist editor wouldquarrel wit h this particular s tatem ent.

14 . For d efinition, bibliography, an d a symp athetic yet critical appraisal oftypology, see Gerhard Hascl, New Testament Theology: Basic Issues in theCurrent Debate (Grand Rapids: Ecrdm ans, 1978), pp. 190-93

15. Th ere is also a bit of allegorization in th e Notes, though it is not nearlyso extensive as the typological approach. For example, the phrase "in theevening" in Mt 20:7 refers to "life" or the "world." See also notes on Mt 21:33,M t 25:3, J a m e s 4:4, and Rev. 4:6. For other exam ples of allegorization s ec RobinScruggs, "John Wesley as Biblical Scholar," Journa l of Bible and ReligionXXVIII (Oct., 1960), p. 419.

4 5




16. Sec Lloy d R, Ba iley, "The Lection ary in C ritical Perspective," Interpretation XXXI (April, 1977), pp. 139-53, especially 151-52.

17. United Methodist Article VI begins by saying, "The Old Testament isnot contrary to the New; for both in the Old and New Testament everlastinglife is offered to man kind by Christ, who is th e only Mediator between God and

man, bein g both God an d Man" (1988 Discipline, Par. 68, p. 62). The A nglicanarticle (No. VII) is easily available in the Episcopal Book of Comm on Prayer.

18 . It should be noted, however, that an important Old Testament interpreter like Gerhard von Rad, who would certainly still be widely consulted inUnited Methodist schools, accepts a limited kind of typology. But for him it isclear that "we mu st accept that m eanin g of the text wh ich is revealed by usingall available exegetical tools and critical criteria." Furthermore, he holds that"we.. .can no lon ger say that th e David or Josh ua of history, or the Tabernacle,or the Passover lamb, are types of Christ" (Old Testament Theology, Vol. II:The Theology of Israel's P rophetic Traditions t trans. D.M.G. Stalker [NewYork: Harper & R ow, 1965] , pp. 370 and 371).

19 . Oth er use of the te rm "T hree-One God" can be found in I. Co. 15:28, He b.9:5, ad Rev. 4:8. For other references to the Trinity, see Mk 12:28; Eph. 4:4,and Heb. 9:14.

20. Wesley's views on Judaism and other non-Christian religions createenough prob lems for Unite d Meth odists today to merit discussion in a separatepaper.

21. See also Mt 28:18, Rom . 1:3; Ep h. 1:3. Scroggs holds that: Wesley doesnot always hold rigorously to the true hum anity of Jesus. Ther e are hints tha tat times Wesley com es clo se to docetism." H e goes on to say that there is "somedoubt as to w heth er th e flesh of Jesu s is very real to Wesley" ("JohnWesley asBiblical Scholar," p. 420).

22. For a summary and critique of canonical criticism sec John H. Hayes

and Frederick Pr ussner, Old Testament Theology, Its History and Development(Atlanta: John Knox, 1985), pp. 268-73. George Lyons sees a strength ofcanonical criticism in its use of the analogy of faith, like Wesley, but regrets atendency to ignore textual criticism ("Hcrmcncutical Bases for Theology:High er Criticism and t he W esleyan Interpreter," Wesleyan Theological JournalXVIII [Spring, 1983], p. 69).

23. Intro, to Revelation; Wesley states that he used Bengel's Gnomon NoviTestamenti, "but far mo re his Erkarte Offenbarungn, wh ich is a full and regularcomment on the Revelation."

24. 'T he tim e, times , and a half time" run from 1058 CE to 1836 CE; see thechart in W esley's notes o n 12:14.

25. See, for examp le, AdelaY arbro Collins, Crisis and Catharsis:" The Power

of the Apocalypse (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984); also, her article "The Revelation of John : An Ap ocalyptic Respo nse to a Social Crisis," Currents in TheologyandMission VIII (Feb., 1981), pp. 4-12.

26. Edward H. Sugden's claim that Wesley "was a critic, both higher andlower, before thos e much m isunderstood terms w ere invented" has been widelychallenged. See Sugden, ed., Wesley's Standard Sermons, Vol. I (Nashville:

46



THEN AS NOW

Publishing House M.E. Church, S outh, N .d.), p. 21 . Compare Wilbur H. Mullen,"John Wesley's Method of Biblical Interpretation," Religion in Life XLVII(1978), pp. 99-107, especially 106-07; George A. Turner, "John Wesley as anInterpr eter of Scripture," pp. 156-78 in Jo hn F. Walvoord, ed., Inspiration andInterpretation (Grand Rapids: Eerdm ans, 1957), pp. 162 and 165; W.E.

Sangstcr, The Path to Perfection (New York:Abingd on, 1943), pp. 35-36,27. "British Methodism today, while still aiTirming the legal position of

Wesley's Sermons and Notes as standard of doctrine, in fact generally ignoresWesley from the pulpit as though he were an embarrassment to moderntheological and ecumenical endeavors" (Richard P. Heitzenrater, "Plain Truth:Sermons as standards of Doctrine" [The Drew Gateway LVII (Fall, 1987)], p.24). Frank Baker wrote in 1970 about American methodism, "Wesley's Sermons and Notes have never been officially superseded, merely forgotten" (JohnWesley and the Church of England [Nashville: Abingdo n, 1970], p. 251).

28. DCA, April 19, 1972, p. 219

47





QR 10/2 (1990) 49-64

"Observe the Gradation!"J o h n W esley's No tes

on the N ew Tes tament

D a v i d T r i p p

Severa l yea r s ago now, in 1959 , th e chap la in o f m y Cam br idge

co l lege , an Angl i can p r i es t , a ske d me , a M eth od i s t f r eshm an ,

whether Method i s t b ib l i ca l scho la r s o f the s t and ing o f C . K .

Barret t ( for example) were obl iged to conform thei r f indings to

t h e c o n t e n t s of Jo h n W e s l e y ' s Notes on theNew Testament. T h i s

conver sa t ion took p lace aga ins t the background o f Angl i can-

M e t h o d i s t u n i t y n e g o t i a t io n s , so t h e q u e s t i o n w a s a n u r g e n t

and t roub lesome one . The on ly r ep ly I cou ld g ive a t the t ime ,a s I r e m e m b e r , w a s to q u o t e fr o m t h e Br i t i sh M e t h o d i s t

C h u r c h ' s Deed of Union1

of 1932:

The Notes on the New Te stament and the 44 Sermons arenot intende d to impo se a system of formal or speculativetheology on Methodist Preachers, bu t to set up stand ardsof preach ing and belief which should se cure loyalty to th efundamental tru th s of the Gospel of Redemption and ensure th e continued w itness of the Chu rch to the realities ofthe Christian experience of salvation.

David Tripp is a superintendent in the British Methodist Church in Dudley,West M idlands. H e was formerly lecturer in l iturgies at the Th eological Collegeat Lincoln, England, and was a visiting professor at the University of NotreDame in 1987.

49




T i m e m o v e d o n , a n d t o o k w i t h i t t h e i m m e d i a t e q u e s t i o n o f

th e un i ty sch em e , bu t t he p r ob le m ( for me , a t l ea s t ) o f W es ley ' s

Notes was an i r r i t an t t ha t wou ld no t go away . As a Br i t i sh

M etho d i s t p reac he r , I ha d had to a s s en t t o t h em , a s t o t h e 44

Se rm on s . An d I ha d bee n hon es t ly ab l e t o do so , a lbe i t wi ths o m e b e m u s e m e n t , b o t h b e c a u s e I h a d b e e n to l d t h a t o n ly a

gen era l as se n t w as nec essa ry , and a l so bec aus e I could no t f ind

anyth ing gross ly ob jec t ionable in them on a f i rs t , has ty , se lec

t i v e r e a d i n g . F u r t h e r r e a d i n g s h a v e n o t r e v e a l e d a n y t h i n g

f u n d a m e n t a l l y u n a c c e p t a b l e , e x c e p t W e s l e y ' s v i ew of t h e

R o m a n C a t h o l ic C h u r c h ; b u t t h a t i s n o t e n o u g h .

W h y d o e s t h e B r i t i s h M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h p e r p e t u a t e t h e

n o r m a t i v e s t a t u s o f W e s l e y 's Notes, a n d w h y w e r e t h e y e v e r

a c c o r d e d s u c h a s t a t u s a t a l l ? S i n c e m o r e t h a n h a l f t h e

M e t h o d i s t w o r l d h a v e n e v e r r e g a r d e d t h e Notes (or the 44s e r m o n s , b u t t h e y a r e a n o t h e r t op i c) a s a d o c tr i n a l s t a n d a r d ,

2

w h a t m i g h t t h e y m e a n fo r t h e w o r l d r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f

M e t h o d i s m ? A r e t h e y s y m p t o m a t i c of s o m e t h i n g d i s t i n ct iv e i n

the Wes leyan t rad i t i on tha t we ough t t o no t i ce and eva lua t e?

T h e C a n a d i a n N a t h a n a e l B u r w a s h , i n t h e g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c

t ion to h is book Wesley's Doctrinal Standards ( 1 8 8 1 ) ,3

asked a

s imi l a r ques t ion , and gave th i s answer :

To interpret these standards or apply them after the man

ne r of Articles of Religion, or Creeds, or Confessions ofFa ith, which categorically define the doctrines to beprofessed or believed, would b e contrary to th eir very na ture. It is to the spirit and type of this preaching that ourobligations bind us. There may be in the No tes and Sermons man y things, accidental and personal, to which noMethodist minister would feel bound to profess assent.But M ethodism dem ands th at in all our pulpits we shouldpreach this gospel, and expound the W ord of God according to this analogy of faith.

Seven ty - f ive yea rs l a t e r , F ranz Hi l l eb rand (who had been aLu the ra n and was l a t e r t o j o in t h e Ch ur ch o f Sco t l and ) wro te

in Christianity according to the We sleys4

(1956 ) t ha t t he Wes

l eyan s t anda rds po in t ed to an open B ib l e :

Methodism, unique among the major denomination inChristen dom , ex presses he r doctrine officially in the form

50



OBSERVE THE GRADATION

of expository doc um ents: the Notes on the New Testamentand the Standard Sermons. W here others have Confessions or Articles of Fa ith, we (notw ithstandin g the 25 Articles) point directly to th e Bible as anno tated by Wesley,

listening to his expert guidance, but bound only to theWord of God.

O t h e r c o m m e n t a t o r s o n t h e Notes-and t h e y a r e f e w - h a v e

l i t t l e t o add .5

O n e g r e a t p r o b l e m f ac in g a n y s u c h c o m m e n t a t o r

i s t h a t a de f in it i ve acco un t wou ld p resup pose a n ove rw he lm ing

task of source -cr i t ic i sm. In h is p reface , (par . 7 ,8 ) W esley g ra te

fu l ly l i s t s h i s ch ief sources : the Gnomon Novi Testamenti of

" tha t g rea t l igh t o f the Chris t ian world ( la te ly gone to h is

reward , ) Bengel ius ," Dr . Heylyn 's "Theologica l Lectures ," Dr .

G uyse , an d th e "Fami ly Expo si to r" o f Dr . D oddrid ge , add ing ( in

the i n t roduc t ion to t he Reve la t i on ) Benge l ' s Erklarte Offen-

barung"® These a re Wes ley ' s ch i e f sou rces , and o the rs , pa t r i s

t i c and con tem pora ry , a re a l so m en t io ned ; ye t fu r the r sou rce s

a re ce r t a in ly t o be t raced , and u n t i l t ha t i s done , and ea ch no te

exa m ined in th e l igh t o f i t s cer ta in or p roba ble sour ces , w e sha l l

no t be ab le to apprec ia te the choices tha t Wesley faced a t each

po in t i n h i s t ex t and the dec i s ions t ha t he made .

Bu t apa r t f rom v iews he c red i t ed t o o the rs , Wes ley cha rac

t e r i s ti ca l l y re fe r red to t h e s ty l is t i c bea u ty o f t h e N ew Tes t a

m en t books , and th e techn ica l sk il l o f t he i r au th o rs . Th i s m igh tappear unusual , eccent r ic , o r even se l f - indulgent in a b ib l ica l

com m en ta to r , even if i t m igh t be a na tu r a l p reoccupa t ion in an

educ a t ed , p r iv il eged gen t l em an of A ugu s t an En g land w hose

c o n t e m p o r a r i e s i n c l u d e d m e n s u c h a s C a p a b i l it y B r o w n ,

Samue l Johnson , and Joshua Reyno lds . Bu t Wes ley ' s fa sc ina

t ion ( i t would be too much to ca l l i t an obsess ion) wi th the

e l egance o f h i s t ex t i s t oo cons i s t en t and too p rominen t t o be

d ism issed as a fo ib le . I co n te nd t h a t th i s fea ture of h i s Notes

i nd i rec t ly dom ina te s t he pu rpos e o f t h i s who le book and o f t h e

en t i re co rpus of h i s wr i t i ngs , and ev en of t h e wh o le m ov em en twi th in wh ich he came to be a de t e rmina t ive f i gu re and an

e p o n y m o u s h e r o .

At t h i s po in t we shou ld no te t ha t Wes ley ' s p re face t o t he

Notes con ta in s a s t a t e m en t of t he i r pu rpos e and th e ro l e Wes ley

a s s i g n e d t h e m :

5 1




a) to mediate th e fruits of the best available scholarship,and of th e bes t spiritual theology, to "plain, un letteredmen, wh o unders tand only their m other-tongue, and yet

reverence the word of God, and have a desire to save theirsouls" (par. 3);

b) to correct the d om inant translation (the King Jam esBible, of cour se) , 7 according to the b est available text, bu tas gently as possible, for "is it not an excusable infirmity,to be unwilling to par t with w hat w e have been long accustomed to, and to love the very words by which God hasoften conveyed strength or comfort to our souls?" (par. 4,5);

c) to avoid abstruse difficulties, "lest I should leave th e ordinary rea der behind me" (par. 6);

d) to divide the text into paragraphs, "making a larger orsm aller pau se, ju st a s the se nse req uires," following Bengel, because (and th is com m ent on a stylistic point is ofmajor im portanc e): "even this m uch is such an help, inman y places, as one who has no t tried it can scarcelybelieve" (par. 7; par. 11 contains negative co mm ents onconventional chapter-divisions);8

e) to avoid all par tisan interp retatio n ("God forbid th at Ishould make th e words of the most gentle and benevolent

Jes us, a vehicle to convey such poison" par . 9), and by implication, to un ite C hristians by drawing on the learning ofdiverse traditions: Bengel, the Lutheran; Heylyn, Wesley'sfellow Anglican; Guyse and Doddridge, Calvinist Con-gregationalists;

f) to help all to "agree to sit down togethe r, as hum ble,loving disciples, at the feet of our comm on M aster, to h earhis Word, to imbibe his Spirit, and to tran scrib e h is lifeinto ou r own!" (par. 9).

T h e Notes w ere composed in 175 4 /5 , wh i l e Wes ley was i n il l

h e a l t h .9

In 1784 he spec if i ed t h em , t og e th e r wi th t h e fi rs t fou r

vo lumes o f h i s se rmons , a s a s t anda rd o f t he doc t r ine t o be

m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e M e t h o d i s t p r e a c h i n g - h o u s e s .1 0

Thi s " inde

pe nd en t s t an da r d o f doc t r ine" ha s bee n the t a r ge t of hos t i l e

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cr i t ic i sm f rom non-M ethod i s t s , to wh ich no se r ious answer ha s

ye t be en g iven . T he "Large Minutes" ( t he p ro to types o f t he

Method i s t Di sc ip l ine ) u rges p reache rs t o u se t hem d i rec t ly :

"Freq uen t ly read and en l a rge upon a po r t i on o f t h e N o tes"

(Minutes of Several Conversations, Q. 37, A. 12; Works, 1872edit ion, VIII. 317).

T h e p r e a c h e r s w e r e t o u s e t h e m , n o t o n l y f or s e r m o n

prepa ra t ion , bu t a l so , even p r imar i ly , i n t he i r p raye rs . Wes ley

and h i s As s i s t an t s fe lt ob liged to a sk t he H e lp e rs (p reache rs ) a t

sh or t in ter va ls , "Do you us e a ll th e m ea ns of g race yourself, a n d

en fo rce t he u se o f t h e m on a ll o th e r pe rsons? .. .. (2. ) S ea rc h ing

th e S c r ip tu res by , ( i.) Read ing : Con s t an t ly , som e pa r t of eve ry

day; regu lar ly , a l l th e Bib le in order ; carefu l ly , wi th th e N ote s ;

ser ious ly , w i th pra ye r before and afte r ; f ru it fu lly , im m edi a te ly

p rac t i s ing w ha t you l ea rn t he re ?" (Minutes, Q . 4 8 , A; Works, e t c .

torn. cit . 323).

An ea r l i e r ru l e i n t he Large Minutes (Q.29 an d A., torn. ci t .

314) g ives th e Notes an even more cen t ra l ro l e :

W hat general m ethod of employing our tim e would you advise us to? A. We advise you, (1.) As often as possible torise at four. (2.) From four to five in the m orning, an dfrom five to six in the evening, to m editate, pray, an d read,partly the Scripture with the Notes, partly the closely practical parts of w ha t we have published. (3.) From six in themo rning till twelve, (allowing an hour for breakfast,) toread in order with much prayer, first, "The ChristianLibrary," and the othe r books which w e have published inprose and verse, and then those which we recommendedin our Rules of Kingswood School.

I t ha s no t bee n po in t ed ou t t h a t Q ues t ion 29 se t s up t he

Method i s t equ iva l en t o f t he Da i ly Off i ce .1 2

A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s

no re fe re nce to p sa lmody , t he em pha s i s on rea d in g and m ed i t a

t i on m a tc he s t h e sense o f p r io r i t i e s t ha t W es ley l ea rn ed f rom

t h e Book of Comm on Prayer:The first original and gro und of the Divine Serv/ce...wasnot o rdained bu t of a good purpose, and for a gre at advancement of godliness. For they so ordered the ma tter, th atall th e who le Bible (or th e gr eatest p art thereof) sh ould beread over once every year; intending thereby, th at the Cler-

53




gy, and especially suc h as we re M inisters in th e congregation, should (by often reading, and m editation in God 'sword) be stirred up to godliness themselves, and be m oreable to ex hort other s by wholesom e doctrine, and to con

fute them th at were adversaries to the trut h; and further,th at th e people (by daily hea ring of holy Scrip ture read inthe Church ) m ight continually profit more and more inthe knowledge of God, and be the more inflamed w ith thelove of his tr ue Religion. (Book of Common Prayer,1661/2: "Concerning the Service of th e Church")

Close ly associa ted wi th th i s pas tora l - l i tu rg ica l ro le for the

Notes i s t he i r re l a t i onsh ip wi th Wes ley ' s chosen s t ance on

sp i r i t ua l read ing and med i t a t i on . Th i s i s pe rhaps bes t seen in

t h e d i r e c t i o n s i n t r o d u c i n g W e s l e y ' s e d i t i o n o f T h o m a s

K e m p i s ' The Imitation of Christ, more formal ly in the 1735ed i t i on , bu t m or e succ inc tly i n t he sh o r t e r ve rs ion i s sued f rom

1 7 4 1 o n w a r d s , t h r o u g h o u t W e s l ey ' s l if e ti m e a n d l a t e r :1 3

Prepare yourself for reading by purity of intention,wh ereby you singly aim a t yo ur sou l's benefit; and th en, ina s hor t ejaculation, beg God's grace to enlighten your un derstan ding, an d dispose you r he art for receiving w ha t youread; and th at you may both know w hat he requires ofyou, and seriously resolve to execute his will w hen know n.

3. Be sure to read not curiously and hastily, but leisurely,and with great attention; with proper intervals and pauses,th at you m ay allow time for th e enlightenings of divinegrace. Stop every now and t he , to recollect w ha t you haveread, and consider how to reduce it to practice. Fur the r,let your reading be continued and regular, not ramblingand desultory. It shows a vitiated palate, to taste of ma nydishes witho ut fixing upo n, or being satisfied w ith an y; notbu t wh at it will be of grea t service to read over and overthose passages, which more nearly concern yourself, andmore closely affect your own passions and inclinations;especially if you add a pa rticula r exam ination upo n each.

4. Labou r for a temper correspondent to wha t you read:

otherw ise it will prove and un profitable, while it only enlightens your u nderstand ing, w ithout influencing yourwill, or inflaming you r affections. Therefore inters pers ehere and there, pious aspirations to God, and petitions for

54




his grace. Select also any remarkab le sayings or advices,treasur ing them up in your mem ory to rum inate and consider on....

5. Conclude all w ith a s hor t ejaculation to God; th at he

would preserve and prosper his good seed sown in yourhea rt, tha t it may bring forth its fruit in due season...(1816 edition, pp. iii-v, pars. 2-5, emphasis added)

These counse l s shou ld be ra t ed wi th t he c l a s s i c me thods o f

sp i r i t ua l med i t a t i on ; if t he y fo llow the t e x t me d i t a t ed o n m ore

c losely th an , say, the Golden Book of P e t e r o f Alcan ta ra , t h a t i s

on ly to be expected in a t rad i t ion wi th a Reformat ion v iew of

th e Bib le , and in a sp i r i tua l gu ide who know s h imse l f to be homo

unius libri, a man of one book . They a l so serve to expla in

impor t an t fea tu res o f t he No tes . In h i s me thod o f sp i r i t ua lread ing , we see W es ley m ak i ng u se o f t h e aes th e t i c sen se of t h e

rea de r (no t e pa r .3 ) , and th e rea de r ' s sense of i den t i fi ca t ion w i th

the t ex t , t o l ead in to a " t emper" t ha t ma tches t he t ex t . Thus

the reade r ' s own sp i r i t ua l deve lopmen t (wi th a l l i t s imp l i ca

t i ons for ac ti on and re l a t i on sh ip s ) m a tch es t ha t of t h e w r i t e r s

a s t h e y w r o t e a n d t h a t o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e e v e n t s

reco rded , bo th a s t he y took p lace and a s t he i r mea n in g beca m e

c lea re r i n t ime . Wi th t h i s i n mind , we may re tu rn t o Wes ley ' s

preface to h is Notes :

An exact knowledge of the truth was accompanied, in theinspired writers, with an exactly regular series of arguments, a precise expression of their meaning, and agenuine vigour of suitable af fections....

12

In the languageof the sacred w ritings we may observe the utm ost depth,together with the utmo st ease. All th e elegancies of hum ancomposition sink into nothing before it: God speaks no t asman, b ut as G od. His thoughts are very deep; and thencehis words are of inexhau stible virtu e. And the language ofhis me ssengers, also, is exact in th e h ighest degree: for th ewords which were given them accurately answered th e impression m ade upon their m inds....To unde rstand thisthoroughly, we should observe the emphasis which lies onevery word; th e holy affections expressed thereby, and thetempers shown by every w riter. (Notes, preface, pa r. 11-12;emphases added)

55




W e s l e y b e l ie v e d t h a t t h e a u t h o r s ' p e r s o n a li t y d e v e l o p m e n t

i s a t l eas t as s ign i f ican t as th e ideas exp ress ed in th e tex t . T h e

l i t e ra ry qua l i t i e s o f t he t ex t s ( regu la r i t y , p rec i s ion , v igo r ,

de p th , ease , em ph asis ) s ignal th e affec tions , o r th e new d isposi

t ion of the b ib l ica l wri te r tha t has been caused by the event o freve l a t i on .

Essen t i a l t o t he reade r ' s en t e r ing in to t h i s p rocess i s t he

t ime-fac tor in th e rea d in g , th e observ ance s of "proper in terva ls

and pauses" (Imitation pre face , pa r . 5 ) . W e m us t l ea rn t h e

au tho r ' s speed and subo rd ina t e ou r read ing -speed to t ha t ,

l ea rn ing to a l l ow t ime be tween words , be tween ph rases , be

twee n sen t en ces , be tw een pa ra g rap hs , for t h e t ex t t o work in

us w ha t i t w orked in t h e wr i t e r . So im po r t an t was t h i s for

W esley th a t , fo r re ad er s w ho could no t cope w i th th e wh ole of

t h e Notes, he i ssued h is rev ised t rans la t ion , "proper ly d is

t r i bu t ed in to pa rag raphs , " and wi th t he sho r t ana ly ses o f each

b o o k , s e p a r a t e l y .1

H o w d o t h e Notes se t ou t to fu l f i l l the purposes of the i r

a u t h o r ?

There can be no comple t e su rvey o f fe red he re o f t he i r

m e tho d ; bu t some gene ra l obse rva t ions a re poss ib le . T he Notes

se t ou t to make expl ic i t what i s impl ic i t in the tex t , bu t may be

missed in a has ty read ing of the Engl i sh . Concise a l lus ions are

u n p a c k e d , a n d h i d d e n m e t a p h o r s a r e b r o u g h t t o l ig h t . C o n s i d erPhil . 4 :7:

And the peace of God - T h a t calm, heavenly repose, tha t

tranq uility of spirit, which only God can give. Which sur-

passeth all understanding-Which none can comprehend,

save he that receiveth it. Shall keep—shall guard, as a gar

rison does a city. Your hearts — you r affections.

In t h i s example we see no t on ly t he me thod bu t a l so t he

consis ten t b ias o f the Notes-to s t r es s th e ac t ion of God up on

human expe r i ence . As an in spec t ion o f t he Imitation prefacewould lead us to expect , there a re f requent in ter jec t ions of an

edi fy ing k ind , whether mora l (such as a t Luke 10 :42: "Mary

hath chosen the good part-To save h er sou l . Re ade r , ha s t

thou?") or sp iri tu al (as at 1 Cor. 15:9: "Tr ue bel ieve rs a re

hum bled a l l t he i r l ives , even fo r t he s in s t hey com m i t t ed be fo re

56




they be l i eved" ) . Some no te s de fend the reade r aga in s t s t um

bl ing-b locks in unclear o r mora l ly ques t ionable passages , o r

aga in s t w ha t W es ley ha d to re j ec t a s he t e rodo xy : doub le p red es

t i n a t i o n , w o r k s - r i g h t e o u s n e s s , a n t i n o m i a n i s m , f o r m a l i ty ,

Ar i an i sm, qu ie t i sm, mar io l a t ry , i r re s i s t i b i l i t y o f g race . Othe rno te s po in t t o t he h e ig h t s o f mys t i c i sm: "True med i t a t i on i s no

ot he r th a n fa i th , hop e , joy , m el te d down by th e f ire of God 's

Ho ly Sp iri t ; an d offered u p to God in sec ret" (on 1 Tim . 4:15).

Where does "observe the gradat ion" f i t in to th i s?

Of W es ley ' s ae s the t i c com m en t s , a s ign if i can t num be r po in t

ou t "gradat ions ," c l imaxes or an t ic l imaxes , compel l ing t rans i

t ions f rom one leve l o f meaning to another . Al l h i s s ty l i s t ic

obse rva t ions warn the reade r t o be e spec i a l l y a t t en t ive and

ready to pause and wonder . When he commen t s on "g rada t ion"speci f ica l ly , he g ives no t ice of a moment in the tex t where i t

wi l l be t im e to m ak e a major m ove in aw are nes s and dec is ion ,

if we a re to m a tc h wh a t i s hap pen ing in t h e na r ra t i ve o r t he

na r ra to r , and a t t h i s j u nc tu re ap t ly t o " t ransc ribe" Ch r i s t ' s "life

into our own."

Examples of "gradat ion ," as be ing a l so examples of Wesley 's

gene ra l me thod o f emp loy ing aes the t i c c r i t e r i a , may be c l a s

s i f i ed unde r t h ree head ings .

Fi r s t , to de ep en th e sens e of th e ne ed for sa lva t ion an d of th e

ease of fal l ing away from God:On M att. 4:16: "Here is a beautiful gradation: first they"walked," the n they "sat in darkness," and lastly, "in th eregion of the shad ow of death." (and th e n ote on v. 17 goeson to explain tha t the sum mo ns to repentance, with Jes usas with Jo hn, is the necessary preparation to the inwardkingdom ). On Luke 1:19: "There seems to be a r em arkab legradation in the w ords,enhancing the guilt of Zacharias'sunbelief."

On Ephes. 4:31: "Here is a beautiful retrogradation" (sc.,

from bittern ess to evil speaking), "beginning w ith th ehighest, and descendingto the lowest, degree of th e w an t oflove."

On 1 Tim. 6:9: "Fall-plunge-®, sad gradation! Into tempta

tion—Miserable food for the soul! And a snare"

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In these passages i t i s as i f , a t a sudden tu rn in the way , we

are shown a prec ip ice before our fee t .

Secondly , to open a v is ta o f w ha t g race can and wi l l and see ks

to do for us:

On Luke 11:13: "How much more shall your heavenly

Father —How beautiful is the gradation,—a friend, a

father, God! Give the Holy S pirit-The be st of gifts, and

that which includes every good gift."

On Ep hes . 3:20 (and com pare the n ote on 4,31): "Now tohim — this doxology is adm irably adapted to stre ngth en ourfaith, tha t we may not stagger at the great things theapostle has been praying for, as if they we re too much forGod to give, or for u s to expect from him . That is able —

H ere is a mo st beautiful gra dation. Whe n he has given usexceeding, yea, abundant blessings, still we m ay ask formore. And h e is able to do it. But we may think of mo retha n w e have asked. H e is able to do this also.Yea, andabove all, Above all we ask — Above all we can think. Nay,exceedingly, abu nda ntly above all th at w e can ask orthink."

On Hebrew s 12:23-24: "It is observable" (i.e., calling forcomm ent) "that in this beautiful grad ation, these firstborn a re placed nea rer to God than the angels.,.. This

blood of sprinkling w as the foundation of our L ord'smed iatorial office. H ere th e grad ation is at its highe stpoint."

In t hese examples , we a re i nv i t ed t o ven tu re fo rward wi th

God towards the fu l lness of love , and even g iven a g l impse of

e tern i ty ; o f Hebrews 12 Wesley says a l so : "St . Pau l here shows

an exce l l en t knowledge o f t h e heave n ly economy , wo r thy o f

h i m who ha d be en caug h t up in to t he t h i rd heaven " (on 12.22 ) .

Th i rd ly , t o m ar k th e a s soc i a t ion be tw een th e doc t r ine of t h e

Tr in i ty w i th fa i th in d iv ine love an d m erc y in a spec ia lly viv idway:

On Luke 4:18: "How is the doctrine of the ever-blessedTrinity interwoven even in those scriptures where onewould least expect it! How clear a declaration of th e g reatThree-One is there in those very words, "The Spirit of th e

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Lord is upon me\" To proclaim deliverance to the captives,an d recovery of sight to the blind, and to set at liberty themthat are bruised—Here is a beautiful gradation, in comparing the spiritual state of m en to the miserab le state of

those captives w ho we re n ot only cast into prison, but, likeZedekiah, had their eyes put out, and were laden andbruised w ith chains of iron."

On M att. 18:14: "So it is not the will of your Father-

Ne ither doth my F athe r despise the least of them . Observethe gradation,—the angels, the Son, the Father!" (The sentence comm ented on concludes, of course: "That one ofthes e little ones should perish").

At t hese po in t s , Wes ley revea l s t he founda t ions o f h i s ex -

ege t i ca l me thod : he se t s t he New Tes t amen t t o t a l l y i n t hecon tex t o f a t r i n i t a r i an fa i t h , acco rd ing to wh ich th e un ion - in -

love o f t h e d iv ine be in g en t a i l s a un ive rse c re a t ed and rec rea t ed

in love and for love. Wesley fol lows (as we cannot) Bengel in

re t a in in g 1 Jo h n 5 :8, add ing : "The t e s t im ony o f t h e Sp i r i t , t h e

wa te r , and th e b lood , i s by an em ine n t g rad a t ion co r robo ra t ed

by th re e , w ho g ive a s t il l g r ea t e r t e s t im on y .„N o th ing can

sepa ra t e t he Sp i r i t f rom the Fa the r and the Son . . . t h i s pos i t i on

of th e seve nth an d e ig h t verses . . .a f fords a g ra dat io n ad m irab ly

su i t ed t o t he sub jec t . " The Wes leyan in s i s t ence on the Tr in i ty

revea l s a sense t ha t t he B ib l e does no t s imply speak for itself,or s t and a lone : i t g rew w i th in a t rad i t i on , and m us t be read in

th e l i gh t o f t h a t t r ad i t i on . W es ley ' s l e t t e r t o R icha rd Tom pson

of J u n e 2 8 , 1 7 5 5 (Works, XII, 466-7) exempl i f ies bo th Wesley 's

s incere reso lve to learn f rom any candid cr i t i c , and a l so h is

a ssu m pt ion o f an a p r io r i p r inc ip l e o f i n t e r p re t a t i on : "you r

favour of the 22d [s ic ] ins tan t . . .came exceedingly favourab ly ;

for I wa s ju s t rev is in g m y N ot es on th e f if th ch ap ter to R om ans .

O ne o f wh ich I found , up on a c lo se r i n spec t ion , see m ed to a s se r t

such an im pu ta t ion o f A dam 's s in t o h i s pos t e r i t y , a s mig h t

make way fo r t he ' ho r r ib l e dec ree ' . I t he re fo re s t ruck i t ou timm ed ia t e ly ; a s I wou ld wi l li ng ly do wh a t soev e r shou ld appe a r

to be anyway inco ns i s t e n t wi th t h a t g ra nd p r inc ip l e , 'T he L ord

is lov ing to every m an ; an d h i s m erc y i s over a l l h i s works . ' " T he

no t in g of "gradat ion" or o th er s ty l i s t ic in t en s i ty of t ran s i t ion , in

59




assoc i a t i on wi th t he Tr in i ty shows tha t fo r Wes ley the Tr in i ty

i s no t a concep t o f s t a t i c t ransc end enc e b u t a g l impse o f un ion

in l ov ing enc ou n te r , a d iv ine un ion in to w h ich t he c r ea tu re can

be b rough t a s pa r t i c ipan t -by -g race .

W ha t a re w e to m ak e o f t h i s p iece o f W es leyan he r i t ag e? A tthe ve ry l eas t i t dese rves t o be unea r thed and examined , s ince

i t t yp if i es an a spec t o f W es ley ' s thou gh t -p roce ss t h a t h as i n

f luenced th e w hol e of th e M eth od is t t rad i t io n in i t s var io us

f o r m s , e v e n w h e r e t h e Notes are no t a fo rmal ly canonised

s t anda rd . Wes ley ' s me thod o f med i t a t i on has p ro found ly i n

f luenced th e W es ley hy m ns : t h i s ha s be en docu m en te d in an

i n it ia l w a y fo r t h e B r i t i s h M e t h o d i s t t r a d i t i o n ,1 5

but no t ye t , so

fa r a s I know, fo r t he Amer i can l i ne . S ince t he Chr i s tmas

Confe rence made the 1784 Collection of Psalms and Hym ns for

the Lord's Day, and no t t he 1780 Collection of Hym ns for the

Use of the People called Methodists, t h e n o r m a t i v e h y m n a l , t h e

effec ts o f th i s d i f ference m ay be far-reac h ing . T h e s ign if icance

of the Notes for o th e r a spec t s o f M etho d i s t wo rsh ip t rad i t i on

ha s ye t t o be re sea rc hed . I t s im por t anc e fo r t h e gene ra l cha r

ac t e r o f exeges i s and sys t ema t i c t heo logy in t he con tex t o f

Wes ley -o r ig ina t ed communi t i e s a l so awa i t s t ho rough inves

t iga t ion .

But even before h is to r ica l exposi t ion goes any fur ther , we

cannot avoid ask ing cr i t i ca l ques t ions tha t a re ex is ten t ia l lyu r ge n t for Me thod i s t s , and fo r a l l wh o fee l t h a t t h ey owe mu ch

to t h e M etho d i s t t r ad i t i on . Can we s t i ll m ak e th e a s s um pt ion s

abou t t h e B ib le t h a t W es ley m ade? F i r s t i t shou ld be c la r if ied

th a t W esley w as no t oppo sed to a c r i t i ca l rea d in g of th e te x t ,

acco rd ing to t he t h ou gh t of h i s t im e . W es ley fe lt no need to b e

w ha t we wou ld ca l l an " ine r ran t i s t . " I d raw a t t en t ion to t h e no te

on M at t . 1 :1 , w he re W es ley obse rves t h a t t h e evange l i s t s d id

no t need to co r rec t t he e r ro rs i n t he i r sou rces : d iv ine wi sdom

wou ld u se t h e e r r o rs a s we l l a s t h e accu r a t e da t a . Th i s ap p roach

seems to open the way to a pos i t ive use even for the cr i t i ca lques t ion ing th a t m ay a r i se i n a sp i r i t ua l rea d ing o f t h e b ib li cal

tex t . I t would be unfa i r , however , to ins i s t tha t Wesley should

have an t i c ipa t ed m od er n v i ews of t h e h i s to r y of t h e compos i

t i on o f t he t ex t , t he ro l e o f t he ea r ly Church in t ha t p rocess ,

a n d o t h e r t h i n g s t h a t w e m u s t c o n s id e r .

60




In l igh t of th e cu rr en t d i scuss ion of l i t e r ary cr i ti ca l m et ho ds

am on g b ib lical schola rs , som e of w ho m advocate mo re the o logi

ca l re f l ec ti on in ex eg es i s ,1 6

i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e m a r k t h a t t h e

Notes ask u s to engage cou rageous ly w i th t h e t ex t a s i t s t and s .

Th is i s a pos i t ion ta ke n in A m erica n b ib l ica l s tu d ie s by B reva rdCh i lds and o th er s ("canonica l c r i t ic i sm") .

W e ma y have to say th a t W es ley ' s no t ion o f i n sp i ra t i on , t h a t

is , a mov ing a t God ' s p rompt ing (whe the r t o wr i t e o r t o read

t h e t e x t ) m a y s o m e t i m e s b e t o o m e c h a n i c a l . 1 7 In pr inc ip le ,

however , for Wes ley in sp i ra t i on i s a lways a fo rward m ov em en t

wi th God. Where i t i s s t i l l too in f lex ib le (where , fo r ins tance ,

Wes ley and h i s he i r s a re uncha rac t e r i s t i ca l l y anx ious abou t

"mere op in ions ," o r d i spu ted po in ts o f o r thodoxy) , we need to

cons ide r t h e ex t en t to wh ich Wes ley ' s undev e loped Chr i s to logy

ha s i n f luenced h i s read ing of t h e Ne w Te s t am en t . W es ley 's

Chr i s to logy in t he Notes inc l ines towa rd a k in d of na ive N es-

to r i an i sm tha t t ends t o i n fec t Br i t i sh t heo log ica l exp ress ion :

J e s u s , a m an in ha bi te d by God, is pass ib le ( i.e ., hav ing h u m a n

em ot ions and sub jec t t o ex t e rna l fo rces) bu t omn i sc i en t . A m ore

vigorous Chris to logy , wi th de i ty se l f - iden t i fy ing unreservedly

wi th fa l l i b l e and fa l l en human i ty , wou ld among o the r t h ings

imply a bo lder doct r ine of insp i ra t ion : God reveals Godsel f by

e n t e r i n g i n t o o u r f al li bl e h u m a n c o n v e r s a t i o n .1 8

T h e Notes, w hate ve r t h e i r o the r v i ces o r v i r t u es , ce r t a in lyt y p i f y t h e M e t h o d i s t e c u m e n i c a l s t a n c e , p e r h a p s b e s t e x

pressed , (and most r i sk i ly ) in the preface to the (44) Sermons

on Several Occasions:19

....I tru st, wh ereinsoev er I have mistaken , m y mind is opento conviction. I sincerely desire to be better informed. I sayto God and ma n, "W hat I know not, teach tho u me!"

Are you persuaded you see more clearly th an me? It is notunlikely that you m ay. Then tre at me as you would desireto be trea ted yourself upon a change of circumstances.

Point me o ut a better way tha n I have yet known. Showme it is so, by plain proof of Scripture. And if I linger inthe path I have been accustomed to tread, and am th erefore unw illing to leave it, labou r with me a little; take meby the han d, and lead me as I am able to bear..."

6 1




A ch ur ch wh ich , eve n if in on ly one of i t s two m ain bra nc he s ,

has w r i t t e n i n to i t s con fess iona l do cum en t s suc h an inv i t a t i on

to o th e r C hr i s t i ans t o co r rec t i t , and an ack now ledgm en t (a s i n

the No tes ) o f d i rec t i ndeb tedness t o o the r chu rches , has no

choice bu t to be ecumenica l ly open .

In an age of fear and f l igh t , when people lus t to def ine

them se lve s by the i r ha t re ds , t h i s openn ess wi ll co s t Me th od i sm

m uch p opu la r i t y . B u t t h a t i s a cos t t h a t f i de li ty requ i re s .

N o t e s

1. As given in Harold Spencer, Edwin Finch, eds., The ConstitutionalPractice and Discipline of the Metho dist Chu rch, London 1951,266-7. Th e textremains unchanged in this paragraph until now (1988).

2. T h e Notes were never a doctrinal standard in USA Methodism andcognate churches, nor in the non-Wesleyan traditions in Britain, except thePrimitive Methodist Church, until the 1932 union. In the British-relatedWesleyan churches the Notes held their position until unions with othertraditions took place, or, in some cases, until independence. For example, inthe Statuts relatifs a la pratique et discipline constitutionelles de I'EgliseProtestante M& hodiste de Cote d'lvoire (1984), the Ivory Coast Methodistsconfess their faith in words derived from the World Council of Churchesconstitution, the historic creeds, th e Protestan t Reformation and th e doctrinalclauses of the British Deed of Union without reference to Wesley or hiswritings. They state their church "est prcte a se corriger et ^ se reformerconform eme nt^ rEn scignem ent des Ecritures et la revelation que continue aen donner le Saint Esprit." Subm ission to th e continuing interpretation of t he

Scriptures by the Spirit is very mu ch in line w ith th e though t of this paper.3. Nathanael Burwash, Wesley's Doctrinal Standards, Part I, The Sermons

(Toronto, William Briggs, 1881, p. xvgiii. Part II, The Notes, has not beenavailable to me. Burw ash se em s prophetic of th e tolerant wording of the D eedof Union. Indeed, his utterances in the Methodist Review for January 1912,quoted in Henry Maldwyn Hughes, Wesley's Standards in the Light of To-Day(London: Epworth Press, 1921) 15, via the declaration on the nature ofMethodist subscription (quoted in Hu ghes, 28-30), is the direct ancestor of th ewording of the Deed.

4. Franz Hildebrandt, Christianity according to the Wesleys, (London:Epworth press, 1956) 16

5. In addition to th e works cited in notes 3, 4, 16, and 20, 1 am aware onlyof: William I. Shaw , Digest o f the Doctrinal Standards of the Metho dist Church(Toronto: William Briggs, 1895); Jo hn S. Simon , Mr Wesley's Note s upon t heNew Testament , Proceeding s of the Wesley Historical Society, DC (1913/4)97-105; A. W. Harrison, The Greek Text of Wesley's Translation of the NewTestament, ibid. 105-113; Joh n S. Simon, John Wesley the Master Builder, andJohn Wesley, The Last Phase (London: Epworth Press, 1927, 1934; GeorgeEayrs, John Wesley, Christian Philosopher & Church Founder (London: Ep-

62




worth Press , 1926) 72 4 ; Joh n Law son, Selections from Joh n Wesley's 'Noteson the New Testam ent" systematically arranged, with explanatory comm ents(London: Epw orth Press, 1955); Frank Baker, John Wesley and the Church ofEngland (London: Epworth Press, 1970).

6. D. Joh(ann is) Albcrti Ben gel, Gnomen Novi T estamenti in quo ex nativa

verborum vi simplicitas, profunditas, concinnitas, salubritas sensuum coeles-Hum indicatur (1752): I have used the 1864 reprint (Stuttgart, J. F. Weinkopf)of the 3rd (1773) edition; John Heylyn, Theological L ectures at Westm insterAbbey, W ith an Interpretation of the Four Gospels. To which are added, SomeSelect DISCOU RSES upon the principal P oints of REV EAL 'D REL IGION(London: J. and R. Tonson and S. Draper, 1749); John Guyse, An Expositionof the New Testament in the Form of a Paraphrase (1739-1 752,3 vols); Phil ipDoddridge, The Family Expositor (1739-1756,6 vols); J. A. Bengel, Die erklarteOffenbarung, 1954.1 have exam ined Wesley's use of the first two works in som edetail; two or three years' full-time research would be need ed for a thoroughinvestigation of th e who le source-critical issue.

7. Generally know n until recently (from th e lie printed on th e title page) as

"The Authorised Version"; Hcylyns's preferred sobriquet, "the public translation," is apt.

8. In this rare allusion to th e Middle Ages (which he calls, in the Enlig htenment style, "the dark ages"), Wesley refers of course to Cardinal Hugo (1238).

9 . Th e Notes were begun on 4 January 1754 (Journal, ed. Curnock IV 91),finished 23 Septemb er 1755 (IV 137). As to th e process, we glimp se the Wesleybrothers working together in February/March 1754 (IV 92) reading Heylynand Doddridge and comparing the translation of the Gospels with th e original.December 12 1759 (IV 361) finds the brothers, this time with "others," at workon the Greek text again, "enlarging and correcting the Notes" Five editionsappeared in the author's lifetime; I have used the undated "stereotype" edition(c.1880), from the Wesleyan-Methodist Book-Room, London.

10 . On the process , scc E. B enson Perkins, Methodist Preaching Houses andthe L aw. The Story of the Model Deed, (Wesley Historical Society L ecture N o.18), (London: Epw orth Press, 1952). Th e Model Deed itself is in Works (1872edition) VIII. 330-1. The Birstall (Yorkshire) Deed of 1782 (Works VI. 445)specified only "Mr W esley's Notes upon the Old and New Testaments." Theomission in 1784 of the (1765-7) Explanatory Notes upon the Old Testamentmust be deliberate, as "the experience of Jew s is not th e standard of C hristianexperience," (Letters, ed. Telford, IV. 11, cited and discussed by M. Schmidt,John Wesley, A Theological Biography [2/Tw o, ET by Denis Inman, London:Epworth Press, 1973] 250). This shows both that Wesley's idea of canonicalinspiration was not m echanical an d also that h is notion of distinctively Christian experience was perhaps too removed from the usual run of human

awareness; this in turn raises questions about his Christology (cf. note 19below).

11 . As from W. J. Sparrow Sim pson, John Wesley and the Church of England(London: SPCK, 1934) 89: "An independent Standard of Doctrine is he re setup. But that is an attitude which no m ember of the English Church, least of allone of its clergy, can consistently adopt."

12.1 hinted in this direction in "The Office in t he Lutheran, Reformed, and

63




Free Churches," in C. Jones, G. Wainwright, E. Yarnold, eds., The Study ofLiturgy (London: SPCK, 1980) 396-402.

13 . The citation is from The Christian's Pattern; or, a Treatise of theImitation of Christ: written in L atin by Thom as a Kem pis. Abridged , andPublished in English, by John W esley, A.M., Londo n, T. Blanshard, 1816. T hepreface is also in Works VIII (199-210; th e editor helpfully identifies t he or iginof the passage that survived into the later and shorter version as being fromthe 1682 Cologne edition of the Imitation.

14 . The New Testament, with an Analysis of the Several Books and Chaptersby the Rev. John Wesley, 1790; A New Translation...of the New Testamen t, inwhich the subjects arc properly distributed into paragraphs, by..,John Wes-ley,..,1818; John Wesley's New Testament, 1938,195 3. (These are the holdingsof the British L ibrary, London.)

15. Henry Bctt , The Hymns of Methodism, 3rd edition (London: EpworthPress, 1945) ch. 6, pp. 71-94.

16. See David Jasper, "Criticism and the New Testament", P.N. Review

(London) 15/2 (1988): 37-41; a secular literary scholar rebuking theologiansfor their detachment from their texts, and quoting John Donne: [read theScriptures] "as thou wouldst search a Wardrobe, not to make an inventory ofit , but to find in it something for thy wearing."

17. Cf. note on 2 Tim 3:16. A vital point is the admission (on Rom 9:3),"human words cannot fully describe the motion of souls that are full of God":here too mystery, as with the Trinity, is approached and engaged, rather tha ncomprehended, in an ascent of love. But this is not to say that inspiration isdevoid of objective conten t: the Trinity is, however little we may understand,and however little right we m ay have to insist pn othe rs sharing our descriptions of the Triunity.

18. cf. Y. Brilioth, The Anglican Revival (New York, 1952). A more vigorous

Christology wou ld also imply a bolder doctrine of ccclesial compreh ension: w eare called, no t only to "tolerate" other views an d ways than our own in the sen seof grudging non-prohibition, but actively to carry the errors and sins of othersas our own. See also John Deschcr, Wesley's Christology: An Interpretation(Dallas, Southern Methodist University Press, 1960, 1985).

19 . See Edward H, Sugdcn, ed,, Wesley's Standard Sermons (London:Epworth Press, 1921) I. 33. As the editor notes, there is an element of irony,but that does not deprive the words of their force.

64



QR 1 0 / 2 ( 1 9 9 0 ) 6 5 - 8 1

Theolog ica l Educat ionan d Educ at ionfor Church Leadership

C h a r l e s M . W o o d

The convic t ion mot iva t ing th i s essay i s tha t a source of

chronic d i f f icu l ty in the curren t wide-ranging d iscuss ion of the

organ iza t ion and a im s of theo logica l s tud y (especia l ly w he n th e

d iscuss ion tou ch es on th e sub jec t o f p rac t ica l theo log y) is a

fa i lu re adequ a te ly t o d i sc r imina t e am ong seve ra l of t h e e l e

men t s i nvo lved . When two o r more t h ings a re no t p rope r ly

d i s t i ngu i shed , t hey canno t be p rope r ly re l a t ed . Wha t u sua l ly

ha pp en s i n s t ead i s t h a t on e som ehow abso rbs t h e o the r s , soth a t t he i r own rea l i t y can on ly em erg e from t im e to t im e a s an

anom aly o r a d i s rup t ion . Th i s pa t t e rn o f abso rp t ion an d d i s ru p

t i o n h a s b e e n p l a y e d o u t r e p e a t e d l y b o t h i n t h e o r e t i c a l

propos a ls for the refo rm of theo logica l s tu dy and in curr ic u lar

p rac t i ce .

My a im he re i s no t t o j u s t ify t h i s un de r ly ing conv ic ti on

th r ou gh a c r i ti ca l rev i ew o f t h e l i t e ra tu re , bu t ra th e r t o u nd e r

t ake a more cons t ruc t ive exp lo ra t i on o f some key d i s t i nc t ions

wh ich , i t s ee m s to m e , a re e s se n t i a l bo th t o co he r en t d i scuss ion

o f t h e i s sues and to a co he ren t v is ion of t h e s t ru c tu res an d a im so f t heo log ica l s t udy . To m ak e the se d i s t i nc t ions I have h ad to

Charles M. Wood is the author of Visions and Discernment: An O rientation inTheological Study published by Scholars Press. H e is professor of theology andassociate dean for academic affairs at Perkins School of Theology at SouthernMethodist University in Dallas, Texas.

65



THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION

ske tch o u t a t th e re lev an t po in ts a few e le m en ts o f a theo logica l ,

o r a t l eas t quas i - theo logica l , account o f min is t ry . I hope tha t

the se po in t s a re ph r ase d w i th eno ug h gene ra l i t y a s t o be acces

s ib le an d usefu l to people w hos e fu ll theo logy of m in is t ry m igh t

be qu i te d i f feren t f rom my own.

W ri t i ng o f t h e l a t e med ieva l ph i lo so pher s w i th t he i r conce rn

for carefu l conc eptua l d i s t in c t ion s an d th e i r pa t ien ce for de ta i l ,

Dav id Bur re l l has remarked : "The ques t fo r cohe rence l ed t o

d i sc r imina t ion . "1

A ltho ug h w ha t i s o ffered h er e is no t exact ly

an exerc ise in "ph i losophica l g rammar" on the medieval model ,

i t doe s ha ve th e sa m e ob jec t ive : t o he lp u s avo id fa l se

gene ra l i za t i ons , and to see and make app rop r i a t e connec t ions .

I.

Let u s beg in wi th t he d i s t i nc t ion be tween ministry a n d

church leadership—a dis t inc t io n comm only aff i rmed in pr in

c ip l e and igno red in p rac t i ce -and , a s a so r t o f co ro l l a ry , t he

d i s t i nc t ion be tween educa t ion fo r min i s t ry and educa t ion fo r

c h u r c h l e a d e r s h i p .

Ch urc h l ead e rsh ip i s one so r t of min i s t ry , bu t i t i s no t t h e

who le ; educa t ion for chu rch l eade rsh ip i s one so r t of educa t ion

for min is t ry , bu t i t i s no t the whole . Minis t ry ( tha t i s , se rv ice)

i s the g i f t and responsib i l i ty o f a l l Chri s t ians . Indeed , i t i s theg i f t and responsib i l i ty o f a l l human beings to render serv ice to

one ano the r , t o o the r c rea tu res , and thus t o God . A p rope r ly

theo log ica l accou n t o f m in i s t ry wou ld , I t h in k , beg in wi th t h e

m i n i s t r y o f G o d - t h a t is , w i t h t h e se rv ic e G o d r e n d e r s - a n d

w o u l d p la c e t h e m i n i s t r y o f c r e a t u r e s ( i n c l u d in g , b u t n o t

l imi t ed to , t ha t o f human be ings and o f Chr i s t i ans ) i n to t ha t

con tex t , a s a pa r t i c ipa t ion in God ' s min i s t ry . Fo r t he p re sen t

pu rpo se , we mu s t de fe r t h e deve lop m en t o f t h i s fu l le r accoun t ,

and concen t ra t e on a few po in t s rega rd ing the min i s t ry o f

C h r i s t i a n s .C h r i s t i a n s a r e , w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n, h u m a n b e i n g s . A s s u c h ,

they a re t o pa r t i c ipa t e i n t he se rv i ce wh ich human c rea tu res

a re ca l l ed and enab led to rende r t o fe l l ow-c rea tu res (human

and o the rwi se ) and to God . We migh t ca l l t h i s t he i r human

voca t ion . Chr i s t i ans no rma l ly t e s t i fy t ha t t he i r capac i ty t o

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QUARTERLY REV IEW, SUMM ER 1990

unders tand and fu l f i l l th i s serv ice has been dec is ive ly affec ted

by the i r own encoun te r wi th t he Chr i s t i an t rad i t i on , and wi th

G o d t h r o u g h t h a t t r a d i t i o n ( w h e t h e r p r i m a r i l y b y t h e p r e a c h e d

word , t h e sac ra m en t s , t he ca r ing of a com m uni ty , o r som e o the r

pa r t i cu l a r means ) . In one way o r ano the r , t hey have been l ed

to grasp for themselves the s to ry of the un iversa l loss o r cor

rup t ion o f t h e hu m an voca t ion , o f i t s fu l fi l lmen t i n J e s us

Chr i s t , and o f t h e p rom ise of i t s re s to ra t i o n in t hem se lv es a nd

i n o t h e r s - a p r o m i s e w h o s e r e a l i z a t i o n t h e y m a y e x p e r i e n c e ,

how ever par t ia l ly or f it fu l ly , in the i r own pr es en t ex is tenc e , and

fo r whose comple t ion they hope . Th rough the i r pa r t i c ipa t ion

in Chr i s t i an i ty , t hey a re be ing re s to red to t he human voca t ion

o f min i s t ry . Ch r i s t i an s nee d no t deny ( though som e do ) t h a t

non -Ch r i s t i ans m ay a lso be g iven th e g race to recove r t he

human voca t ion , i n o rde r t o a f f i rm tha t i t i s t h rough the

Ch r i s t i an fa it h t h a t t he y them se lv es have bee n g iven i t , and to

wi sh to sh a re t h a t poss ib il i ty w i th o the r s .

Th i s b r ings u s t o t he d i s t i nc t ive a spec t o f t he min i s t ry o f

C h r i s t i a n s , n a m e l y , t h e i r m i n i s t r y as Chr i s t i ans : t he se rv i ce

they a re ca l l ed and enab led to rende r , no t s imp ly a s human

be ings , bu t i n t he i r capac i ty a s Chr i s t i ans . We migh t ca l l t h i s

t h e Christian voca t ion , t o d i s t i ngu i sh i t f rom th e la rge r hu m an

voca t ion wh ich Chr i s t i ans sha re wi th a l l o the rs . Th i s d i s t i nc

t ive ly Ch r i s t i an m in i s t r y i s e s sen t i a l l y a min i s t ry o f w i tness o rt e s t i m o n y (marturia). I t i s t he min i s t ry o f enab l ing o the rs t o

r e c e iv e , u n d e r s t a n d , a n d a p p r o p r i a t e t h e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n a s

a me an s of g race for the i r own lives , an d to jo in in tu rn in i t s

wi tne ss ing work . L ike m in i s t ry i n gene ra l , t h i s i s a lways t o b e

unders tood a s a pa r t i c ipa t ion in t he min i s t ry o f God . The

hu m an enab l ing o f o th e rs i s i t s e lf enab led by God .

Th i s Chr i s t i an min i s t ry has many pa r t s . I t i s i n some ways

corporate, and in some ways individual ; i t is at t imes "official ,"

tha t i s , exp l ic i t ly commiss ioned and sanct ioned by the com

mun i ty , and a t t imes uno f f i c i a l . The re a re spec i a l min i s t r i e sun de r t a ke n by som e on beha l f o f a ll , and th e r e i s t h e gene ra l

m in i s t ry i n wh ich a l l sh a r e s imp ly by pa r t i c ipa t ing in t h e

common l i fe o f t he Chr i s t i an communi ty . Ch r i s t i an min i s t ry i s

bo th expl ic i t and impl ic i t , d i rec t and ind i rec t . For most Chris

t i ans , i t i s a m in i s t r y ca r r i ed on a long w i t h - a n d , t o a g rea t

67




e x t e n t , t h r o u g h - t h e o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h o c c u p y u s m o s t o f

the t ime (making a l iv ing , car ing for a fami ly , f r iendsh ips ,

po l it ica l ac t i on , and so fo r th ) , wh ich a re a t t h e sam e t ime th e

v e h i c le s t h r o u g h w h i c h w e e x e r c is e o u r h u m a n v o c at io n m o r e

or less e ffec t ive ly . For some, the Chris t ian vocat ion i s more

nea r ly and d i rec t ly a fu l l - t ime occupa t ion , whe the r chu rch -

c o m m i s s i o n e d a n d c h u r c h - s u p p o r t e d o r o t h e r w i s e .

T he mi n i s t r y o f chu rch l e ade rsh ip ha s a s imi l a r va r i e ty t o it .

It can be pa rt - or ful l-tim e, official o r unofficial, "lay" or "p rofes

s ional ," ind iv idua l o r corp ora te . (Actua l ly , each of th es e d is t inc

t i o n s i s p r o b l e m a t i c , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s a

d i s junc tion . Th ey m us t be hand led wi th ca re . ) I t s comm on t a sk

in a l l i t s fo rms i s " to equip the sa in ts fo r the work of min is t ry ,

for bu i ld ing up t h e body of Chr is t " (Ep hes . 4 :12) : to enable th echu rch to be t he chu rch , t o gu ide Chr i s t i ans , i nd iv idua l ly and

corpora te ly , in the exerc ise of the i r vocat ion . At i t s most bas ic

and comprehens ive , t h i s l eade rsh ip i s sha red by eve ry Chr i s

t i an i n t he se rv i ce one rende rs t o ano the r , g rounded in t he

grace w hich i s g iven to each "accord ing to th e m ea su re of

Chris t ' s g i f t " (Ephes . 4 :7) . In a more par t icu lar and l imi ted

sense , chu r ch l e ade rsh ip i s en t ru s t e d ( i n p r inc ip l e , a t lea s t ) t o

thos e wh ose g if ts and opp or tu n i t i e s a re mo s t app r op r i a t e for

the spec i f i c t a sks i nvo lved : t each ing , nu r tu re , admin i s t ra t i on ,

com m uni ty -bu i ld ing , j ud gm en t , gu idance , and so fo r th . W hi l erecogn iz ing the com mo n " l eade rsh ip o f a l l be l i eve rs" and th e

g rea t va r i e ty o f more pa r t i cu l a r fo rms o f l eade rsh ip , I wi l l

concen t ra t e f rom th i s po in t onward on those k inds o f l eade r

sh ip w hic h are ecc les ia l ly -comm iss ioned , typ ica l ly fu l l - t ime,

and normal ly exerc ised in re la t ion to a congregat ion or loca l

C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y .

Ed uc at io n for suc h lead ers h ip i s a fo rm of edu cat ion for

m in i s t ry , and i s be s t und e rs to od wi th in t h a t con tex t even

tho ug h i t ha s som e d i s t i nc t ive fea tu res . Educ a t ion fo r min i s t ry ,

i n t u rn , i s one a spec t o f t he b roade r en t e rp r i se o f Chr i s t i aneduca t ion , unde rs tood a s t ha t who le complex o f educa t iona l

ac t iv it i e s by m ea ns o f wh ich pe r son s a re rece ived in to t h e

C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y a n d a r e p r e p a r e d - n o t j u s t i n i t i a l l y , b u t

c o n t i n u a l l y - f o r r e s p o n s i b l e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h a t c o m m u n i t y .

6 8



j

No t only t h e m or e focused and de l ibe ra t e occas ions o f t eac h in g

a n d l e a r n i n g i n t h e c h u r c h - c h u r c h - s c h o o l c l as s es , s t u d y

g r o u p s , e t c . - b u t a ls o t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a s p e c t o f t h e c o m

m un i ty ' s r i t ua l and sa c ram en ta l l if e , o f i t s ca re for i t s m em be rs

in cr i ses , and of a l l o f i t s o th er ac t iv i t ies , be lo ngs to Ch ris t iane d u c a t i o n t h u s c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y u n d e r s t o o d .

W i t h i n t h a t e n t e r p r i s e , t h r e e d i s t i n c t ( t h o u g h c e r t a i n l y

c lo se ly re l a t ed ) componen t s may be i den t i f i ed . The re i s , first,

t h a t e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y t h r o u g h w h i c h w e a t t a i n o u r

know ledge of t h e Ch r i s t i an t ra d i t i on and o f ou r own pa r t i c u l a r

ecc l e s i a l t r ad i t i on the doc t r ines , even t s , i n s t i t u t i ons , pe rsons ,

and so fo r th wh ich ma ke t h e t rad i t i on wh a t i t i s . F r om t h i s we

ga the r ou r own sens e o f w ha t t h e C hr i s t i an fa i t h i s a ll abou t .

W e could ca ll th i s "educ at ion in C hris t ian fa i th ." Second, t h e r ei s w ha t mi gh t be ca l led "educat ion in C hris t ian l ife ," Th is is t h e

l i fe long p rocess o f coming to unde rs t and ou rse lves and ou r

wor ld i n ways app rop r i a t e t o t he Chr i s t i an message , wi th i t s

key l i fe -shaping concepts ; o f learn ing to t rus t in God and to be

loya l t o God , t o acqu i re t h e a t t i t ud es , d i spos i ti ons , pe rcep t ion s ,

and so fo r th wh ich a re app ro p r i a t e t o such t ru s t and loya l ty ,

and thu s t o t ak e on a ce r t a in k ind o f hu m an an d Ch r i s t i an

iden t i t y . The third com pon en t we can des ign a t e "educa t ion fo r

min is t ry ," so long as we recogn ize th a t each of th e o the r two i s

in i t s own way a l so educ at ion for m in is t r y . T he spec if ic cont r i bu t ion o f t h i s t h i r d a spec t i s t o equ ip u s wi th t h e pa r t i cu l a r

com pe tenc i e s we nee d in o rde r to pl ay ou r pa r t i n t h e Ch r i s t i an

com m uni ty ' s ongo ing li fe o f w i tness and se rv ice .

T h e s e t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s a r e c lo se ly i n t e r d e p e n d e n t , a n d t h e

o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e y h a v e j u s t b e e n m e n t i o n e d s h o u l d n o t b e

t ak en to imp ly som e inh e r en t log ica l o r pedagog ica l o rde r in g o f

t h e m : U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h r e q u i r e s t r a i n i n g i n

Ch ris t ia n l ife , an d v ice versa ; an d ne i th er i s poss ib le ap ar t f rom

some in i t i a t i on in to t he p rac t i ce o f Chr i s t i an wi tness , bo th

co rpo ra t e and ind iv idua l . 2 No r i s t h e t h i rd a poss ib i li t y wi th ou tt h e o t h e r t w o . R e c e i v i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n w i t n e s s a n d b e i n g

fo rmed by i t ; unde rs t and ing tha t wi tness and one ' s own p l ace

in it , so as to affirm it for oneself; and coming to bea r wi tness ,

t o sha re t he communi ty ' s d i s t i nc t ive min i s t ry , a re a l l t h ree

ongo ing , i n t e rw oven e l em en t s of Ch r i s t i an ex i s t ence .

69

QUARTERLY REVIEW, SUM MER 1990 j




A l t h o u g h t h e t h r e e a r e in s e p a r a b l e , i t i s w i t h i n t h e t h i r d ,

educat ion for min is t ry , tha t we may more spec i f ica l ly loca te

educa t ion fo r chu rch l ead e rsh ip . As we sha l l s ee , educa t ion fo r

chu rch l eade rsh ip requ i re s a pa r t i cu l a r i n t ens i f i ca t i on o f a l l

t h re e a spe c t s o f Ch r i s t i an educ a t ion . Th i s i s becau se chu rchleade rsh ip i t se l f demands ce r t a in so r t s o f sp i r i t ua l ma tu r i t y

and ce r t a in ways o f unde rs t and ing the Chr i s t i an fa i t h , a s we l l

a s ce r t a in capac i t ie s fo r t he exe rc i se o f l ead e rsh ip , wh ich a re

no t requ i red o f a l l Ch r i s t i ans . Bu t s ince a l l o f t hese spec i a l

r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e o r d e r e d t o p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e m i n i s t r y o f

l eade rsh ip , i t i s i n re l a t i on to t ha t a im tha t t hey a re bes t

u n d e r s t o o d .

Of cou rse , chu r ch l e ade rsh ip i s one o f m an y so r t s o f m in i s t ry

for wh ich som e pa r t i c u l a r edu ca t iona l p re pa r a t ion i s requ i red .

A c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t m i n i s t r y a n d c h u r c h l e a d e r s h i p a r e n o t

syno nym ous t e rm s , and th en re fe r r ing exc lus ive ly t o educa t ion

fo r chu rch l eade rsh ip a s educa t ion fo r min i s t ry o r min i s t e r i a l

educa t ion , is one way o f neg a t ing in p rac t i ce wh a t on e a f f irms

in p r inc ip l e . An yone wh o un de r t a ke s a cou rse o f s tud y so a s t o

be be t t e r equ ipp ed to se rve God and fe l l ow-c rea tu re i s engaged

in educa t ion fo r min i s t ry -and a re l a t i ve ly sma l l p ropo r t i on o f

tha t educat ion goes on in schools o f theo logy .

H .

Ed uca t ion fo r ch u r ch l eade rsh ip i s f requ en t ly re fe r red to a s

" th e ol og ic a l e d u c a t i o n " - a n e q u a t i o n w h i c h c a r r i e s d a n g e r s a s

we l l a s va lues . Whi l e t he two en t e rp r i se s a re a s soc i a t ed , t hey

shou ld no t be mere ly equa ted . The d i s t i nc t ion and re l a t i on

be tw een theo log ica l edu ca t ion and educa t ion fo r ch u rc h l ead e r

sh ip dese rves some ca refu l exp lo ra t i on .

Theo log ica l educa t ion , i n t he mos t s t r i c t and p rope r sense ,

i s t he p rocess t h rough wh ich pe rsons acqu i re an ap t i t ude fo r

theo logy . A n ap t i t u de for C hr i s t i a n t heo logy i s a capaci ty an ddisposi t ion to engage in c r i t i ca l re f lec t ion upon the Chris t ian

w i t n e s s ( w h i c h m e a n s , u p o n w h a t i s c o n v e y e d b y e v e r y t h i n g

tha t Chr i s t i ans a re , say , and do a s Chr i s t i ans , s i ng ly and

toge the r ) , a im ed a t t e s t i n g the adequa cy of t h a t wi tness i n

t e rms o f i t s own c l a ims to va l id i t y .3

T h e t h r e e i n g r e d i e n t s o f

70




th e c la im to va l id i ty w hich an y ac t o f Ch ris t ia n wi tne ss a t l ea s t

imp l i c it l y m ake s , a s I un de rs t an d i t , a re 1) t h e c l a im to be

au th en t i ca l l y Chr i s t i an , i. e. , t o re p r es en t fa it h fu l ly t h e gospe l

o f Je su s Chr i s t ; 2 ) t h e c l a im to be mean ing fu l and t r ue ; and 3 )

th e c la im to be fitting, o r app rop r i a t e t o t h e co n te x t4

Theo log i

ca l re f lec t ion can ta ke t h e form of a c r i t i ca l exa m inat io n of some

ac tua l samp le o f Chr i s t i an wi tness someth ing sa id o r done by

Ch r i s t i ans i n t h e i r capac i ty a s Chr i s t i an s t o see t o w ha t ex t en t

th i s ac t of w i tness l ives up to i t s own in t e n t io ns t o be a u th en t i c ,

t r u e , and f i t t ing to the s i tua t ion . Or i t can take the more

con st ruc t ive ( tho ug h no less c r i t ica l ) fo rm of ask ing w ha t va l id

wi tness wou ld amoun t t o unde r a g iven se t o f c i rcums tances .

Some ap t i t ude fo r Chr i s t i an t heo logy i s requ i s i t e t o Chr i s

tian life itself. T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t e v e r y C h r i s t i a n m u s tbe a theo logica l scholar , nor even tha t she or he must be

cogniza n t of w ha t theo logica l scho lars a r e up to . I t on ly m ea ns

tha t eve ry Chr i s t i an , unde r no rma l c i rcums tances , i nev i t ab ly

i s ca ll ed t o m ake jud gm en t s a s t o w ha t con s t i t u t e s va lid Chr i s

t i an wi tness , accep t ing o r re j ec t ing ce r t a in a l t e rna t ives . Such

judgmen t s a re i nvo lved f rom fa i r l y ea r ly on in each pe rson ' s

Ch r i s t i an ed uca t ion , a s we l l a s i n t h e o rd in a ry cou rs e o f Chr i s

t i an ex i s t ence . I t i s for t h i s reason th a t o ne e l em en t o f Ch r i s t i an

educa t ion , t ouch ing on a l l t h ree p r inc ipa l componen t s o f t ha t

en t e rp r i s e , is t heo log ica l educa t ion . In t h e cou rse o f mak ingthos e j ud gm en t s a s t o t h e na tu re o f Ch r i s t i an fa i t h , l if e , and

prac t ice whic h ar e involved in com ing to be a Ch ris t ian , peop le

l e a r n , f r o m t h o s e w h o t e a c h t h e m i n t h e s e m a t t e r s , h o w t o

m a k e j u d g m e n t s . D e p e n d i n g o n h o w t h e y a r e t a u g h t , t h e y

lea rn to jud ge wel l o r poorly , re lu c ta n t ly or wi l ling ly , ha p

h a z a r d l y o r w i t h d e l i b e r a t i o n . T h e y a c q u i r e s o m e s o r t of

theo log ica l ap t i t ude , wh ich p l ays an impor t an t ro l e i n de t e r

m in ing the so r t o f Ch r i s t i an i den t i t y t h ey t ak e on , t h e way th ey

un de rs t a nd t h e fa i t h , and th e qua l i ty of t h e w i tness t hey bea r .

A Ch r i s t i an com m uni ty ha s no cho ice a s t o w he th e r t heo log ica leducat ion , fo r a l l i t s members , wi l l be an e lement o f i t s educa

t ional work ; i t on ly has a choice as to the k ind of theo logica l

edu cat ion i t wi l l be .

The ro le of theo logica l educat ion in educat ion for church

leadersh ip i s especia l ly c ruc ia l , s ince i t has a la rge par t in

7 1




de te rm in in g the qua l i t y o f j u dg m en t of t ho se re spons ib l e for

t h e n u r t u r e a n d g u i d a n c e o f t h e r e s t of t h e c o m m u n i t y . T h e

g re a t e r t h e scope o f l eade r sh ip , t h e mo re se r ious t h i s becomes .

I t i s a l t o g e t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e n , t h a t t h o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s

re spons ib l e fo r t he mos t r i go rous and in t ens ive p repa ra t ion o f

ch ur ch lea der s be kno w n as theo logica l schools . I t is fa r m or e

i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s a c t u a l l y be

theo logica l schools , and tha t the educat ion they provide asp i r

i ng chu rch l eade rs be , f rom s t a r t t o f i n ish , gen u ine t heo log ica l

educa t ion .

m.

The theo logica l educat ion of church leaders , l ike tha t o f

o the r Chr i s t i ans , mus t g ive a t t en t ion to a l l t h ree o f t hose

componen t s o f Chr i s t i an educa t ion wh ich were ou t l i ned ea r

l ie r : educat ion in Chris t ian fa i th , educat ion in Chris t ian l i fe ,

and educa t ion fo r Chr i s t i an min i s t ry .

I sa id ea r l i e r t ha t educa t ion for chu rch l ea de rsh ip re qu i r e s

a pa r t i cu l a r i n t ens if i ca t i on and deve lo pm en t of t he se t h r ee

c o m p o n e n t s . T h e w a y i n w h i c h t h i s i s s o m u s t n o t b e

misunders tood . So far as educat ion in Chris t ian l i fe i s con

c e r n e d , w e s h o u ld n o t t h i n k t h a t c h u r c h l e a d e r s h i p d e m a n d s a

h ig he r Chr i s t i a n p ro f ic i ency th an o th e r fo rms o f m in i s t ry . I t i sa mi s t ake to a s sume tha t anyone who shows s igns o f se r ious

ness and p romise i n t he Chr i s t i an l i fe shou ld au tomat i ca l ly be

s t ee red toward p rep a ra t io n fo r chu rch l eade rs h ip , for t h e r e a re

o the r k inds o f min i s t ry a t l ea s t a s demand ing o f sp i r i t ua l

ma tu r i t y and a l l t ha t i t i nvo lves . The re a re , however , ce r t a in

aspec t s o f sp i r i t ua l m a tu r i t y , c e r t a in d i spos i t ions and t r a i t s o f

cha ra c t e r , wh ich a re pa r t i cu l a r ly ( t ho ugh n o t exc lu s ive ly ) pe r

t i ne n t to ce r t a in fo rms of chu rch l eade rsh ip .

Fo r exam ple , pas to rs and th ose i n s imi l a r pos i t ions o f l eade r

sh ip ne ed to know th em se lv es we l l. Le ade rsh ip i n gene ra l is fu llo f t em p ta t ions . F u r th e r , t h e p ro fess iona l ro le s occupied by

such chu rch l eade rs i n ou r soc i e ty g ive amp le oppo r tun i ty fo r

var io us k in ds of ab use . Se l f -decept ion , a s wel l as the dece pt ion

of o thers , i s an easy and a t t rac t ive fea ture of re l ig ious leader

sh ip . Misuse o f t ime and re sou rces , man ipu la t i on o f o the rs by

72




m ea ns of one ' s p ro fess iona l knowled ge and power , and o th er

forms of ma lfeasan ce a re no t only possib le , b ut are of ten sub t ly

e n c o u r a g e d b y t h e so ci al a r r a n g e m e n t s i n w h i c h c h u r c h l e a d e r s

f ind them se lv es and t h e psycho log ica l dynam ics of th e s i tua

t ion . Per sons p repar ing fo r such work mus t know the i r ownh e a r t s i n t h i s r e g a r d ; t h e y m u s t b e w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e i r

o w n s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s se s w h e n f ac ed b y su c h c h a l l e n g e s ,

a n d w i t h t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s w h i c h b o t h t h e s t r e n g t h s a n d t h e

we akn esse s a fford fo r ge nu ine and e f fec tive se rv ice .5

Church l eader s a re a l so typ ica l ly ca l l ed upon to know the

he ar t s o f o th er s . I f t h ey a re to p rov ide l eade r sh ip to congrega

t ions and ind iv idua l s under a l l so r t s o f cond i t ions , they mus t

u n d e r s t a n d h u m a n b e h a v i o r i n h e a l t h a n d a d v e r s i t y . T h i s r e

qu i r es some degree o f psycho log ica l , an th ropo log ica l , and

sociological un de rs ta nd in g, a s wel l as a theologica l grasp of th e

h u m a n c o n d i t i o n b e f o r e G o d . I t a l so r e q u i r e s i n s i g h t a n d

p e n e t r a t i o n , r e c e p t i v i t y a n d g e n e r o s i t y , a n d a m u l t i t u d e o f

o th er per sona l qua l i t i e s wh ich r es t f ina lly up on on e ' s self-

know ledge and on th e ch arac te r o f one ' s sp i r i tua l li fe . In th es e

and o ther ways , the r espons ib i l i t i e s o f church l eader sh ip ca l l

for som e specia l a t t en t io n to the qua l i ty o f th e Ch r i s t i an ex i s t

ence o f tho se be ing p rep are d fo r i t.

S imi la r po in t s can be made concern ing the par t i cu la r needs

of chu rch l ead er s in th e o th er two com pon en t a r e as o f Ch r i s t i aneducat ion. So far as thei r educat ion in the Chr is t ian fa i th i s

c o n c e r n e d , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t c h u r c h l e a d e r s a r e r e sp o n s i b l e

fo r gu id ing the church in i t s p rese rva t ion and ex tens ion o f the

Chr i s t i an t r ad i t ion , the i r educa t ion mus t invo lve the i r acqu i r

ing no t on ly a m or e ex tens iv e f ac tua l know ledge o f th a t t r ad i

t ion than tha t o rd inar i ly expec ted o f o ther Chr i s t i ans , bu t a l so

an und er s t an d in g o f how th e t r ad i t io n wo rks , and a su re ab i l i ty

t o d i s ti n g u is h a u t h e n t i c t r a d i t i o n - t h a t w h i c h m e d i a t e s t h e

g e n u i n e g o sp e l - f r o m i t s c o u n t e r f e i ts . I t i s n o t n e c e s sa r y t h a t

the y have th e e rud i t ion o f p ro fess iona l h i s to r i ans o f Ch r i s t i an i ty , bu t i t i s nece ssa ry t ha t the y have an ab i l ity to wo rk w i th

th e t r ad i t ion as i t be ar s upon th e i r r espons ib i l i t i e s of l ead er sh ip

(fo r exam ple , t ea ch i ng the f a i th to o th er s , answ er ing que s t ions

abou t wha t Chr i s t i an be l i e f invo lves , shar ing in the t ask o f

f o r m u l a t i n g a n d e x p l i c a t i n g t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s d o c t r i n e s , o r

7 3




equ ipp ing peop le t o d i sce rn wha t i s go ing on when they a re

con f ron ted wi th com pe t ing c l a ims abo u t t h e fa i t h ) .

W i th rega r d to educ a t ion in t he t a sk o f l eade rsh ip , i t i s c l ea r

tha t pas to ra l l eade rsh ip ( fo r example ) requ i re s a number o f

iden t i f i ab l e ab i l i t i e s i n such a reas a s admin i s t ra t i on , counse l i ng , p reach ing , g roup l eade rsh ip , and t each ing . Bas i c com

pe tence in t he func t ions pe r t a in ing to one ' s own ro l e and i t s

expec t a t i ons i s e s sen t i a l : one mus t know how to conduc t a

m ee t in g , de l ive r a se rm on , p l an a se rv i ce of w orsh ip , and so

fo r th , and pa r t o f one ' s educa t ion fo r l eade rsh ip i s acqu i r ing

and con t inu ing to s t reng then those spec i f i c capab i l i t i e s . Bu t

th e r e is an a spec t o f t h e com pe ten ce o f l ead e rsh ip w hose

p res enc e o r abse nce in a pe rson , t ho ug h no t so v i s ib l e a s t h e

qual i ty of her o r h i s sk i l l in a par t icu lar a rea of funct ion ing , i s

u l t ima te ly fa r more impor t an t . Th i s i s t he capac i ty fo r c r i t i ca l

re f l ec t i on on wha t one i s do ing a s a l eade r , t h rough each and

a ll o f t h e ac t iv i t ie s and ro l e s t h a t one ' s l eade rsh ip i nvo lves : t h e

capac ity t o t ra ns cen d th e obv ious de m an ds an d expec t a t i ons o f

one 's o ff ice , and to th ink about the d i rec t ion and effec t o f what

one is do ing in re l a t i on to t he m i ss ion o f t h e chu rch in t h e

s i tua t ion . A n ap t i t ud e for th a t sor t o f re f lec t ion wi l l no t com

pe ns a te for th e lack of bas ic sk i ll s in th e prac t ic e of one 's

min is t ry . I t i s no t , by itself, suff ic ien t qual i f ica t ion for church

leade rsh ip . Bu t no amoun t o f t echn ica l v i r t uos i ty a s p reache r ,

counse lo r , e t c , wi l l make up fo r t he absence o r immatu r i t y o f

t h a t j u d g m e n t o n w h i c h g e n u i n e l e a d e r s h i p , a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d

f rom th e co m pe ten t fu l f il lmen t o f ce r t a in ro l e expec t a t i ons ,

d e p e n d s .

Th i s b r i e f accoun t o f t h e ways i n w h ich ed uca t ion for chu rch

l e a d e r s h i p m u s t a d d r e s s e a c h of t h e t h r e e c o m p o n e n t a r e a s o f

Chr i s t i an educa t ion may beg in t o make c l ea re r why i t mus t

invo lve theo log ica l educa t ion a t eve ry po in t . Essen t i a l l y , w ha t

th i s accoun t i nd i ca t e s i s t ha t chu rch l eade rsh ip requ i re s a

w e l l - d e v e l o p e d a p t i t u d e f o r t h e o l o g i c a l s e l f - c r i t i c i s m ; f o rt h e o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i th ; a n d f or

theo log ica l c r i t i c i sm o f one ' s pe r fo rmance in l eade rsh ip . The

theo log ica l educ a t ion o f chu rch l ead e rs , t he n , m us t add ress a l l

t h ree o f t hese . I t can on ly do so adequa te ly i f a l l t h ree a re

exp l ic i tl y b r ou gh t un de r sc ru t iny in som e way in t he co u rse o f

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one ' s t heo log ica l s t ud y .

I t m us t be ke p t i n m ind t ha t t he a im of theological e d u c a t i o n

as suc h i s no t to form C hr is t ia ns , b u t to form th e hab i t of c r i t i ca l

re f l ec ti on on one ' s fo rm a t ion . I t i s no t t o m ed ia t e t h e co n ten t

o f t h e C hr i s t i an t ra d i t i on , bu t t o equ ip on e fo r t heo log ica l

re f l ec t i on on th e Chr i s t i an t rad i t i on . I t i s no t t o t ra in i n l eade r

sh ip sk i ll s , bu t to cu l t iv a te an ap t i tu de for re f lec t ion on t h e

qua l i t y o f one ' s own and o t he rs ' l eade rsh ip a s an i n s t ru m en t o f

the chu rch ' s wi tness . The se rv i ce o f t heo logy to wi tness , and

hence o f t heo log ica l educa t ion to Chr i s t i an educa t ion , i s bes t

conceived as an ind i rec t one: i t i s the serv ice performed by

re f l ec t ion upon a p rac t i ce , r a the r t han by the p rac t i ce itself.

Th i s i s a gen u ine an d even an ind i spensab le se rv i ce . B u t w hen

eve r t he d i s t i nc t ion be tween theo logy and wi tness o r be tween

theo log ica l educa t ion and Chr i s t i an educa t ion i s fo rgo t t en o r

d e n i e d - a s it f r e q u e n tl y s e e m s t o b e - t h a t u n i q u e s er v ic e i s

l o s t .6

D is t inc t a s t he se edu ca t iona l p rocesses a re , i n t h e educa t ion

of ch u rc h l eade rs t he y canno t be sepa ra t ed . Lea rn in g to re f l ec t

t heo log ica l ly on one ' s fo rma t ion no t on ly p resupposes t ha t

form at ion i s go ing on , bu t i s a pa r t o f on e 's fo rma t ion . Le arn ing

to re f l ec t theo log ica l ly on l eade rsh ip m us t be i ng re d ien t i n t h e

proc ess of acq ui r ing th e spec i fic ab i l i t i es fo r lead ers h ip , o r i t i s

no t l i ke ly t o become second na tu re t o t he l eade r , a s i t shou ld .A n d t h e p r o c e s s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a p p r o p r i a t i n g t h e C h r i s

t i an t rad i t i on a l ready invo lves t he mak ing o f t heo log ica l j udg

m en t s , and th e ga in ing of som e so r t o f com pe ten ce in t h a t

en t e rp r i se . Theo log ica l educa t ion o f t h e so r t t h a t t heo log ica l

schools conduct i s no t a separa te s tage of educat ion to be

en te red upon on ly a f t e r one has a l ready acqu i red the o the r

r e q u i s i t e s f o r c h u r c h l e a d e r s h i p . O n e m i g h t t h i n k o f t h e

theo log ica l schoo l a s t he med ium o r t he con tex t wi th in wh ich

o n e ' s d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e s e t h r e e a r e a s i s g i ve n so m e i m p o r t a n t

n o u r i s h m e n t a n d b r o u g h t t o a n ew l ev e l o f m a t u r i t y p r e c is e l yth r ou gh theo log ica l s t udy . Ce r t a in ly , one ' s Ch r i s t i an educ a t ion

( inc lud ing one ' s educa t ion fo r min i s t ry ) no rma l ly beg ins l ong

before on e en t er s a school o f theo logy , an d con t inu es long af te r

one leaves . The d is t inc t ive cont r ibu t ion of the school o f theo l

ogy to educa t ion fo r chu rch l eade rsh ip i s t o s t reng then the

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theo log ica l a spe c t of t h a t e duca t ion , ac ross it s en t i re rang e .

IV.

In carry ing ou t the i r responsib i l i ty for the theo logica l educat ion of church leaders , theo logica l schools d i f fer considerab ly

a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h r e g a r d b o t h t o t h e i r e x p li ci t i n t e n t i o n s

and to t h e i r ac tua l acco m pl i shm en t s . Som e of t h e d i f fe rences

a re ma t t e r s o f p r inc ip l e : for i n s t ance , co m m i tm en t t o a pa r

t i cu l a r ecc l e s io logy o r a pa r t i cu l a r unde rs t and ing o f min i s t ry

wil l lead a school to a certain set of object ives and decisions

which wi l l se t i t apar t f rom schools g rasped by d i f feren t com

m i tm en t s . Ot he r d i f fe rences a re t he re s u l t s of h i s to r ica l o r

social factors. A school wil l do well to reflect from t ime to t ime

upon both i t s expl ic i t a ims and those o ther fac tors in i t s s i tuat i on wh ich a re shap ing i t s work .

As a s t imu lus t o such re f l ec t i on , l e t me r i sk some impres

s ion i s t i c gene ra l i za t i ons abou t one g roup o f schoo l s wh ich ,

des p i te var iou s d if ferences of acad em ic an d ecc les ias t ica l af

f ili ation, sh ar e a com m on legacy: tho se ins t i t u t i on s fo unded

and l a rge ly ma in t a ined by wha t un t i l r ecen t ly we have ca l l ed

t h e m a i n - l i n e P r o t e s t a n t d e n o m i n a t i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

These schoo l s gene ra l ly seem to do a be t t e r j ob o f t each ing

s tuden t s t o re f l ec t on the Chr i s t i an t rad i t i on than o f t each ing

them to re f l ec t on the i r own Chr i s t i an ex i s t ence o r t o re f l ec t

on the qua l i t y o f t he i r l eade rsh ip . Th i s i s no t t o say tha t t he

schoo l s spend more t ime on educa t ion in Chr i s t i an fa i t h t han

they do on educat ion in Chris t ian l i fe o r on educat ion for

min i s t ry ; t he p ropo r t i on o f t ime g iven to each va r i e s a g rea t

dea l f rom p lace to p lace or t ra d i t io n to t rad i t ion . I t i s ra th er to

say th a t t h e schoo ls a re be t t e r a t t each ing s tud en t s t o dea l

theologically w i th th e con te n t of t h e t rad i t i on th an wi th e i t h e r

the i r own li ves o r t he i r voca tion a s ch u rc h l eade rs . Such educa

t ion as goes on in these la t te r two areas i s re la t ive ly lesstheological i n cha rac t e r , a s a ru l e . Wi th rega rd to Chr i s t i an

sp i r i tua l i ty or fo rmat ion , i t i s more l ike ly to consis t in a

s t ra igh t fo rw ard ex t en s ion o f bas i c Ch r i s t i an educa t ion (o ft en

of a rem ed ia l sor t ) ; an d in th e ar ea of edu cat ion for m in is t ry , i t

i s more l ike ly to concent ra te on conveying a bas ic funct ional

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competence in the ro le . My impress ion i s tha t the ca l l s which

such schoo l s f r equen t ly h ear th a t the y shou ld g ive m ore a t t en

t ion to sp i r i tua l fo rmat ion o r to the cu l t iva t ion o f s tuden t s '

p ro fess iona l com pete nce fo r m in i s t ry a re r a re ly c r i es for m ore

theo log ica l a t t en t ion to these a reas , bu t r a ther fo r more bas ic"f i r s t -order" educat ion in Chr is t ian l i fe and in meet ing the

needs o f congrega t ions .

At the same t ime , in the a rea in which these schoo l s do

re la t ive ly wel l a t t heo log ica l (as d i s t ingu i she d f rom Ch r i s t i an )

e d u c a t i o n , t h e y g e n e r a l l y do a b e t t e r j o b a t t e a c h i n g s t u d e n t s

t o p u r su e t h e q u e s t i o n s o f t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d o f t h e m e a n -

i n g f u l n e s s a n d t r u t h o f Ch r i s t i a n w i t n e s s t h a n t o p u r su e t h e

qu es tio n of i ts f it tingness to i ts co nte xt . Cou rse s in Bible an d

h i s t o r y m a y e n c o u r a g e s t u d e n t s to t h i n k a b o u t t h e o r i g in s a n d

t r ansmiss ion o f the Chr i s t i an t r ad i t ion , i t s con t inu i ty and i t s

t r ansfo rma t ion th r ou gh t im e , and r a i se ( a t l eas t impl i c it ly ) th e

theo log ica l ques t ion o f the au then t i c i ty o f con temporary wi t

n e s s . Courses in sys temat i c theo logy t end to pur sue th i s ques

t i o n , s o m e t i m e s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e m o r e

ph i losoph ica l ly -o r i en ted ques t ion o f m ean ing and t ru th . In

deed , the t ask o f sys te ma t i c theo logy i s o f t en fo rmu la ted a s t ha t

o f me d ia t in g th e dem an ds o f au the n t i c i ty o r f a i th fu lness to

w ha t has been r ece ived , and o f me an ing fu lness o r c r ed ib i li ty in

the con temporary wor ld . Courses in wha t i s somet imes ca l l ed"pract ical theology" ( th e four th d ivis ion of th e con ven t iona l

fourfold cu r r icu lum , in add i t ion to b ibl ical, h is tor ica l , an d sys

t em at i c s tud ies ) a r e fo r th e mos t pa r t cour ses a im ed a t t eac h ing

the var ious more o r l ess d i sc re te competences r equ i r ed o f

p a s t o r s a n d o t h e r c h u r c h l e a d e r s , a n d t h e i r t e a c h e r s t e n d t o

ident i fy the m se lve s w i th th e specif ic d iscip l ines con cern ed

(homi le t i cs , pas to ra l ca re , educa t ion , e t c . ) r a ther than wi th

prac t i ca l theo logy as such .

A c c o u n t i n g fo r t h e e m e r g e n c e a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f su c h a

st a t e of af fa i rs in mo de rn theological ed uca t ion i s a task forso cia l h i s t o r i a n s . R a t h e r t h a n a t t e m p t a n y su c h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,

I wan t to concen t r a te on a concep tua l p rob lem which , whi l e i t

i s no t so le ly r espons ib le fo r th e t en de nc ies ju s t iden t i fi ed ,

see m s to m e to hav e done a g rea t dea l to enco urage the m . T he

prob lem ha s to do w i th th e us e o f th e t e rm "prac t ica l theo logy"

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to des ig na te two d i s t inc t so r t s of inqu i ry and ins t ruc t ion , each

leg i t ima te and nece ssa ry in i t s own r igh t . Th e f a ilu re to d i s t in

gu i sh p roper ly be tween them has somet imes l ed to a so r t o f

c o m p e t i ti o n b e t w e e n t h e m f o r t h e t i tl e , w h i c h h a s n o t s e r v e d

th e r ea l in t e res t s o f e i th e r . I wou ld no t w an t to c l a im tha t th em ul t i t ud e of us es of th e te rm "pract ical theology" can finally be

redu ced to thes e two . My c la im is r a th er t ha n i f t he se two we re

appro pr ia t e ly d i s t ing u i sh ed and r ecogn ized as l eg i t im ate an d

c o m p l e m e n t a r y e n t e r p r i s e s r a t h e r t h a n a s r iv a l u n d e r

s t and ings o f one t ask , i t wou ld do someth ing to r educe the

c u r r e n t co n fu s io n w h i c h t e n d s t o w e a k e n b o t h .

One con tender i s tha t d imens ion o f theo log ica l s tudy whose

par t i cu la r r espons ib i l i ty i s to pu r su e th e ques t ion as to t he

f i t t ingness o f Chr i s t i an wi tness to i t s con tex t . The o ther con

ten de r i s th a t so r t o f theo log ica l s tud y wh ose sub jec t -m at t e r i s

c h u r c h l e a d e r s h i p - t y p i c a l l y , p a s t o r a l l e a d e r sh i p . T h e f ir s t is

d i s t ingu i shed by th e par t i cu la r aspec t o f th e va l id i ty -ques t ion

which i t pu r su es ; th e second , by th e par t i c u la r sub je c t -m at t e r

i t i nves t iga tes .

On e r eas on i t ha s p rov en d if fi cul t t o kee p the se two d i s t inc t

i s th a t eac h o f th e m invo lves th e o t he r . Theo log ica l r e f lec t ion

on the f i t t i ngness o f Chr i s t i an wi tness to i t s con tex t inc ludes

(but i s no t l im i ted to) ref lect ion on th e ro le of ch ur ch lead er

sh i p - o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s , a c t iv i ti e s , e t c ., t h r o u g h w h i c h l e a d e r sh i p i s e x e r c i s e d - i n e n a b l i n g ( o r p r e v e n t i n g ) t h a t w i t n e s s t o

be f i t t i ng to i t s con tex t . Theo log ica l r e f l ec t ion on church

l e a d e r s h i p - t h a t i s , o n t h e w ay s i n w h i c h t h e s t r u c t u r e s , ac

t iv i t ies , e tc . , of leadership work to fur ther or h inder val id

Ch r i s t i an wi tn ess - inc ludes (bu t i s no t limi ted to ) r e fl ec t ion on

th e f it t i ngness o f th a t l ea der s h ip to i t s con tex t . If, a s s om et im es

hap pen s , th e chu rch i s iden t i f i ed wi th i t s l eade r sh ip , and Chr i s

t i an wi tness r educed to the ac t iv i ty o f church l eader s , t he

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e se t w o i n t e r s e c t i n g i n q u i r i e s b e c o m e s

tha t much more d i f f i cu l t t o see .

I n m y o w n c o n s t r u c t i v e a c c o u n t of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

theo log ica l s tudy , I hav e r ese rve d th e na m e o f p rac t i ca l theo l

ogy for th e fi r st o f th es e con ten d in g en te r p r i se s .7

I t is one of

th e th re e p r im ary theo log ica l d i sc ip l ines , each o f which cor-

7 8




responds to one o f the th ree cons t i tu t ive d imens ions o f Chr i s

t i an theo logy . ( In th i s accou n t , t he q ues t io n o f th e Ch r i s t i an

au then t i c i ty o f the wi tness be longs to h i s to r i ca l theo logy , and

th e ques t ion of i t s m ean ingfu ln ess a nd t ru th to ph i losoph ica l

theology.)W he n i t ha s no t be en ca l l ed p rac t ica l theo logy , a na m e wh ich

h a s so m e t i m e s b e e n a s s i g n e d t o t h e s e c o n d o f t h e se e n t e r p r i s e s

i s pas to ra l theo logy . Pas to ra l theo logy has o f t en bee n conce ived

and t a ug h t in such a way as to com bine theo log ica l r e f l ec t ion

on church leadership (speci f ical ly , on the of f ice and dut ies of

th e pas to r ) wi th theo log ica l r e f l ec t ion on th e per son hoo d o f th e

lead er ( tha t i s , on th e pas tor ' s own l ife an d Ch r is t i an se l -

funder s t and ing , pa r t i cu la r ly in r e l a t ion to the r espons ib i l i t i e s

o f l eade r sh ip ) . Th us , i t dea l s (f rom a theo log ica l s t and po in t )

wi th bo th th e "educa t ion in Chr i s t i a n lif e" and t he "educa t ion

for min i s t ry" of th e ca nd ida te fo r chur ch l ea der s h ip , and ha s

gone some way toward ad dress in g the l ack o f a t t e n t i on to t he se

two a reas in the typ ica l theo log ica l cu r r i cu lum. There i s much

to be said for th is approach, so long as i t i s not seen as an

alternative t o p rac t ica l theo logy ( as I hav e used t h e t e rm above) ,

bu t r a th er as a so r t of con cen t r a t ion o f theo log ica l a t t e n t i on

u p o n t h e t h e m e of c h u r c h l e a d e r sh i p a n d u p o n t h e e d u c a t i o n

of the leader . Both pract ical theology and pastoral theology ( i f

we a re to use these names fo r them) have a p lace in educa t ionfor church l eader sh ip : the fo rmer as a necessa ry componen t o f

theo log ica l educa t ion as such , and the l a t t e r as a means o f

acqu i r ing th e ap t i tu de fo r theo log ica l se l f - examina t ion wh ich

i s n e c e s sa r y t o g e n u i n e l e a d e r sh i p .

There are some di f f icul t ies , however , wi th the name of "pas

to ra l theo logy" for th e second o f th es e pur s u i t s . In conven t iona l

P r o t e s t a n t u sa g e , p a s t o r a l t h e o l o g y i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h " t h e

pas to ra l o ffice and i t s fu nc t io n" - th a t i s , w i th th e ro le and

ac t iv ity of th e pas to r in th e congrega t ion . Unles s al l chu rch

leadership i s somehow to be assimi la ted to the pastoral of f ice ,th e t e r m ha s some obv ious l imi ta t ion s as a des ign a t ion fo r t he

theo log ica l exa min a t ion o f chu rch l e ade r sh ip . I t s use may a l so

g i v e so m e p r i v i l e g e d w e i g h t t o t h e c o n c e p t o r i m a g e o f

"shepherd" as a key to the under s t and ing o f church l eader

sh ip -a p r iv i l ege which may o r may no t be theo log ica l ly war -

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r a n t e d . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , i n R o m a n C a t h ol ic u s a g e - a n d

inc reas ing ly i n P ro t e s t a n t u s age a s we l l "pas to ra l t heo logy" h as

com e to refer n o t to th a t d i sc ip l ine w hich de a ls w i th t h e off ice

and func t ion o f t h e pas to r , bu t ra th e r t o t h a t wh ich dea l s w i th

the pas to ra l ac t i v i t y o f t he chu rch a s a who le , a s we l l a s wi ththe pas to ra l ac t i v i t y o f i t s l eade rs . I t conce rns i t se l f wi th t he

ca re wh ich t he chu rch p rov ides t o peop le , and i t s scope m ay be

c o n s i d e r a b l y b r o a d e r t h a n w a s p r e v i o u s l y t h o u g h t : e x t e n d i n g

t o t h e c h u r c h ' s c a r e fo r n o n - m e m b e r s a s w e l l a s m e m b e r s , a n d

to a care which i s exerc ised th rough soc ia l and po l i t ica l ac t ion

as wel l as on th e ind iv id ual leve l .

I t i s no t c lea r , t h en , t h a t "pas to ra l t heo logy" i s t h e bes t t e rm

to u se for t h e t heo log ica l exam ina t ion o f ch u rc h l e ade rsh ip .

P e r h a p s a b e t t e r t e r m , e n a b l i n g a b e t t e r g r a s p of w h a t t h i s

s tudy invo lves , wi l l em erg e . Wh a t i s c ruc ia l , i n my jud gm en t , i s

t ha t t he two inqu i r i e s I have he re desc r ibed be c l ea r ly d i s t i n

gu i shed , and th a t bo th o f t h e m be a f f irmed a s p rope r ly be long

ing to t heo log ica l educa t ion fo r chu rch l eade rsh ip .

N o t e s

1. David B. Burrcll, Aquinas: God and Action (Notre Dame, IN: U niversityof Notre Dam e Press , 1979), p . 4 .

2.1 do not mean t o imply that only Christians can understand th e Christian

faith. However, an un derstan ding of the C hristian faith or of any other religioustradition does seem to require a kind of conceptual eq uipm ent w hich is normally achieved through personal participation in it. The task confronting theperson who wishes to understand a faith other than her own is to "entertain"that faith sufficiently to acquire the relevant concepts, throug h w hatever sortof involveme nt is both necessary and appropriate. This is less difficult in som ecases than in other s, for a variety of reasons, but it is probably never easy.

3. There arc other forms of theology and of theological education thanChristian. To what extent, if at all, what I say about the Christian versionswould be true of other traditions (e.g., Jew ish theology an d theological education) is best left to mem bers of tho se othe r traditions to judge. For more on th egeneral understanding of Christian theology and theological education repre

sented here, see C harles M. Wood, Vision and Discernment: An Orientation inTheological Study (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1985).

4. Regarding the moral aspect of Christian witness (its injunctions, recommendations, etc . concerning hum an conduct) , one might substitute "right" fo r

"true" in the secon d categ ory— depen ding on how one constru es the logic ofmoral claims. The re is a highly illum inating treatm ent of the possible relationsbetw een claims to au thenticity and truth or Tightness in religious traditions in

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William A. Christian, Sr., Doctrines ofReligious Communities: A PhilosophicalStudy (New H aven: Yale University Pres s, 1987).

5.1 am indebted to my colleague Prof. Josep h L. Allen for his reflections onthis theme in a recent convocation address at Perkins School of Theology.

6. Rudolf Bultmann's critique of what he called "pious theology" in hisintroductory lectures on theological study makes this point very well, as hasSchubert M. Ogdcn in various places. See Rudolf Bultmann, TheologischeEnzyklopadie, ed. Eberhard Jungel and Klaus W. Muller (Tubingen: J. C B.Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1984), pp. 163-167; Schubert M. Ogden, "ChristianTheology and Theological Education," in The Educa tion of the PracticalTheologian, ed. D on B row ning et al. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), pp. 21-35.

7. See Vision and Discernment, pp. 46-49, 95.

8 . Tho mas C. Oden's Pastoral Theology: Essentials of Ministry (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1983), exemplifies bo th of thes e problematic features.Pastoral theology is concerne d with "the system atic definition of the pa storaloffice and its function" (p. x), and "shepherding" is the "pivotal analogy"

(pp.49-63). Since these arc matters of deliberate decision for Oden, his bookprovides a good contemporary indication of what is gained and lost thereby.

8 1





QR 10/2 (1990) 83-103

N ew Lead ership Pa t terns in K orea

D o u g l a s E . W i n g e i e r

Dur ing the S i l l a Dynas ty , a nob leman ca l l ed Su iyong-gong

sat to ea t lun ch w i th h i s beau t i fu l wi fe , Su or Pu in ("Lady of th e

W ate r") on the i r way to Ka ngn ung , w he re he wou ld t ake up h i s

o f f i c i a l pos t a s coun ty mag i s t ra t e . Beh ind them, a long the

beach s tood a rocky cres t whose peak was covered wi th b los

soms .

Su or- Pu in excla im ed, "Oh, how lovely . W ho wi l l p luck tho se

aza l eas and b r ing th e m to me?" H er se r van t rep l i ed , "Madam,

t h e m o u n t a i n c r e s t r i s e s o n a h a n g i n g r o c k , u n t r o d d e n a n d

u n t o u c h e d b y h u m a n c r e a t u r e s . T h e a z a l e a s a r e t h e r e t o b egazed a t , and no t p lucked ." Ju s t t hen , an o ld peasan t who was

l ead ing a cow a long th e seash o re he a rd h e r word s . H e d ropped

the cow rope , qu ick ly c l imbed up , p icked some of the aza leas ,

c l am bered down and o ffe red th em to he r wi th a song.

O n the fo llowing day , w he n Su or -P u in was ea t in g lunch wi th

her husband in a sea-v iewing pavi l ion , a sea dragon appeared

and sna t c hed h e r o ff t o h i s wa te ry pa lace . Th e amaz ed hus ba nd

s t am ped h i s fee t and s h r i e ked a t t h e t op o f h i s vo i ce , bu t t o no

ava il . A no the r o ld pe asa n t who was on th e scen e to ld t h e

unhappy husband , "There i s an o ld say ing , 'many mou ths can

Douglas E. W ingeier is professor of practical theo logy and director of the do ctorof ministry program at Garrctt-Evangclical Th eological Seminary in E vanston ,Illinois.

83




m el t even ha rd i ron* . How m uc h m ore wil l t h e sea -c rea tu res b e

afraid of m yriad vo ices? I f yo u ga th er a l l th e f i sher people f rom

the coas t a l v i l l ages , and ge t t hem to s ing and s t r i ke t he sea -

rocks , you wi l l f ind you r los t wi fe ." So Sunjong -gong d id wh at

he was to ld , t h e v i l l age rs ga the red a nd sang . An d su re eno ugh ,the d ragon em erg ed f rom th e sea wi th Suo r -P u in in h i s a r m s ,

r e t u r n i n g h e r t o h e r h u s b a n d , w h o c r ie d fo r j o y .1

In t h i s Korean l egend f rom the Th ree Kingdoms pe r iod (57

B.C.-668A.D.) , th e po l i t ica l , soc ie ta l conte x t i s th a t o f k ingd om ,

wi th nob i l i t y , c l a s s sy s t em and ve r t i ca l d i s t r i bu t ion o f s t a tu s

and power . B u t t h e me ssage o f t h e s to ry i s o f t h e re sou rce fu l

n e s s , power , and so l ida r i t y o f t h e com m on peop le , pea san t s and

f i s h e r m e n . W h a t t h e n o b l e m a n ' s s e r v a n t c o u l d n o t d o , t h e

h u m b l e h e r d s m a n a c c o m p l is h e d w i t h e a s e . W h a t t h e n o b l e m a n

h imse l f was power l e s s t o accompl i sh , t he seasho re v i l l age rs

w e r e a b l e t o a c h i e v e b y p u t t i n g t h e i r e f f o r t s a n d v o i c e s

t o g e t h e r .

Th i s s to ry ep i tomizes my obse rva t ions abou t l eade rs h ip pa t

t e rn s i n Korean chu rch and soc i e ty , pas t and p resen t . These

ref lec t ions are based on a four-month sabbat ica l so journ in the

Land of the Morning Calm in the fa l l o f 1988, d u r i n g w h i c h I

a t t e n d e d c l a s s e s o n K o r e a n h i s t o r y , c u l t u r e , s o c i e t y , a n d

re l ig ions a t Yonse i and Ewha Un ive rs i t i e s , v i s i t ed chu rches , a

Buddh i s t monas t e ry , and re l i g ious ce remon ies , made an e f fo r tt o l ea rn t he Korean l anguage , and in t e rv i ewed l eade rs i n a l l

walks of l ife.

T he p red om ina n t no r m s for t h e p rac t i ce o f l eade r sh ip i n

K o r e a s t e m f ro m t h e k i n g d o m t r a d i t io n : a u t h o r i t a r i a n , h i e r a r

ch ica l, pa t r ia rch al , s t ra t i f ied . B u t in th e mid s t of th i s p re vai l ing

pa t t e rn , t he re a re emerg ing s igns o f an a l t e rna t ive consc ious

ness .

M y d e s i r e t o l e a r n a b o u t K o r e a n l e a d e r s h i p p a t t e r n s

o r ig ina t ed in a g rowing awar ene ss of t h e d i l em m as faced by t h e

Korean -Amer i can chu rch and i t s l eade rs , and by pe rsons whowish to be pa r tne rs wi th t hem in min i s t ry i n t h i s coun t ry .

Com ing from a long t ra d i t io n of d i rec t iv e , asse r t ive , con t ro l l ing

l eade rsh ip , t he i r na tu ra l i nc l ina t ion is t o con t inue th i s p a t t e r n

in t he i r new se t t i ng . Bu t t he i r co -worke rs i n t he Caucas i an

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PATTERNS IN KOREA

chu rch , and the i r ch i ld ren and you ng peop le ra i sed and edu

ca t ed in a soc i e ty where t he no rms a re more ega l i t a r i an and

coopera t ive , expec t more oppor tun i ty fo r mu tua l i t y , owner

s h i p , and pa r t i c ipa t ion in dec i s ion mak ing , and more sha red

leade r sh ip and re spons ib i l i ty i n ca r ry ing ou t t h e min i s t ry o f t he

c h u r c h .

Conf li ct and m i su nd ers t an d in g a r i se ou t of t he se c ro ssed

expec t a t i ons , and nego t i a t i on , compromise , and new pa t t e rn s

o f s t ru c tu re and l ead e rsh ip mu s t be deve loped . T he f i r st s t ep

in wo rk ing th rou gh the se d i l em ma s , a t l ea s t for me , was t o t r y

to un de rs t a nd t he backg ro und an d con tex t of l eade rsh ip ou t o f

wh ich Ko rean -A me r i can C hr i s t i an s come , i n o rde r t o be ab le t o

m or e wise ly and effec t ive ly par t ic ipa te in th e t ra in ing of lead ers

fo r t he i r chu rches .

T h e P r e v a i l in g P a t t e r n

W e look f i rs t a t th e h is to r ic p revai l ing pa t te rn - h iera rch ic a l ,

au tho r i t a r i an , pa t r i a rcha l , and s t ra t i f i ed .

Centuries o f Monarchy

After an ear ly h is to ry of c lan communi t ies , c i ty s ta tes , and

s t a t e f e d e r a ti o n s , t h r e e m o n a r c h i e s e m e r g e d i n t h e N o r t h

(Koguryo ), So u th eas t (S i ll a) , and Sou thw es t (P aekche ) , beg in

n ing in 57 B.C. Uni f ied in 668 A.D. , the monarch ica l fo rm of

g o v e r n m e n t c o n t i n u e d u n d e r t h r e e d y n a s t i e s - S i l l a ( 6 6 8 - 9 1 8 ) ,

Koryo (918-1392) , an d Yi or Ch osu n (13 92- 191 0)-u nt i l th e

Jap an es e occupa t ion . Th e Kor ean mo narc hy was bas ica lly a r i s

t oc ra t i c , cha rac t e r i zed by a bu rea uc rac y en t e red by th e nob i l it y

th ro ug h comp et i t ive civi l serv ice exams .

T h e s e yangban (a r i s toc ra t s ) ha d a v i r t u a l monopo ly on

leade rsh ip pos i t i ons because t he f reebo rn men ( the re was no

oppor tun i ty a t a l l fo r women) l acked the t ime and money tou n d e r t a k e t h e y e a r s of s t u d y a n d p r e p a r a t i o n r e q u i r e d .

T he re were fou r c l a s ses i n t rad i t i ona l Korea : t h e yangban or

ar i s tocra t ic c lass , the chungin or midd le c l as s , t h e com m one rs

( fa rmers and merchan t s ) , and the l ow-bo rn ( s l aves , a r t i sans ,

s h a m a n s , b u t c h e r s , t a n n e r s , h u n t e r s , s a il o rs , p e d d l e r s , a n d

85




e n t e r t a i n e r s ) . C l as s a n d p r o fe s s io n w e r e h e r e d i t a r y a n d t h e r e

were many c lass confl ic t s .

O n e o b s e r v e r2

ha s desc r ibed th e po li t ics o f t rad i t io nal K orea

as " the po l i t ics o f vor tex ," in which power was a t the cen ter ,

d rawing pe rsons i n to t he hub in Seou l , c rea t ing p ressu re fo r

u p w a r d m o b i l i t y , c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n f a c t i o n s , c o n f l i c t

w i thou t nego t i a t i on , a tom iza t ion o f g rou p so l idar i ty , and pe r

sons on a pendu lum swing ing toward the cen te r t o g ra sp the

power and then ou t aga in when fa l l ing in to d is favor , to be

ban i shed to t he p rov inces .

T h e m o n a r c h i c a l s o c i e ty , t h e n , w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y

cent ra l iza t ion , fac t ional i sm, a c lass sys tem, compet i t ion for

power , and h i e ra rch i ca l con t ro l f rom the t op .

De cad es of Mil itary Gov ernment

When the Chosun dynas ty fe l l t o t he Japanese i n 1910 , a

pe r iod of nea r ly e igh t deca des o f mi l i t a ry ru l e was i nau gura t ed .

The Japanese co lon ized the Korean peop le , fo rc ing a ss imi l a

t i on in to t he Japanese cu l tu re t h rough impos ing the Japanese^

educa t iona l sy s t em and requ i r ing Koreans t o t ake Japanese

n a m e s a n d l e a r n t h e J a p a n e s e l a n g u a g e . T h e y b u r n e d K o r e a n

h i s to ry books , an d d i s to r t e d Ko rean h i s to ry i n schoo l tex tbook s

t o m a k e J a p a n e s e h i s t o r y a p p e a r o l d e r a n d J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e

supe r io r t o t h a t o f Korea . Po l ice opp ress ion and economicexp lo i t a ti on o f K orean l abo r and raw m a te r i a l s kep t t h e peop le

in sub jugat ion .

Th i s domina t ion engendered a na t iona l i s t i c re sponse , ex

p r e s s e d i n t h e I n d e p e n d e n c e M o v e m e n t , w h i c h c u l m i n a t e d i n

an up r i s ing on M arch 1,1919. T h i s a t t e m p t e d o v e r t h r o w o f t h e

J a p a n e s e w a s u n s u c c e ss f u l, h o w e v e r . T h e J a p a n e s e o c c u p at io n

thus d id no t end un t i l t he Second Wor ld War , when the U.S .

mi l i t a ry t ook con t ro l fo r t h ree yea rs , r e t a in ing the Japanese

g o v e r n m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e s . T h e A m e r i c a n s d i d n o t a l l o w t h e

Koreans ' own p rov i s iona l gove rnmen t - in -ex i l e headed by Kim

Gu, l a t e r a s sass ina t ed , t o re tu rn h om e as a g roup and se t u p

the i r own gove r nm en t ( l ead ing some Kor ean s today to say, "We

los t our rea l l eaders ," ) bu t ins tead len t the i r support to the

d ic t a to r i a l Syngman Rhee , s imp ly because he was an t i -com-

86



PATTERNS IN KOREA

m uni s t . The Kor ean War be tw een th e two ha lves of a co un t ry

d iv ided by th e supe rpo we rs w i tho u t consu l t a t i on wi th t h e

Korean peop le , i n t e rvened in t ha t pe r iod wi th a g rea t dea l o f

tu rmoi l , suffer ing , des t ruc t ion , and loss o f life.

T h e n , w h e n R h e e w a s o v e r t h r o w n b y s t u d e n t u p r i s i n g s i n

1960, af ter a b r ie f per iod of democracy which was aborted

p rematu re ly by a mi l i t a ry t akeove r , two b ru t a l mi l i t a ry d i c

t a t o r s h i p s f o l l o w e d - t h o s e l ed b y P a r k C h u n g - H e e ( 19 6 1- 79 )

and C hu n Doo-Hw an (1980-87) . D ur ing th i s pe r iod of mi l i t a ry

r u l e , t he Korean peop le expe r i enced seven ty -seven yea rs o f

domina t ion , wi th some a t t emp t s a t up r i s ing and rebe l l i on , bu t

p r imar i ly cha rac t e r i zed by con t ro l and opp ress ion imposed

f rom th e t op . As K orea ns read i ly adm i t , t h i s gave th e m l i t t l e o r

no expe r i ence wi th democracy .

Confucian Ethics

T h e a u t o c r a t ic p a t t e r n o f b o t h t h e m o n a r c h i c a l a n d t h e

mi l i t a ry e ra s was unde rg i r ded by th e Confuc ian va lue sy s t em ,

wh ich had been acqu i red f rom the Ch inese . In t he Confuc i an

sys tem, the f ive card ina l re la t ionsh ips are ru ler to sub jec t ,

fa the r t o son , husband to wi fe , o lde r b ro the r t o younger

b ro the r , and f r iend to f r i e nd -a l l bu t t h e l a t t e r o f wh ich a re

h i e ra rch i ca l i n na tu re . In Confuc i an i sm, t he heaven ly way , o r

t r u t h , is to be respe c ted and fo llowed; he av en an d m ora l law are

to be known, loved, and obeyed; fai th , dest iny, or the wil l of

he av en i s inev i tab le ; an d th e sage ru ler i s to follow th e m an da te

of hea ven , th e d iv ine miss ion .

Fi l ia l p ie ty i s owed to paren ts and ances tors in gra t i tude for

be ing brought in to the world and ra i sed in i t . Propr ie ty i s to be

expressed in te rms of s t r ic t d i s t inc t ions of soc ia l rank . Loyal ty

and ha rmony wi th in t he co l l ec t i ve soc i e ty fo s t e r i n to l e rance ,

conformi ty , dogmat i sm, composure , and se l f -cont ro l , whi le d i s

courag ing crea t ive se l f -express ion , ind iv idual th ink ing , andin i t ia t ive .

Tradit ional Family Patterns

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PATTERNS IN KOREA

hours a day , p lu s t h ree hou rs o f Ta i Ch i . The qu ie t , s ec luded ,

h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d m o n a s t e r y e n v i r o n m e n t i s v e r y c o n d u ci v e t o

th is k ind of d i sc ip l ined prac t ice , cen ter ing of one 's sp i r i t , and

con fo rmi ty to behav io ra l s t an da r ds , t h a t equ ip m on ks fo r t h e i r

m i n i s t r y .Af t e r comple t ing the i r t r a in ing , Buddh i s t p r i e s t s se rve two

m^jor ro les as sp i r i tua l l eaders in Korean soc ie ty . The f i rs t o f

these i s p raye r . The l a i t y canno t p ray fo r t hemse lves because

on ly t h e p r i e s t can fu lly en t e r i n to Ni rvana ; so t h e p r i e s t m us t

pray for the la i ty . The second pr ies t ly funct ion i s tha t o f the

se rmon , exho r t i ng the l a i t y t o obse rve t he Buddh i s t l ay d i s

c ip l ines .

T h u s , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n , h i e r a r c h i

ca l pa t t e rn s of t rad i t i on a l Korea n soc ie ty and th e s t r uc tu r e o f

t h e B u d d h i s t o r d e r a n d t h e m o n k s ' l e a d e r s h i p r o l e s i s a p

p a r e n t .

Structur e and Leadership of th e Christ ian Church

A s imi l a r au tho r i t a r i an , h i e ra rch i ca l pa t t e rn p reva i l s wi th in

th e Chr i s t i an chu rch . T he locus o f power in t h e Ko rean ch u rc h

is a t th e loca l leve l , an d th e pas tor i s th e key f igure . "The pas tor

i s k ing" i s an o f t - repea t ed ph ras e , wh ich re f l ec t s t h e rea l i t y t h a t

he ( t he re a re few women pas to rs ) gu ides , d i rec t s , and ru l e s

near ly a l l aspects o f congregat ional l i fe . Pas tors tend to have along tenure in a congregat ion , and bu i ld up a fo l lowing based

on deep love , s t rong loya l ty , and genu ine re spec t fo r t he

sp i r i t ua l l eade r . Olde r pas to rs become m en to r an d sponso r for

youn g semina ry g rad ua te s seek ing to f ind a p l ace i n t he sy s t em .

T he co ncen t ra t i on o f power i n t h e local chu rch and pas to r

l eads t o a co r re sp ond ing we ake n ing o f p rog ra m , leade rsh ip , a nd

cont ro l a t the jud ica tory leve l . Boards , agencies , and super

v i sory pe rs onn e l have l imi t ed pow er and re sou rces ; b i shop s and

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s e r v e o n l y t w o - y e a r , n o n - r e p e a t a b l e t e r m s ,

and con t inue pas to r ing the i r cong re ga t ions wh i l e func t ion ing

in those capaci t ies . The la rge s ize of some congregat ions ( the

l a rges t M e tho d i s t chu rch h as ove r 35 ,000 m em ber s ; t h e l a rge s t

Presbyter ian church over 50 ,000) , and the h igh leve l o f g iv ing

( t h e t i t h e i s a m i n i m u m e x p e c t a t io n f or c h u r c h m e m b e r s h i p )

89




prov ide t he l oca l chu rch wi th t he re sou rces and l eade rsh ip t o

ope ra t e mo re o r l e s s i nde pen den t ly . Local cong rega t ions o f t en

ca r ry ou t denom ina t ion a l func t ions such a s p rodu c ing educa

t i ona l ma te r i a l s and send ing the i r own miss iona r i e s .

Som e chu rch es do no t o rda in w om en a t al l, and tho se t ha t dot end to a s s ign them e i the r t o sma l l s t rugg l ing chu rches , o r

e m p l o y t h e m a s a s s i s t a n t p a s t o r s / e d u c a t i o n a l w o r k e r s w h o a ls o

t ake on sec re t a r i a l and hos t e s s du t i e s fo r t he i r sen io r pas to rs .

(For example , I was once rece ived a t the door of a church by a

fema le a s s i s t an t pas to r wh o took m e in to t he pa s to r ' s of fice a nd

se rved m e t e a wh i l e I w as wa i t i ng to t a lk w i th t h e sen io r pas to r . )

I n t h e M e t h o d i s t s y s te m , w o m e n w h o g r a d u a t e fr o m s e m i n a r y

can be o rda ined , bu t once they a re mar r i ed t hey can no longe r

p a s t o r c h u r c h e s , b u t m u s t s e r v e in o t h e r a r e a s of c h u r c h w o r k .

I f t he i r sm a l l chu r ch es beg in t o g row, c le rgy w om en a r e l i ke ly

to be rep l aced by a ma n .

Th e o rgan iza t ion o f K orea n chu rch es i s h i e ra rch i ca l and

ex t re m e ly ef f ic i en t . Ev e ry m em be r of a K orea n ch u rc h be long s

to a ne ig hb orh oo d c lass m ee t in g led by a lay c lass leade r . In t h e

l a rge r chu rches , t hese l eade rs a re accoun tab le t o t he B ib l e

w o m e n , o r w o m e n e v a n g e l i s ts , w h o i n t u r n a n s w e r t o t h e m a l e

assoc i a te pas to rs , w ho in t u rn a re re spons ib l e t o t he sen io r

pas to r . An hou r a f t e r t he l a s t Sunday morn ing se rv i ce , t he

sen ior pa s to r i s l ike ly to hav e on h is de sk a li s t o f every one w howas ab sen t t h a t day . T h e ne x t day th e c l as s l ead e rs v i s i t t he se

abs en te es t o f i nd w ha t i s go ing on and p rov ide pas to ra l ca re a s

need ed . Th e c l a ss m ee t ing s t ru c tu re a l so p rov ides an e f fec tive

veh ic l e fo r evange l i sm, a s t h e me m be rs o f t h es e ne ighb orhoo d

groups reach ou t and draw o ther people in . Miss ion i s a l so

ca r r i ed ou t by the se c l a s s g rou ps , and o the r mi ss ion soc i e ti e s

in t he cong rega t ion , wh ich engage in ou t reach and se rv i ce i n

t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d b e y o n d i n t h e w o r l d .

This h ierarch ica l sys tem is c lear ly very eff ic ien t , bu t i t a l so

gene ra t e s r i va l ry , compe t i t i on , and fac t iona l i sm a t bo th t hegen era l an d loca l leve ls . A t th e na t ion al leve l , pa s to rs v ie wi th

one ano the r for cove t ed jud i ca to ry o r i n s t i t u t i o na l po s i t ions ,

and fac t ions re pr es en t in g d if fer ing po l i t ica l o r theo logica l v iews

compete for ascendancy . In the loca l church , a s t ruggle for

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PATTERNS IN KOREA

cont ro l o f po l ic ies and funds i s o f ten waged be tween the pas tor

and o ne o r m ore o f t h e l ay e lde rs , w ho a re e l ec t ed and o rda ined

for life.

A ll t h i s c a n h e l p u s u n d e r s t a n d t h e p h e n o m e n a l g r o w t h o f

t h e K o r e a n c h u r c h i n r e c e n t y e a r s . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n sfor th i s rap id grow th . On e i s th e rec en t h i s to r y of soc ial conf l ic t

and d i s loca t ion , beg inn ing wi th t he Japanese occupa t ion and

con t inu ing th rough the Korean war . Indus t r i a l i za t i on has on ly

h e i g h t e n e d t h e s e c o n d i ti o n s : p e o p l e a r e le a v in g t h e i r a n c e s t r a l

homes in t he coun t ry s ide and coming to t he c i t y t o seek

e m p l o y m e n t , w h e r e t h e y t u r n t o t h e c h u r c h e s f o r a c c e p t a n c e ,

secur i ty , and soc ia l serv ices . Some a lso see Chris t ian i ty as a

"mod ern re li g ion" w h ich can p rov ide ma te r i a l b l e s s ing a nd

p ros pe r i t y i n re tu rn fo r fa i th fu l g iv ing and pa r t i c ipa t ion .

A second reason f requen t ly g iven i s t he ha rd work o f t he

pas to rs . One pas to r t o ld me h e wo rked 20 ho u r s a day , and gave

as ev idence h is da i ly sch ed ule f rom 5 :00 a .m. un t i l 1:00 th e ne x t

m orn in g . In t he v iew of K orea n Ch r i s t i ans , t h i s devo tion to t h e

work o f t h e ch u rc h i s a s ign of t h e pas to rs ' ded i ca tion to Ch r i s t ,

wh ich evokes f rom th e m a loya l re sp ons e o f gen e ro us g iv ing

and regu la r pa r t i c ipa t ion . A th i r d reaso n fo r t h e g row th o f t h e

chu rch i s t h e de d ica t ed se rv i ce o f t h e sma l l g rou p l eade rs , who

th rough the week ly c l a s s mee t ings p rov ide t he evange l i s t i c

o u t r e a c h a n d p a s t o r a l c a r e t h a t m a i n t a i n t h e c h u r c h ' s li n k s ofcommunica t ion and accoun tab i l i t y .

G l i m p s e s o f a n A l t e r n a t i v e C o n s c i o u s n e s s

W h i l e t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n , h i e r a r c h i c a l p a t t e r n o f l e a d e r s h i p

h a s p r e d o m i n a t e d i n K o r e a fr o m t i m e i m m e m o r i a l , t h e r e h a v e

bee n , and con t inu e to b e , i nd i ca t ions o f an a l t e rna t ive app ro ach .

T h e s e a p p e a r i n c u l t u r a l a n d re l i g io u s f o r m s a n d m o v e m e n t s ,

soc ia l and po l i t ica l t rends , and theo logica l and ecc les io log ica l

e x p r e s s i o n s - b o t h o ld a n d n e w .

Glimpses in Culture and Rel ig ion

T he cu l tu ra l and re l ig ious exp ress ion s of an a l t e rna t ive fo rm

of l eade rsh ip t o wh ich I was exposed inc lude Shaman i sm,

9 1





PATTERNS IN KOREA

wor ld , where sp i r i t s a re conce rned wi th peop le ' s mundane

n e e d s , a n d m u t u a l i t y a n d h a r m o n y a r e p r o m o t e d .

2 . Hanism. S h a m a n i s m i s i n c o r p o ra t e d i n t o H a n i s m3

, a

m o d e r n w o r d d e s c r ib i n g t r a d i t io n a l K o r e a n t h o u g h t . T h e w o r d

han here i s a d i f feren t Korean word , which has a to ta l o ftwen ty - two d i f fe ren t m ean ings , i nc lud ing bu t no t l imi t ed to t h e

" b it te r r e s e n t m e n t " m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r . M o s t of t h e s e m e a n i n g s

re l a t e t o a pa rado x ica l com bina t ion o f w ho l ene ss and in

d iv idual i ty , God and the world , l eader and fo l lowers , abso lu te

a n d r el a ti v e , t r a n s c e n d e n t a n d i m m a n e n t , t h e o n e i n t h e m a n y

and th e m any in t he one . Th e word "abou tness" i s u sed to re fe r

to the re la t iv i ty of t ime, incomple teness , and lack of exactness ,

c lar i ty , and sharp d is t inc t ions in l i fe . This "aboutness" i s i l

l u s t r a t e d i n K o r e a n s ' t r a d i t i o n a l n o n - p u n c t u a l i t y , i n t h e

Ko rean the a t r e w he re t he re i s no s t r i c t d ivi s ion be tw een th es t age and the aud ience , and in t he kut, as I exper ienced i t ,

w h e r e t h e r e w a s n o s e p a r a ti o n b e t w e e n t h e s h a m a n s , t h e

pe t i t i one r , and t he aud ien ce . At one po in t , I was i nv i ted t o ge t

u p , p u t o n t h e d r e s s ( B o th m e n a n d w o m e n s h a m a n s w e a r t h e

sam e femin ine robes ) of t h e sham an , and dance a long wi th he r

as par t o f the ceremony. So I was par t o f the ac t , so to speak;

t h e r e w a s n o s e p a r a t i o n .

This "aboutness" or re la t iv i ty suggests a leadersh ip in which

there i s no c lear d iv is ion be tween leader and fo l lowers . I t i ssymbo l ized by th e yin-yang, wh ich o r ig ina t ed in Ch ina bu t i s a

wide ly recogn ized As ian symbo l fo r t h e ha r m on y and b l end ing

of opposi tes l ike n igh t and day , ear th and sky , dark and l igh t ,

female an d m ale , open and c losed, m oon and su n . (Sign if ican t ly ,

Ko rean s l i st t h es e pa i r s w i th t he fema le - re l a t ed e l em en t f i rs t ,

a s he re , t h e reve rse o f t h e Ch ines e o rde r . ) T he y in -yang o f

Han i sm h igh l igh t s t he un i ty , equa l i t y , r e l a t i onsh ip , rhy thm,

and crea t iv i ty of p rocess .

3. Tonghak and Chundokyo. Anothe r man i fe s t a t i on o f t h i s

e g a l i ta r i a n a p p r o a c h o c c u r r e d in t h e T o n g h a k M o v e m e n t4

a n dRebe l l i on in t he l a t e 19 th cen tu ry and in i t s con tempora ry ,

m u c h - w e a k e n e d r e m n a n t s u c c e s s o r r e li g io n , C h u n d o k y o

(Re lig ion of t h e Hea ven ly Way) . T he T ong hak M ove m en t w as

a pea san t rebe l l i on wh ich nea r ly succeeded in ove r th row ing th e

93




ru l ing Chosun Dynas ty , un t i l i t was pu t down wi th t he a id o f

Ch inese t roops . I t s unde r ly ing ph i lo sophy was based on the

concepts o f innaechun-people are he av en , o r peo ple ar e God,

o r t h e p e o p l e ' s m i n d i s G o d ' s m i n d - a n d s a i i n n a e c h u n -

t rea t / se rve peop le l i ke heaven , o r l i ke God . In t h i s movemen tand re l i g ion , members a re encou raged to re spec t and he lp

o the rs . They shou ld no t d i sc r imina t e aga in s t o the rs on the

bas is o f sex , occupat ion , o r race , nor show par t ia l i ty be tween

the powerfu l and the weak , r i ch and poo r , o r gove rnmen t

off icers and common people . '

To ngh ak was a peop le ' s re li g ion and a non -a r i s toc ra t i c po l i t i

ca l m ov em en t , cha rac t e r i zed by an ega l i t a r i an , bo t tom -up ,

s t r u c t u r e o f r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s h i p .6

S l av e r e g i s t e r d o c u m e n t s

w ere des t roye d , a c lass less soc ie ty wa s th e goal, and t h e peop le-wi sdom of t h e opp resse d was t h e ma in mo t ive power beh in d th e

form at ion of non -m i l i ta ry loca l go ve rn m en ts for soc ia l t ransf or

m a t i o n .7

Even when the re l i g ious cong rega t ions and l eade rs

w e r e t u r n e d i n t o m i l i ta r y u n i t s i n t h e T o n g h a k r e v o l u t io n a r y

army in a las t -d i tch effor t to th row off the oppressors , the i r

ch ief leader , Bong-joon Chun, was quoted as say ing , "The

people asked me to lead the rebel l ion and I fo l lowed the

peop le ' s wo rd . "8

T o n g h a k a n d C h u n d o k y o r e p r e s e n t t h e e ff or t

of suffer ing , opp ress ed pe ople to br i ng abou t a re ig n of he av en

o n e a r t h , i n w h i c h e q u a l i ty , m u t u a l r e s p e c t , a n d j u s t t r e a t m e n ta re p re se n t fo r a l l.

4. Taoism. A no the r facet o f t h i s a l t e rn a t ive consc iousness i s

Tao i sm, wh ich , wh i l e o r ig ina t ing in Ch ina , ha s bee n in f luen t ia l

i n Korea and th roughou t Eas t As i a . Lao Tzu , i n t he Tao Te

Ching> offers in junc t ions l ike the se : con duct yourse l f in accord

ance wi th t he l aws o f na tu re ; be humble , meek , and eas i l y

conten t ; l ive s imply and do no t des i re acquis i t ion ; govern the

world th rough "non-ac t ion" ; and do no th ing and le t the people

do w ha t t he y can do for t hem se lv es . Speak ing d i rec t ly o f l eade r

s h i p , Lao T zu said , "of a gre at le ad er i t wil l be said, we did th isou rse lves . "

9

5. Won Buddhism. In con tempora ry Korea , Won (C i rc l e )

Bu ddh i sm i s ga in ing inc reas ing popu la r i t y , pa r t i cu l a r ly am ong

th e educ ated , a ff luen t m iddle c lass . I t t ea ch es tha t II W on (one

94



PATTERNS IN KOREA

circ le) i s th e o r ig in of a l l be in gs in th e un ive rse . Al l a re one and

equa l . "All a re i nca rna t io ns o f t ru th -B ud dh a . Do each th i ng a s

an o f fe r ing o f wo rsh ip t o t h e Budd ha . Prac t i ce m ed i t a t i on

cont inual ly , everywhere . Moving and be ing qu ie t a re of one

suc hne ss . Ke ep the sp i r i t and th e body ful ly i n t eg ra t ed . Bud dhis t t ru th i s found in l i fe ; l i fe i s Buddhis t t ru th itself."

10

Observe un i ty , ha rmony and re spec t fo r a l l .

In t h i s modern , rap id ly g rowing fo rm o f Buddh i sm, t he

lea der sh ip of la i ty an d of w om en in i t s w orsh ip , o rg aniza t ion ,

and educa t ion and se rv ice p rog ram s , i s ve ry p rom inen t . R oo ted

in a deep awareness o f t he un i ty , ha rmony , and wor th o f a l l

c rea t ion , Won Buddh i s t p r i e s t s and l a i t y sha re equa l ly and

respec t fu lly in t h e l eade rsh ip o f t he i r m ove m en t .

6. Maitreya or Minjung Buddhism i s ano the r exp ress ion o f

the a l t e rna t ive consc iousness . Ma i t reya i s t he name o f t heBu dd ha wh o is ye t t o come to e s t ab l ish pa rad i se on ea r th . Th i s

i s an eschato log ica l fo rm of Bu dd his m , in w hich a re a lm free

from suffer ing i s to be es tab l i shed , w i th th e cas te s ys t em

e l imina t ed , wo m en and m en equa l , and th e hope o f t h e op

p ressed rea l i zed . The descend ing Mai t reya o f t h i s fo rm o f

Buddh i sm s t ands i n oppos i t i on to t he more wide ly accep ted

Ami tabha Buddh i sm o f King Asoka o f anc i en t Ind i a , who in

voked th e power of t h e Bu dd ha to p re s e rve t h e s t a tu s quo o f

the t hen -cu r ren t monarch ica l and au toc ra t i c soc i a l o rde r . In

Mai t reya Buddh i sm, t he power o f t he s t a t e i s based on a con t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e k i n g a n d t h e p e o p l e , w h i c h

req u i re s t he k ing to ea rn h i s pos i t ion by h i s execu t ive sk i ll and

m ora l example . T he k ing is accoun tab le t o t h e p eo p le . "1 1

Minjung (peop le ' s ) Buddh i sm hea rs i n t he vo ice o f t he

peop le t h e de m and s of h i s to r y and t r i e s t o re spo nd fa it h fu l ly .

I t i s ega l i t a r i an and revo lu t iona ry in na tu re . The masses o f

people are the sub jec ts o f h i s to ry , the pro tagonis t s o f des t iny ;

f ro m t h e m r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n e r g y k e e p s b u r s t i n g u p ; f ro m t h e m

the Mai t reya wi l l come to t ransform the po l i t ica l and soc ia ls t ru c tu res and e s t ab l i sh a new wor ld , t h e "Buddha L an d . "1 2

T h e

com mo n peop le , no t t h e ru l in g c l as ses , wi ll p rov ide t he m es

s ian ic leadersh ip for the new age .

95




Glimpses in Soc ie ty

Tu rn in g now to soc ie ty , w e see o th e r g l impse s of an a l t e rn a

t ive app ro ach to l ead e rsh ip i n som e of t h e cus tom s and t re nd s

b o t h p a s t a n d p r e s e n t .

1. Village egalitarianism. V i n c e n t B r a n d t , a H a r v a r d

an th ropo log i s t , d id a s tud y of a ru ra l Korean v i l l a ge 1 3 t o wh ich

he gave th e f ic titious na m e, Sokpo , w he re h e found ab un da nt

ev idenc e of long -s tan ding pra c t ice s of m ut ua l a id , coop era t ion ,

hosp i t a l i ty , gene ro s i ty , t o l e rance , and soc ia l bo nd in g - a l l o f

th i s ac ross c l a s s l i nes . These cus toms fo s t e red an ega l i t a r i an

e tho s and co l lec ti ve l ead e rsh ip f rom va r ious c l a s ses , i n av a r i e ty

of v i l lage ac t iv i t ies such as f ishing, ha rve s t in g , and hous e-bui lding . Th is coopera t ive v i llage sys tem is base d on th e t rad i t iona l

concep t ofDoo-Mae ("commun i ty") , w hich h as bee n a l l bu t los t

i n t he modern u rban ized , i ndus t r i a l i zed Korean soc i e ty .

2. Social mobility. In t he 19 th cen tu ry , t he b reakdown o f

feudal soc ie ty and the c lass sys tem fos tered grea ter soc ia l

equal i ty , due in p ar t to the invas ion of co lon ia l econom ic forces.

B u t t h e r e w e r e o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s : t h e p u r c h a s e o f

nob i l i t y s t a tu s by peop le i n t he l ower c l a s ses , fo rge ry o f

s t ra t i f i ca t i on documen t s t h rough b r ibe ry , t he d i sc red i t i ng o f

Confucian po l i t ica l and soc ia l cont ro l , and the growing ant agon i sm aga in s t t he ru l ing c l a s s exp lo i t a t i on o f commoners .

In t he 20 th cen tu ry , t h e move toward soci al equa l i t y has b ee n

h a s t e n e d b y t h e d i s l o c a t io n o f p o p u l a t i o n c a u s e d b y t h e

Jap an ese occupa t ion , Wor ld W ar II , t h e Ko rean W ar , t h e flow

of re fugees f rom N or th t o So u th , i ndus t r i a l i za t i on , t h e move

from farm to c i ty , an d growing pro spe r i ty . The se fac tors hav e

led increas ing ly to the co l lapse of the c lass sys tem and the

a c c e p t a n c e of l e a d e r s h i p b a s e d o n a b i l it y r a t h e r t h a n

h e r e d i t a r y s t a t u s .

3. Democratization. Very recen t ly , s ince the fa l l o f the Chun

Doo-Whan mi l i t a ry d i c t a to rsh ip and the popu la r e l ec t ion o f

p res iden t and na t iona l a s sembly , Korean soc i e ty i s mov ing

toward g re a t e r dem ocra t i za t i on in m an y a rea s o f life. Telev i sed

l eg i s l a t i ve hea r ings have exposed the co r rup t ion and b ru t a l i t y

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PATTERNS IN KOREA

of th e mi l i t a ry reg im e , p rom pt in g ca l ls fo r re fo rm s . P ub l i c

s t u d e n t a n d w o r k e r d e m o n s t r a t i o n s h a v e a g i t a t e d f o r t h e i m

p lem en ta t ion o f dem ocra t i c m ea su res i n fac to r ie s , edu ca t iona l

in s t i t u t i ons , and the po l i t i ca l p rocess .

In som e un ive rs i t i e s , s t uden t - facu l ty counc i l s hav e be eni n s t i t u t e d t o s h a r e d e c is i on m a k i n g w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , a n d

p r e s i d e n t s h a v e b e e n e l e c t e d r a t h e r t h a n a p p o i n t e d b y t h e

governmen t . Rad ica l s t uden t g roups u t i l i ze an "up -and -down"

p rocess of dec i sion mak ing in p lace of t rad i t i on a l au tho r i t a r i an

a p p r o a c h e s . F o r e i g n - t r a i n e d t e a c h e r s a r e i n t r o d u c i n g p a r

t i c ipa to ry me thods and ideas i n to t he c l a s s room. And in bus i

n e s s a n d i n d u s t r y , t h r o u g h A m e r i c a n a n d J a p a n e s e j o i n t

v e n t u r e s , m a n a g e r s a r e g a i n i n g i n c r e a s i n g e x p e r ie n c e w i t h t h e

de l eg a t ion o f re spon s ib i l i t y , dec i s ions i n execu t ive counc i l

r a t h e r t h a n b y o n e b o s s , a n d t r u s t i n g t h e c o m p e t e n c e , t r a i n i n g ,and ideas of employees a t lower leve ls .

Theology and Church Life

1. Minjung theology. T h e b e s t - k n o w n f o r m o f i n d i g e n o u s

Korean theo logy i s Minjung, or people ' s theo logy , in which

oppressed peop le , the minjung, w i th a l ong h i s to ry o f s t rugg le ,

a re seen a s a sou rce o f e scha to log ica l hope . The minjung a r e

def ined as those who are po l i t ica l ly oppressed , economical ly

explo i ted , soc io log ica l ly a l iena ted , and cu l tu ra l ly and educat i ona l ly dep r ived . The y a re se en a s sub jec t s of h i s to ry , ho ld ing

p o w e r f or s o c i a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e y a r e

we ighed down by han, an accumula t ed fee l ing o f un reso lved

re se n t m en t aga in s t un ju s t if i ab l e su f fe r ing and opp ress ion . And

t h e y r id th e m s e l v e s of han by th e p rac t i ce of dan, o r t h e c u t t i n g

off o r re l eas e of bo th t h e fee l ing of re se n t m en t and th e t em p ta

t i on to re t a l i a t e aga in s t t he opp resso r .

T h e minjung a re i den t if i ed wi th t h e Heb rew s l aves i n Egy p t

a n d t h e ochlos (poor) o f f i rs t cen tury Gal i lee . Jesus i s seen as

t h e mudang come f rom the bo t tom, p roc l a iming tha t t he poo r

w i ll i n h e r i t t h e e a r t h . J e s u s w a s t h e M e s s i a h of t h e m a s s e s ,

offer ing hope to the han-ridden minjung w h o a r e t h e m s e l v e s

des t ined now to be t he new Mess i ah , l i be ra t i ng peop le f rom

o p p r e s si o n . G o d h a s r e v e a l e d a n d m a k e s t r u t h k n o w n t h r o u g h

97




t h e s t r u g g l e o f t h e minjung for l ibera t ion . God chooses the

minjung t o pe r fo rm the i r Mess i an i c ro l e . Ko inon ia , wh ich i s

def ined no t as fe l lowship bu t as so l idar i ty , i s the joyous com

m u n i t y w h e r e l o ve a n d j u s t i c e a b o u n d a s t h e minjung a t t h e

bo t tom s t rugg le t o g ive t hem se lv es ou t o f hop e , t o d ie and beres u r rec t ed to new l ife , a s t h ey b r ing abou t l i be ra t i on fo r a l l .

1 4

2 . Fem inist theology and wom en's issues. P r o g r e s s i v e

femin i s t t heo log ia ns a r e t oday em pha s i z ing w om en ' s images of

God as ca r ing and nu r tu r ing , wi th obv ious imp l i ca t ions fo r

l eade rsh ip s ty l e . T he y a re a lso beg inn in g to see t h e Sh am an i s t

mudangs as s i s t e r s and sp i r i t ua l l eade rs , i n con t ra s t t o t he

p reva i l ing v i ew of Sh am an i sm am ong th e vas t ma jo r i t y o f Chr i s

t i ans a s pagan supe rs t i t i on . They a re exp lo r ing the sou rces o f

t h e mudang's pow er i n trad i t i on a l Kor ean soc i e ty , an d look ing

fo r pa ra l l e l s be t w een the i r app ro ach to re l i g ious l eade rsh ip andt h a t w h i c h m i g h t b e a d o p t e d by w o m e n p a s t o r s . T h e y a r e

rea se r t i ng th e l eg i t im a te ro l e of w om en as re li g ious l eade r s an d

a s ty l e of l e a d e r s h i p w h i c h h e a r s , e m p a t h i z e s w i t h a n d l i b e r a t e s

t h e minjung.

One example o f t h i s fo rm o f l eade rsh ip i s Rev . Cho Wha-

S o o n , a M e t h o d i s t w o m a n p a s t o r w h o s h a r e d t h e s t r u g g l e a n d

su f fe r ing o f t he women t ex t i l e worke rs i n Inchon . Ano the r i s

Dr . Lee Ta i -Young , who p rov ides counse l ing fo r women and

fami ly p rob lems and l eade rsh ip fo r women ' s r i gh t s i n Koreansoc ie ty . A th i rd wo m an l ead e r i s M rs . A hn San g -Nim , wh o w he n

I f i rs t m e t he r wa s G ene ra l Sec re t a r y o f t h e Korea n Assoc i a t ion

of W om en Theo logian s . H er agen da wa s four-fo ld : to develop

and sp read Korean femin i s t t heo logy , t o pa r t i c ipa t e i n ac t i on

fo r soci al cha nge to enab le t h e l i be ra t i on o f a ll hu m an be ings

and the wor ld o f na tu re , t o b r ing abou t accep tance o f women ' s

o r d i n a t i o n a n d e q u a l r i g h t s f or w o m e n t h r o u g h o u t c h u r c h a n d

socie ty , and to oppose spec i f ic abuses such as p ros t i tu t ion and

s e x t o u r i s m .

A c u r r e n t s t u d y o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p p a t t e r n s a m o n g K o r e a nre l ig ious w om en , bo th Sha m an i s t and Chr i s t i an , de fines power

as " the ab i l i t y t o he lp peop le" ra the r t han the more wide ly

acc ep ted "abi li ty to acc om plish goals." I t ident if ies th e fol lowing

as th e qua l i t i es o f good w om en lea der s : a com fortab le , confi -

9 8



PATTERNS IN KOREA

den t , r e l axed p re senc e ; sens i t i v i t y and aw aren ess o f peop le ; no t

d o m i n a n t o r s h o w y b u t h u m b l e a n d s o m e w h a t d e p ri v ed - lo o k

ing ; ene rge t i c i n re l i g ious ac t iv i t i e s and ded ica t ed to work ;

n u r t u r i n g a n d c a r i n g i n h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; w i s e , k n o w l e d g e

ab le , an d ins igh t fu l a bo ut li fe, peop le , the m se lve s , an d fa te ; andexp ress ing a t heo logy o f g lo ry and empowermen t by God in

cont ras t to a theo logy of the cross , submiss ion , and confess ion

o f s in and g u i l t .1 5

3. Minjung churches. A g r o w i n g m o v e m e n t i n t h e K o r e a n

ch u rc h is t h e em erg enc e o f t h e so -ca ll ed minjung or peop le ' s

chu rches . These a re sma l l , and fo r t he mos t pa r t made up o f

w ork e rs and th e u rba n poo r. T he one I v i s i t ed , t h e M etho d i s t

M e m b e r s h i p C h u r c h i n S e o u l , w o r s h i p s K o r e a n - s t y l e , s i t t in g

on the f loor , in a house tha t a l so serves as a hos te l fo r ch i ld

l a b o r e r s - y o u n g g ir l s w h o c o m e i n f r o m t h e c o u n t r y t o w o r k

long ho u r s i n t ex t i l e fac to r i e s in t h e ga rm en t d i s t r i c t nea rby .

A n o t h e r is I n h a n g M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h n e a r I n c h o n , w h e r e

c lasses a re offered for workers on labor laws, o rganiza t ion

s t r a t e g i e s , a n d t r a d i t io n a l m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s . W o r k e r s t h e m

se lves l ead B ib l e s tudy , re l a t i ng sc r ip tu ra l t hemes to t he i r

s t ruggle in the fac tor ies for indust r ia l jus t ice . And in a com

m u n i o n s e r vi ce I a t t e n d e d , m e m b e r s c a m e f o r w a rd i n p a i r s a n d

se rved each o the r t he e l emen t s face - to - face , i n a t ouch ing ,

in t ima te exp ress ion o f ko inon ia .In t he Sando l (L iv ing S tone ) Church , a Presby te r i an con

g rega t ion , where t he pas to r i s Dr . Kim Yong-Bok , a l ead ing

minjung t heo log ian , t h e l a i t y p rov ide l ead e rsh ip fo r se rv i ce and

educa t iona l p rog rams fo r t he worke rs and the u rban poo r . In

the l i fe o f t he cong rega t ion , l eade rsh ip re spons ib i l i t i e s a re

sha r ed , dec i s ions a r e ma de in ful l cong rega t iona l m ee t in gs , an d

th e l a i t y condu c t wo rsh ip , p rea ch , and t each . Th i s cong rega t ion

ha s deve loped a w r i t t en cove nan t , r ec i t ed m on th ly i n t he i r

c o m m u n i o n s e rv i c e s , w h i c h a f fi rm s t h e i r c o m m i t m e n t t o

sha red , se rvan t min i s t ry . Th i s covenan t s t a t e s , i n pa r t

We, as th e Sandol c om mu nity of faith, resolve before Godand our people to sh are th e gospel w ith th e poor, to prac-

99




tice justice and love of God, and to realize reconciliationand peace, as follows:

1. We renew our life through vigorous spiritual discipline.By deepening o ur spiritual life, we will lay the foundation

for church renew al in the Korean church .

2. We enrich our life of faith through deepened koinonia asth e faithful people.

3. We sh are suffering and hope w ith the poor, participatewith them in the local mission by proclaiming the GoodNe ws of Go d's Kingdom, revitalize our life togethe r, an dshare o ur joys with them .

4. W e create a new style of life as a covenant com mu nity,in the political, econmomic and cultural arenas, and dedi

cate ourselves to social transformation.

5. W e offer ourselves a s sacrifices to justic e, freedom andre-unification, wh ich ar e the aspiration s of our people; w eresolve to be living sacrifices for reconciliation and peaceam ong our people.

6

Minjung t h e o l o g y a n d t h e minjung chu rches g ive exp ress ion

to t he power and v i t a l i t y o f t he common peop le i n Korea ,

p rov id ing c rea t ive l eade rsh ip i n deve lop ing f re sh , ega l i t a r i an

fo rms of Ch r i s t i an t h ou gh t and chu rch l ife and m in i s t ry .

C o n c l u s i o n

Th e K ore an mas k dance ha s i t s roo t s i n an o ld v i ll age

fes t i va l i n wh ich peop le ca r r i ed ou t re l i g ious ce remon ies t o

reques t t he b l e s s ing o f t he gods on the i r c rops . I t was accom

p a n i e d b y e n t e r t a i n m e n t , i n c l u d i n g s a ti r ic a l p o r t r a y a l s o f a r i s

t o c r a t s , r h y t h m i c m u s i c , s o n g s , h u m o r o u s d i a l o g u e , v u l g a r

exp ress ions , and bo ld , dyna m ic dance mo vem en t s . Peo p le f rom

t h e a u d i e n c e j o i n e d i n , a n d t h e m a s k s h e l p e d t h e m s l ip in t o t h e

wor ld o f d re am , fan t a sy , an d v i s ion .

I n o n e s c e n e f r o m t h e K o r e a n m a s k d a n c e , M a l t u g i , t h e

se rva n t o f t h re e a r i s to c ra t b ro t he rs , r id i cu l e s and dece ives

t h e m , d e g r a d e s t h e w o r d yangban w i t h d e r o g a t o r y p u n s , a n d

100



PATTERNS IN KOREA

defea t s th e m in a poe t ry con tes t . As th e ru l ing e l it e , t h e

yangban class i s sup po sed to be scholar ly , resp ecta ble an d above

th e mu nd an e wor ld o f o rd ina ry fo lks . In th i s scene th ey a re too

caugh t up in the i r own wor ld to hear wha t Mal tug i i s r ea l ly

say ing . They a re so p reoccup ied wi th the ex i s t ing sys tem inwhich they ho ld a p res t ig ious pos i t ion tha t they become b l ind

to th e r ea l i ty o f th e wor ld a ro un d th em .

T h e a u d i e n c e , h o w e v e r, s e e s e v e r y t h i n g , a n d l a u g h s a t t h e m .

M al tug i , know ing th e rea l i ty , d ram at ize s th e s i tua t ion an d

car i ca tu res the a r i s tocra t s , t hus expos ing the incongru i t i es in

t h e sy s t e m .

W o u l d i t b e t o o p r e su m p t u o u s t o s a y t h a t t h e yangbans in

t h e m a sk d a n c e r e p r e s e n t t h e tr a d i t o n a l p a t r i a r c h a l , h i e r a r c h i

cal, a u t o c r a t i c le a d e r sh i p sy s t e m o f a n c i e n t a n d p r e se n t - d a y

K o r e a ? A n d t h a t M a l t u g i s y m b o l i z e s t h e minjung-the

s h a m a n s , w o m e n , s t u d e n t s , w o r k e r s , a n d v i l l a g e r s - c h a l l e n g

ing the a r i s tocra t s and expos ing the incongru i t i es in the sys

t em ? And th a t we , th e aud ie nce , can see i t a l l, r ecogn iz ing th e

real i ty , and re jo ic ing w i th M al tug i in seein g th e s igns of a ne w

a g e e m e r g i n g i n t h e L a n d o f t h e Mo r n i n g Ca l m ?

T h e c h a l l e n g e a n d o p p o r t u n i t y w h i c h a l l t h i s p r e se n t s t o t h e

K o r e a n A m e r i c a n i m m i g r a n t c h u r c h , a n d t o t h o se w h o sh a r e

the i r sen se of miss ion , i s: Can th e po la r i za t ion be tw een h ie ra r

chy and f ac t iona l i sm and p ro tes t and r es i s t ance can be t r ansf o r m e d ? Ca n t h e s t r e n g t h o f p o s i t i v e , v i g o r o u s , a s se r t i v e

pas to ra l l ead er sh ip be combined wi th th e coopera t ive so l idar ity

and emp ow erm en t of th e min jung? Suc h a com bina t ion cou ld

wel l forge a creat ive new synthesis that would of fer f resh

m o d e l s of l e a d e r s h i p t o c h a l l e n g e a n d in f o r m b o t h t h e

p r e d o m i n e n t a u t h o r i t a r i a n m e n t a l i t y o f t h e K o r e a n c h u r c h

and th e mo re permiss iv e , o ft en l e tharg ic and l a issez-f a ir e pa t

t e r n s of so m e A m e r i c a n c h u r c h e s .

N o t e s

1, "Suor-Puin (Lady of the W ater), Silla's Flower o f Beauties," in T ae-H ungH a, Guide to Korean Culture (Seoul: Yon sei University P ress, 1968), 365-366.

2. Gregory Henderson, Korea: The Politics of Vortex (Cambridge, MA:Harvard Univer sity Press, 1968).

101




3 . Sec Sang-Yil Kim and Young-Chan Ro, eds., Hanism as Korean Mind (LosAngeles: Th e Eastern Academy of Hum an Sciences, 1984).

4. This movement is treated fully in Jong-Sun Noh, Religion and JustRevolution (Seoul Voice Publishing H ouse, 19 87).

5. Ibi d, p . 68.6. Ibid., p. 145.

7. Ibid., p. 148.

8. Ibid., p. 83 .

9. Paraphrased from the Tao Te Ching, which also Includes the followingstatem ents about wise m ale leadership: "The sage places himself in the background, but finds himself in the foreground" (Chapter 7). 'To lead them, butnot to m aster th em this is called profound an d secret virtue" (Chapter 10). "Thebest (rulers) are those whose existence is (merely) known by the people... .It isonly wh en o ne docs not hav e enough faith in others that others wil l have nofaith in him" (Chapter 17). "For a victory, let us observe the occasion withfuneral ceremonies" (Chapter 31). "I take no action and the people themselves

are transformed. I love tranquility and the people of themselves becomecorrect, I engage in no activity and the people of themselves becomeprosperous. I have no desires and the people of themselves become simple"(Chapter 57). "The great rivers and seas are kings of all mountain streamsbecause they skillfully stay below them. That is why they can be their kings.Therefore, in order to be the superior of the people, one must.-.place himselfbelow them" (Chapter 66). "A skillful conqueror does not co mp ete with people.One who is skillful In using men puts himself below them" (Chapter 68). "Toknow that you do not know is the best . To pretend to know whe n you do notknow is a disease" (Chapter 71). "The Way of Heaven is to benefit others andnot to injure. The Way of the sage is to act but not to compete" (Chapter 81).See also Joh n Heider, The Tao ofLeadership (New York: Bantam B ooks, 1986)

for paraphrases of other Taoist teachings on leadership.10. Quoted in "As Material Civilization Develops, Cultivate Spiritual

Civilization Accordingly," an interpr etive booklet published by Won Bulkyo (IriCity, Chonpuk, Korea, n.d.). See also The Scripture of Won Buddhism, Pal-KhnChon, translator, W on B ulkyo, 1988.

11 . Noh, op. cit., 30-31.

12 . Cf. Sun -Hw an Py un, "Buddhist Christian Dialogue Towards th e Liberation o f Minjung," Sinhak Gwa Saige (Theology and the World), Vol. 16 (Spring1988: pp. 197-247). Seoul: Society of Theological Studies, Meth odist T heologicalSeminary.

13 . Vincent Brandt, A Korean Village: Between Farm and Sea (Cambridge,MA; Harvard University Press, 1973).

14. For fuller treatments of Minjung Theology, see Commission onTheological C oncerns of the Christian Conference of Asia, ed., Minjung Theol-

ogy: People as the Subjects of History. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Bo oks, 1981; andChangw on Joh n Su h, "A Form ulation ofMinjung Theo logy: Tow ard a Socio-Historical Theology of Asia" (Ph.D. dissertation, UnionTheological Seminary,

102



PATTERNS IN KOREA

N ew York, 1986). [Editor's Note: See also A. Sung Park, "The The ology of Han(Pain of the Oppressed," QR 9/1 (1989): 48-62.]

15. Interview w ith Rev. Ms. Sun Soon-Hw a, Drew U niversity Ph.D. student,Seoul,Korea, September 2,1989.

16 . From the "Declaration of Faith for Covenant Community," SandolChurch, Presbyterian Church of Korea, established 1984.

17. See Young-Hak Hyun , "A Theolog ical Look at th e Mask Dan ce in Korea,"in Minjung Theology, op. c it , 47-54.

103





QR 10/2 (1990) 105-109

T h o m a s G . L o n g . Preaching and the Literary Form s of the

Bible. F o r t r e s s P r e s s , 1 9 8 9 .1 4 4 p p .

Preaching and the Literary Forms of the Bible, i n t r o d u c e s t o

expe r ienced an d new pre ac he r s a l ike a se t of app roac hes to

b i b l ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a p a b l e of s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c i n g t h e

prea ch in g o f th e chu rch . Clear ly and s imply , w i th man y he lp fu l

i l l u s t r a t i o n s , t h e b o o k i n t r o d u c e s l i t e r a r y a n d r h e t o r i c a l a p

p r o a c h e s to b i bl ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . B u t L o n g ' s c e n t r a l p u r p o se

i s no t to in t rod uce a new ty pe o f b ib li ca l in t e rp re ta t io n ; i t i s to

h e l p p r e a c h e r s s e e h o w t h e i r p r e a c h i n g m a y b e s t r e n g t h e n e d

a n d e n r i c h e d b y a t t e n d i n g t o t h e l i t e r a r y fo r m s o f t h e B i b le .As Long charac te r i zes i t , l i t e r a ry and rhe to r i ca l s ty les o f

b ib l i ca l in t e rp re ta t ion a re to be under s tood in con t r as t to h i s

to r i ca l / c r i t i ca l s ty les . Hi s to r i ca l c r i t ica l in t e rp r e ta t ion i s in t e r

es t ed p r im ar i ly in inves t iga t ing wh at li e s be h in d a t ex t . T ha t

is, hi s to r i ca l c r i t i ca l approaches wan t to know who wro te a

par t i cu la r t ex t , w hy th ey wro te i t, w ha t was go ing on a t th e t im e

of the wr i t ing . By con t r as t , l i t e r a ry rhe to r i ca l approaches to

b ib l i ca l in t e rp re ta t ion a re p r imar i ly in te res t ed in l i t e r a ry f ea

tu res in the t ex t s and rhe to r i ca l dynamics which a re l ike ly totak e p lace in f ron t o f th e t ex t s , t h a t i s be tw een th e t ex t s and

th e r eader s" (p . 24) . In t e rp re t a t i on f rom a l i t e r a ry rhe to r i ca l

p e r sp e c t i v e b e g i n s w i t h t h e a s su m p t i o n t h a t t e x t s h a v e r e a d e r s

an d tha t w ha t a t e x t m ea ns i s no t so le ly a func t ion o f w ha t a n

au th or sa id , bu t is a l so c lose ly r e l a t ed to how a r ea de r r ead s th e

tex t . To say th i s type o f in te rp re ta t ion i s concerned wi th what

" t akes p lace in f ron t o f th e t ex t s" i s to ins i s t t ha t t ex t s do n ' t

h a v e m e a n i n g , b u t p a r t i c i p a t e i n a p ro c e s s o f m a k i n g m e a n i n g .

In th e ea r ly po r t ion o f th e book , Lon g ou t l ines and exp la ins

f ive ques t ions tha t wi l l he lp the p reacher focus on the l i t e r a ry

a n d r h e t o r i c a l a sp e c t s o f t e x t s . T h e q u e s t i o n s a r e : W h a t i s t h e

ge nre o f th e t ex t? W ha t is th e rhe to r i ca l func t ion o f th i s gen re?

What l i t e r a ry dev ices does th i s genre employ to ach ieve i t s

rhe to r i ca l e f f ec t? How in par t i cu la r does the t ex t under con

s idera t ion , in i t s own l i t e r a ry se t t ing , embody a l l o f these

105




106

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d d y n a m i c s? A n d h o w m a y t h e s e r m o n , i n a

new se t t ing , say an d do w ha t th e t ex t s says an d does in i t s

s e t t i n g ?

T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e b o o k u se s t h e se q u e s t i o n s t o e x p l o re

how on e m igh t p re ac h d i f fe ren t l i t e r a ry fo rms found in th e

Bib le : th e psa lm s , p rove rbs , na r r a t iv es , pa rab les , an d ep i s t l es .

T h r o u g h o u t , h i s a r g u m e n t is t h a t t h e " p r e a c h e r ' s t a sk is n o t t o

rep l i ca te the b ib l i ca l t ex t bu t to r egenera te the impac t o f some

por t ion o f th a t t ex t . "

Th i s i s a very he lp fu l book . I t en te r s in to the complex and

confus ing d eb a te s of b ib l ica l scho la r sh ip and e m erg es w i th a

c l e ar a n d c o h e r e n t s t a t e m e n t t h a t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e fo r t h e

non- spec ia l i s t and usab le for the p rea che r . T ha t i s a r em ark ab le

a c c o m p l i s h m e n t .I have two c r i t i c i sm of the book . F i r s t , t he chap te r s which

t r e a t t h e var ious l i t e r a ry fo rms a re too b r i e f to be ab le to g ive

a n y t h i n g b u t t h e s i m p l e s t t a s t e o f h o w t o p r e a c h t h e se f o rm s .

T h e y w h e t t h e a p p e t i t e of t h e r e a d e r ,b u t l e a v e o n e w a n t i n g

much more . Al though the foo tno tes g ive some ind ica t ion as to

w h e r e o n e m i g h t f in d o u t m o r e , t h e s e s e c t io n s w o u l d h a v e b e e n

s t r e n g t h e n e d h a d t h e y i n c l u d e d a l i st fo r f u r t h e r r e a d i n g .

My second c r i t i c i sm i s a l i t t l e more sub t l e . A cen t r a l a rgu

m en t of th e book is th a t b ib li ca l p re ach ing doe s no t ju s t seekto say w ha t th e B ib le says , bu t i t a l so see ks to do w ha t th e Bib le

does. I have no object ion to Professor Long 's c la im that how

someth ing i s sa id i s inseparab ly r e l a t ed to wha t i t says . My

c o n c e rn is w i t h t h e u n q u e s t i o n e d a s s u m p t i o n t h a t w h a t t h e

Bib le says and d oes is w or th say ing and do ing . Un dou bted ly a t

very m an y po in t s w ha t th e Bib le says and do es i s w or th say ing

a n d d o in g , b u t t h i s is n o t a n a s su m p t i o n o n e sh o u l d m a k e

u n c r i ti c a ll y . W h e n L o n g sa y s t h a t p r e a c h i n g i s t o r e g e n e r a t e

the impac t o f some por t ion o f the t ex t , has he los t s igh t o f thel a r g e r d e m a n d t h a t Ch r i s t i a n p r e a c h i n g i s t o p r o c l a im t h e

g o spe l o f J e su s Ch r i s t ? I f r e g e n e r a t i n g t h e i m p a c t of t h e s a m e

p o r t i o n of t h e t e x t m e e t s t h i s d e m a n d , t h e n b y a l l m e a n s d o it .

Bu t i s th e gospe l of Je su s Chr i s t , t h e sam e th in g as th e Bib le?

Is preaching that i s fa i thful to the b ibl ical text a lways fa i thful



BOOK REVIEWS

t o J e su s Ch r i s t ? T h e se a r e q u e s t i o n s r a is e d b y w h a t L o n g h a s

to say in th i s book , bu t no t d i r ec t ly add ressed . We can on ly ho pe

tha t they a re i s sues he wi l l soon t ake up .

David M. G reenhawVanderbilt University Divinity School, Nashville, Tennessee.

F r e d e r i c k E . M a s e r . The Story of John Wes ley's Sisters: Seven

Sisters in Search of Love. R u t l a n d , V e r m o n t : A c a d e m y B o o k s ,

1988.

Maser has p rov ided Wesley buf f s wi th a look ins ide the

W esley hou seho ld th a t t h e genera l r ea de r wi l l f ind ama zing , if

n o t sh o c k in g . T w o h u n d r e d y e a r s o f M e t h o d i s t h a g i o g r a p h y h a s

made cer t a in tha t on ly the c l eanes t o f the l aundry was p laced

in the pub l i c eye . I t i s to Maser ' s c r ed i t , a Method i s t who

c o n t r i b u t e d a r t i c l e s t o t h e Encyclopedia of World Methodism

and who se rved on th e ed i to r i a l board o f th e th re e vo lu m e

History of American Methodism, t h a t h e has be en wi l ling to go

to th e pa ins tak in g and pe rh ap s even a b i t r i sky t ask o f ass imi la t

ing th i s p rovoca t ive mate r i a l in to a smal l book (118 pagesinc lud ing ind ices ) .

The sources f rom which the b iograph ica l ske tches o f the

Wesley s is ters was g leaned is not conducive to faci l i ta t ing a

qu ick and easy r esearch p rocess . In add i t ion to the var ious

e d i t i o n s of t h e l e t t e r s a n d j o u r n a l s o f Jo h n a n d Ch a r l e s W e s le y ,

M a se r h a s m a d e e x t e n s i v e u se o f t h e t w o v o l u m e s of m e m o i r s

o f th e W es ley f ami ly by Ad am C larke and Ge orge S tev ens on .

T he smal l si ze o f M ase r ' s t r ea tm en t o f th e Wes ley ' s s i s t e r s i s

m o r e a n in d i c a t io n o f t h e s c a n t y a m o u n t o f m a t e r i a l t h a t h a s

surv ived tha n i t i s o f th e am ou nt o f p r im ary source m ate r i a ltha t one has to r ead in o rder to ou t l ine the s i s t e r ' s l i ves .

T h e c h a p t e r t i t l e s a r e p r o v o c a t i v e e n o u g h t o i n sp i r e a

t e l ev i s ion min i - se r i es : "Hear tb reak and Hea l ing" [Emi l i a Wes

ley H arp er ] ; "A Case o f Wife Abuse" [Susa nna W esley E l l ison] ;

" Joy and Tragedy" [Mary Wesley Whi te lamb] ; "Pass ion and

107



QUARTERLY REVIEW. SUMM ER 1990

108

P u n i s h m e n t " [ M e h e t a b e l W e s l e y W r i g h t ] ; "A s a Q u i e t S t r e a m "

[Anne Wesley Lamber t ] ; "L iv ing and Forg iv ing" [Mar tha Wes

ley Hal l ] ; "Quie t Despera t ion" [Kez ia Wes ley] .

Th e s t r e ng th o f th i s co ll ec tion of s to r i es is th e b r ing in g

tog e th er of th e sca t t e r e d b iograph ica l in fo rm at ion , bu t th i s is

a t th e sam e t im e th e occasion fo r i t s w eak nes s . T he in fo rm at ion

abo u t th e seven s i s t e r s i s so d iver se , an d th e f ac tua l in fo rm at ion

rep or te d in th e l e t t e r s an d jou rna l s is so o f t en no t p laced in

con tex t , t h a t M ose r ' s essays o f t en l ack a sm ooth flow. At t im es

t h e r e a d e r fe e ls t h a t in f o r m a t i o n w a s p l a c ed in t h e c h a p t e r

beca use i t i s an in t e re s t in g " tidb it " r a th er th an be caus e i t

co ntr ibu tes in a special way to th e s tory . Th is flaw is , in th e

rev iewer ' s op in ion , p robab ly unavo idab le to a ce r t a in ex ten t .

Pe rh ap s th e on ly way to overcom e th e l ack of flow in the s to ry

would have be en to w r i t e a com ple te ly d i f f e ren t type o f book ,

an h i s to r i ca l nove l u t i li z ing th e f ac tua l in fo rmat ion . Th er e a re ,

as a m at t e r o f f act , t im es in each ch ap te r in wh ich Ma ser ha s

added h i s own con jec tu res and expanded on the h i s to r i ca l da ta

i n o r d e r t o c o m p l e t e t h e p i c t u r e . T h e r e a r e al so s e v e r a l i n s t a n

ces in wh ich th e au th or s eem ed to be c i t ing spec if ic in fo rma t ion

bu t f a il ed to g ive th e r e fe re nce s . Fo r th e s tu de n t who wish es to

r e t r a c e t h e r e se a r c h , t h i s w i ll p r o v e m o s t d i s c o n c e r ti n g .

T h e s t r e n g t h o f t h i s b o o k is i t s r e se a r c h o f t h e p r i m a r ysource s on a top ic th a t is new , exce p t in sca t t e r ed per iod ica ls .

I n t h i s a r e a o f r e se a r c h i n g t h e p r i m a r y so u r c e s , Ma se r w o u l d

hav e be en wel l se rved by spe nd ing a f ew de l igh t fu l days in th e

M e t h o d i s t A r c h i v e s a t t h e D e a n sg a t e b r a n c h o f t h e M a n c h e s t e r

U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , E n g l a n d . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l m a n u sc r i p t

l e t t e r s r e l a t e d t o t h e W e s l e y s i s t e r s t h a t w o u l d h a v e h e l p e d

prov ide more con t inu i ty to h i s b iograph ica l ske tches . I have

r e f e r r e d t o so m e o f t h e se i n t h e m a n u sc r i p t s s e c t i o n o f t h e

b ib l iography in m y The Limits of Love Divine (Abingdon, 1989) ,and I have a l so p rov ided some more de ta i l s abou t the love l i f e

o f M a r t h a W e s l e y i n t h e c h a p t e r , " T h e W a y w a r d P r e a c h e r s , "

(pp. 186 ff).

T h e se c o m m e n t s o n w e a k n e s s sh o u l d n o t b e a ll ow e d t o

d e t r a c t t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r w h o w a n t s t o k n o w m o r e a b o u t t h e



BOOK REVIEWS

W e s l e y s o r t h e s t u d e n t w h o i s i n t e r e s t e d i n 1 8 t h c e n t u r y

h i s to ry , f rom examin ing th i s wel l -p roduced book on seven

s i s t e r s who searched in va in fo r romant i c love .

W. Stephen G unterSouthern Nazarene University, Bethany, Oklahoma.

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Summer 1990 Quarterly Review - Theological Resources for Ministry