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Sunday Odedele

e-mail: sundayodedele@prforafrica.orgPR For Africa

www.prforafrica.org

Speech delivered to Public Relations students of Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX 75205.On Monday November 5, 2012

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Key words

Public Relations, Africa, Development, Media, PR campaign

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PUBLIC RELATIONS PROFESSION IN AFRICA

OVERVIEW OF AFRICA

Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² (11.7 million sq mi) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area. With 1.0 billion people (as of 2009) in 65 territories (including 54 recognized states), it accounts for about 14.72% of the world's human population.The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagoes and has 54 sovereign states ("countries") and two states with limited recognition.Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas; it is the only continent to stretch from thenorthern temperate to southern temperate zones. The African expected economic growth rate is at about 5.0% for 2010 and 5.5% in 2011.ETYMOLOGYAfri was a Latin name used to refer to the Carthaginians who dwelt in North Africa in modern-day Tunisia. Their name is usually connected with Phoenician afar, "dust", but a 1981 hypothesis has asserted that it stems from the Berber word ifri or ifran meaning "cave" and "caves", in reference to cave dwellers.Africa or Ifri or Afer is the name of Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania (Berber Tribe of Yafran).Under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of Africa Province, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix "-ica" can sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., in Celtica from Celtes, as used by Julius Caesar). The later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name.Other etymological hypotheses that have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa": the 1st century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) asserted that it was named for Epher, grandson of Abraham according to Gen. 25:4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya.Latin word aprica ("sunny") mentioned by Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. the Greek word aphrike (Αφρική), meaning "without cold." This was proposed by historian Leo Africanus (1488–1554), who suggested the Greek word phrike (φρίκη, meaning "cold and horror"), combined with the privative prefix "a-", thus indicating a land free of cold and horror.Massey, in 1881, derived an etymology from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, "to turn toward the opening of the Ka." The Ka is the energetic double of every person and "opening of the Ka" refers to a womb or birthplace. Africa would be, for the Egyptians, "the birthplace." yet another hypothesis was proposed by Michèle Fruyt in Revue de Philologie 50, 1976: 221–238, linking the Latin word with africus 'south wind', which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally 'rainy wind'.The Irish female name Aifric is sometimes anglicised as Africa, but the given name is unrelated to the geonym.

HISTORY

Colonialism and the "Scramble for Africa"

In the late 19th century, the European imperial powers engaged in a major territorial scramble and occupied most of the continent, creating many colonial territories, and leaving only two fully independent states: Ethiopia (known to Europeans as "Abyssinia"), and Liberia. Egypt and Sudan were never formally incorporated into any European colonial empire; however, after the British occupation of 1882, Egypt was effectively under British administration until 1922.Berlin ConferenceThe Berlin Conference held in 1884–85 was an important event in the political future of African ethnic groups. It was convened by King Leopold II of Belgium, and attended by the European powers that laid claim to African territories. It sought to bring an end to the Scramble for Africa by European powers by agreeing on political division and spheres of influence. They set up the political divisions of the continent, by spheres of interest, that exist in Africa today.

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Independence strugglesImperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion of World War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence. Independence movements in Africa gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956, Tunisia and Morocco won their independence from France. Ghana followed suit the next year (March 1957), becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be freed. Most of the rest of the continent became independent over the next decade.Portugal's overseas presence in Sub-Saharan Africa (most notably in Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after the Estado Novo regime was overthrown in a military coup in Lisbon. Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1965, under the white minority government of Ian Smith, but was not internationally recognised as an independent state (as Zimbabwe) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after a bitter guerrilla war. Although South Africa was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country's white minority through a system of racial segregation known as apartheid until 1994.Post-colonial AfricaToday, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries, most of which still have the borders drawn during the era of European colonialism. Since colonialism, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. The vast majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of the presidential system of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis, and many have instead cycled through a series of coups, producing military dictatorships.Great instability was mainly the result of marginalization of ethnic groups, and graft under these leaders. For political gain, many leaders fanned ethnic conflicts that had been exacerbated, or even created, by colonial rule. In many countries, the military was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order, and it ruled many nations in Africa during the 1970s and early 1980s. During the period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s, Africa had more than 70 coups and 13 presidential assassinations. Border and territorial disputes were also common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts.Cold War conflicts between the United States and the Soviet Union, as well as the policies of the International Monetary Fund, also played a role in instability. When a country became independent for the first time, it was often expected to align with one of the two superpowers. Many countries in Northern Africa received Soviet military aid, while many in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the United States, France or both. The 1970s saw an escalation, as newly independent Angola and Mozambique aligned themselves with the Soviet Union, and the West and South Africa sought to contain Soviet influence by funding insurgency movements. There was a major famine in Ethiopia, when hundreds of thousands of people starved. Some claimed that Marxist/Soviet policies made the situation worse. The most devastating military conflict in modern independent Africa has been the Second Congo War. By 2008, this conflict and its aftermath had killed 5.4 million people. Since 2003 there has been an ongoing conflict in Darfur which has become a humanitarian disaster. AIDS has also been a prevalent issue in post-colonial Africa.In the 21st century, however, the number of armed conflicts in Africa has steadily declined. For instance, the civil war in Angola came to an end in 2002 after nearly 30 years. This has coincided with many countries abandoning communist style command economies and opening up for market reforms. The improved stability and economic reforms have lead to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China, which has spurred quick economic growth in many countries, seemingly finally ending decades of stagnation and decline. Several African economies are among the world's fasted growing as of 2011.

GEOGRAPHYAfrica is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largest landmass of the Earth. Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (transected by the Suez Canal), 163 km (101 mi) wide. (Geopolitically, Egypt's Sinai Peninsula east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.)From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia (37°21' N), to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas in South Africa (34°51'15" S), is a distance of approximately 8,000 km (5,000 mi);[53] from Cape Verde, 17°33'22" W, the westernmost point, to Ras Hafun in Somalia, 51°27'52" E, the most easterly projection, is a distance of approximately 7,400 km (4,600 mi).The coastline is 26,000 km (16,000 mi) long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only 10,400,000 km2 (4,000,000 sq mi) – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of 32,000 km (20,000 mi).Africa's largest country is Algeria, and its smallest country is the Seychelles, an archipelago off the east coast. The smallest nation on the continental mainland is The Gambia.

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According to the ancient Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while "Asia" was used to refer to Anatolia and lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographer Ptolemy (85–165 AD), indicating Alexandria along the Prime Meridian and making the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge.Geologically, Africa includes the Arabian Peninsula; the Zagros Mountains of Iran and the Anatolian Plateau of Turkey mark where the African Plate collided with Eurasia. The Afrotropic ecozone and the Saharo-Arabian desert to its north unite the region biogeographically, and the Afro-Asiatic language family unites the north linguistically.

ClimateThe climate of Africa ranges from tropical to subarctic on its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarily desert or arid, while its central and southern areas contain both savanna plains and very dense jungle (rainforest) regions. In between, there is a convergence where vegetation patterns such as sahel, and steppe dominate. Africa is the hottest continent on earth; drylands and deserts comprise 60% of the entire land surface. The record for the highest temperature recorded was set in Libya in 1922 (58 °C (136 °F).FaunaAfrica boasts perhaps the world's largest combination of density and "range of freedom" of wild animal populations and diversity, with wild populations of large carnivores (such as lions, hyenas, and cheetahs) and herbivores (such as buffalo, elephants, camels, and giraffes) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of "jungle" animals including snakes and primates and aquatic life such as crocodiles and amphibians. In addition, Africa has the largest number of megafauna species, as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna.EcologyDeforestation is affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31% of Africa's pasture lands and 19% of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest every year, which is twice the average deforestation rate compared to the rest of the world. Some sources claim that deforestation has already destroyed roughly 90% of the original, virgin forests in West Africa. Since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its original forest. About 65% of Africa's agricultural land suffers from soil degradation.BIODIVERSITYAfrica has over 3,000 protected areas, with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa's biological diversity. Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threatens biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems.POLITICSThere are clear signs of increased networking among African organisations and states. For example, in the civil war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (former Zaire), rather than rich, non-African countries intervening, neighbouring African countries became involved. Since the conflict began in 1998, the estimated death toll has reached 5 million.The African UnionThe African Union (AU) is a 54 member federation consisting of all of Africa's states except Morocco. The union was formed, with Addis Ababa, Ethiopia as its headquarters, on 26 June 2001. The union was officially established on 9 July 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). In July 2004, the African Union's Pan-African Parliament (PAP) was relocated to Midrand, in South Africa, but the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights remained in Addis Ababa. There is a policy in effect to decentralize the African Federation's institutions so that they are shared by all the states.The African Union, not to be confused with the AU Commission, is formed by the Constitutive Act of the African Union, which aims to transform the African Economic Community, a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the African Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of the Pan African Parliament. A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and the Protocol of the Pan African Parliament, as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of the OAU Secretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all-union (federal), regional, state, and

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municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day-to-day affairs of the institution.Political associations such as the African Union offer hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent's many countries. Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Côte d'Ivoire.

ECONOMYAlthough it has abundant natural resources, Africa remains the world's poorest and most underdeveloped continent, the result of a variety of causes that may include the spread of deadly diseases and viruses (notably HIV/AIDS and malaria), corrupt governments that have often committed serious human rights violations, failed central planning, high levels of illiteracy, lack of access to foreign capital, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging from guerrilla warfare to genocide).According to the United Nations' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 25 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African.Poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition and inadequate water supply and sanitation, as well as poor health, affect a large proportion of the people who reside in the African continent. In August 2008, the World Bank announced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). 80.5% of the Sub-Saharan Africa population was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) a day in 2005, compared with 85.7% for India.The new figures confirm that sub-Saharan Africa has been the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50% of the population living in poverty in 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58% in 1996 before dropping to 50% in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than he or she was in 1973 indicating increasing poverty in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programs spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies and reports have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors.From 1995 to 2005, Africa's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5% in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notably Angola, Sudan and Equatorial Guinea, all three of which had recently begun extracting their petroleum reserves or had expanded their oil extraction capacity. The continent is believed to hold 90% of the world’s cobalt, 90% of its platinum, 50% of its gold, 98% of its chromium, 70% of its tantalite, 64% of its manganese and one-third of its uranium. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has 70% of the world’s coltan, and most mobile phones in the world are made with elements refined from this mineral. The DRC also has more than 30% of the world’s diamond reserves. Guinea is the world’s largest exporter of bauxite. As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in poverty levels. In fact, the food security crisis of 2008 which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis has pushed back 100 million people into food insecurity.In recent years, the People's Republic of China has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US$1 billion in Africa.A Harvard University study showed that Africa could easily feed itself, if only it had decent governance.

DEMOGRAPHICSAfrica's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and consequently, it is relatively young. In some African states, half or more of the population is under 25 years of age. The total number of people in Africa grew from 221 million in 1950 to 1 billion in 2009.Speakers of Bantu languages (part of the Niger–Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu-speaking farmers from West Africa's inland savanna progressively expanded over most of Sub-Saharan Africa. But there are also several Nilotic groups in South Sudan and East Africa, the mixed Swahili people on the Swahili Coast, and a few remaining indigenous Khoisan ('San' or 'Bushmen') and Pygmy peoples in southern and central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa.The peoples of North Africa comprise two main groups: Berbers and Arabic-speaking peoples in the west, and Egyptians and Libyans in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century introduced the Arabic language and Islam to North Africa. The Semitic Phoenicians (who founded Carthage) and Hyksos, the Indo-Iranian Alans, the Indo- European Greeks, Romans and Vandals settled in North Africa as well. Berbers still make up the majority in Morocco, while they are a significant minority within Algeria. They are also present in Tunisia and

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Libya. The Berber-speaking Tuareg and other often-nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa.Some Ethiopian and Eritrean groups (like the Amhara and Tigrayans, collectively known as Habesha) speak languages from the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, while the Oromo and Somali speak languages from the Cushitic branch of Afro-Asiatic. Sudan is mostly inhabited by Nubian and Beja people, with northern Mauritania somewhat similarly structured.Prior to the decolonization movements of the post-World War II era, Europeans were represented in every part of Africa. Decolonisation during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of European-descended settlers out of Africa – especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 million pieds-noirs in North Africa), Kenya, Congo, Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola. By the end of 1977, more than one million Portuguese were thought to have returned from Africa. Nevertheless, White Africans remain an important minority in many African states, particularly South Africa, Zimbabwe, Namibia and Réunion. The African country with the largest White African population is South Africa. The Afrikaners, the Anglo-Africans (of British origin) and the Coloureds are the largest European-descended groups in Africa today.European colonization also brought sizable groups of Asians, particularly people from the Indian subcontinent, to British colonies. Large Indian communities are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and East African countries. The large Indian community in Uganda was expelled by the dictator Idi Amin in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The Malagasy people of Madagascar are an Austronesian people, but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as Cape Coloureds (people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities of Lebanese and Chinese have also developed in the larger coastal cities of West and East Africa, respectively.

LANGUAGESBy most estimates, well over a thousand languages (UNESCO has estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa. Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the most multilingual continent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well. There are four major language families indigenous to Africa.The Afro-Asiatic languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout the Horn of Africa, North Africa, the Sahel, and Southwest Asia.The Nilo-Saharan language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by 30 million people. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by Nilotic tribes in Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, South Sudan, Uganda, and northern Tanzania.The Niger–Congo language family covers much of Sub-Saharan Africa and is probably the largest language family in the world in terms of different languages.The Khoisan languages number about fifty and are spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 120,000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are endangered. The Khoi and San peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa.Following the end of colonialism, nearly all African countries adopted official languages that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such as Swahili, Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa). In numerous countries, English and French are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic, Portuguese, Afrikaans, Malagasy and Spanish are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. Italian is spoken by some in former Italian colonies in Africa. Prior to World War I, German was used in certain areas also.

CULTURESome aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practiced in recent years as a result of years of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. There is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalourise African traditional cultures, under such movements as the African Renaissance, led by Thabo Mbeki, Afrocentrism, led by a group of scholars, including Molefi Asante, as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization of Vodou and other forms of spirituality. In recent years, traditional African culture has become synonymous with rural poverty and subsistence farming.Visual art and architectureAfrican art and architecture reflect the diversity of African cultures. The oldest existing examples of art from Africa are 82,000-year-old beads made from Nassarius shells that were found in the Aterian levels at Grotte des Pigeons, Taforalt, Morocco. The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt was the world's tallest structure for 4,000 years, until the completion of Lincoln Cathedral around the year 1300. The stone ruins of Great Zimbabwe are

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also noteworthy for their architecture, and the complexity of monolithic churches at Lalibela, Ethiopia, of which the Church of Saint George is representative.Music and danceEgypt has long been a cultural focus of the Arab world, while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular West Africa, was transmitted through the Atlantic slave trade to modern samba, blues, jazz, reggae, hip hop, and rock. The 1950s through the 1970s saw a conglomeration of these various styles with the popularization of Afrobeat and Highlife music. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of the musical genre of soukous, dominated by the music of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Indigenous musical and dance traditions of Africa are maintained by oral traditions, and they are distinct from the music and dance styles of North Africa and Southern Africa. Arab influences are visible in North African music and dance and, in Southern Africa, Western influences are apparent due to colonisation.SportsFifty-three African countries have football (soccer) teams in the Confederation of African Football, while Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal, and Ghana have advanced to the knockout stage of recent FIFA World Cups. South Africa hosted the 2010 World Cup tournament, becoming the first African country to do so. According to FIFA ranking, Egypt currently has the best soccer team in Africa. Their team has won the African Cup 7 times, and a record-making 3 times in a row.Cricket is popular in some African nations. South Africa and Zimbabwe have Test status, while Kenya is the leading non-test team in One-Day International cricket and has attained permanent One-Day International status. The three countries jointly hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. Namibia is the other African country to have played in a World Cup. Morocco in northern Africa has also hosted the 2002 Morocco Cup, but the national team has never qualified for a major tournament. Rugby is a popular sport in South Africa and Namibia.

RELIGIONAfricans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are too sensitive a topic for governments with mixed populations. According to the World Book Encyclopedia, Islam is the largest religion in Africa, followed by Christianity. However, according to Encyclopædia Britannica, 45% of the population are Christians, 40% are Muslims and less than 15% continue to follow traditional African religions. A small number of Africans are Hindu, Baha'i, or have beliefs from the Judaic tradition. Examples of African Jews are the Beta Israel, Lemba peoples and the Abayudaya of Eastern Uganda. There is also a small minority of Africans who are non-religious.TERRITORIES AND REGIONSThe countries are categorised according to the scheme for geographic sub-regions used by the United Nations. Regions of Africa: Northern Africa Western Africa Central Africa Eastern Africa Southern Africa

(Wikipedia encyclopedia) 1 Odedele, S 2012 p 12 - 18

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African public relations practice

PR practice in Africa can be classified into two: ancient and modern.Ancient practice: This was the pre-colonial practice of PR.

How to record and communicate information about religion and government. Thus written scripts were invented that could be used to record this information such as hieroglyphic and papyrus scrolls.

How the scribes worked; writing hieroglyphs, keeping government records and writing letters for kings.

Using of communication tools and media; gong, talking drum, moon-light storytelling, folk tales telling, village square gathering, sporting activities.

Modern practice: It comprises the colonial and post-colonial practice of the profession, Press Agentry. Public Information. Two-way Asymmetrical. Two-way Symmetrical.

Press agentry describes the model where information moves one-way from the organization to its publics.

……… it is synonymous with promotions and publicity. Public relations people operating under this model are

constantly looking for opportunities to get their organization’s name favorably mentioned in the media.

Public information differs from press agentry because the intent is to inform rather than to press for sales, but

communication is still essentially one-way. Practitioners operating under this model respond to queries from

their various publics and become proactive when they believe their publics need to know something important.

The two-way asymmetric model is best described as scientific persuasion. It employs social science methods

to increase the persuasiveness of its message. Public relations practitioners use polls, interviews, and focus

groups to measure public attitudes that gain the support of key publics. Although feedback is built into process,

the organization is much interested in having the publics adjust to the organization rather than the reverse.

The two-way symmetric model represents a public relations orientation in which organizations and their

publics adjust to each other. It focuses on mutual understanding and two-way communication rather than one-

way persuasion.

The practice of public relations in Africa can be traced to around 1700 BC in the ancient Egypt.Egyptian LifeDaily life in ancient Egypt revolved around the Nile and the fertile land along its banks. The yearly flooding of the Nile enriched the soil and brought good harvests and wealth to the land. The people of ancient Egypt built mud brick homes in villages and in the country. They grew some of their own food and traded in the villages for the food and goods they could not produce. Most ancient Egyptians worked as field hands, farmers, craftsmen and scribes. A small group of people were nobles. Together, these different groups of people made up the population of ancient Egypt. (The British Museum)Pharaoh: Lord of the Two LandsThe most powerful person in ancient Egypt was the pharaoh. The pharaoh was the political and religious leader of the Egyptian people, holding the titles: 'Lord of the Two Lands' and 'High Priest of Every Temple'. As 'Lord of the Two Lands' the pharaoh was the ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt. He owned all of the land, made laws, collected taxes, and defended Egypt against foreigners.

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As 'High Priest of Every Temple', the pharaoh represented the gods on Earth. He performed rituals and built temples to honour the gods. Many pharaohs went to war when their land was threatened or when they wanted to control foreign lands. If the pharaoh won the battle, the conquered people had to recognise the Egyptian pharaoh as their ruler and offer him the finest and most valuable goods from their land. (The British Museum)

WritingThe ancient Egyptians believed that it was important to record and communicate information about religion and government. Thus, they invented written scripts that could be used to record this information. The most famous of all ancient Egyptian scripts is hieroglyphic. However, throughout three thousand years of ancient Egyptian civilisation, at least three other scripts were used for different purposes. Using these scripts, the scribes were able to preserve the beliefs, history and ideas of ancient Egypt in temple and tomb walls and on the papyrus scrolls. (The British Museum)

The Scribes

Two main duties of the scribes: Writing hieroglyphs that appeared on the tomb and temples Keeping government records and writing letters for pharaoh.

These scribes were the governments and the religious organizations public relations executives, because they kept record and communicated information about religion and government to the masses.Joseph in the Bible was the PR executive to the government of Egypt of his time. To avert famine at that time, he used PR campaign to educate the Egyptians for gathering food for seven years of plenty and to distribute food for the other seven years of famine.He demonstrated PR prowess by analyzing trends, predicting their consequences, counselling Pharaoh (the head of the government) and implementing planned program of action which served the government’s and the public interest. This collaborated with the IPRA’s definition of PR: PR practice is the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences, counselling organization leaders and implementing planned program of action which will serve both the organization’s and the public interest.

There were different means of communication in Africa as earlier mentioned before the advent of the colonial masters; these include using the gong by the town crier to call the attention of the target audience and announcing the message of the ruler, elder consultative forum, age-group forum, moon-light story telling, folk tales telling, talking drums, village square gathering, sporting activities, etc. 2 Odedele, S 2012 p 19 - 21

Public Relations has been operating successfully for over 50 years in Africa, with over 12,000 members in the various professional bodies around the continent 3 (Skinner et al., 2012)

Development in North AfricaDespite the fact that one of the early history of PR practice could be traced to North Africa , PR is still at low ebb in the region. There is only one PR association in the region, ‘Arab Public Relations Society’ of Egypt. The ignorance of public relations activities affect the perception of the people of the region of the power and usefulness of PR. It is only Egypt that has a record of PR practice in the region.

Public relations as a separate business function, is practically non-existent in Egyptian and other Middle Eastern companies. Egypt's only major PR firm, RadaResearch and Public Relations Co, caters mostly to foreign companies that understand the importance of PR in the business environment. This situation is attributed to the lack of understanding of the value of a favorable public image in the region. RadaResearch PR Manager Halim Abou Seif also points to the differences between Western and Middle Eastern business practices. He notes that Egyptian and Middle Eastern business communicators need to improve on such areas as translating, informing clients as to how they are perceived by the public, planning technical articles for the 'vertical' media, and dealing with 'crisis' situations.According to observers of the Egyptian business scene, Egyptian businesses do not understand the contribution public relations can make, confuse it with advertising or don't believe in it even while the private sector is growing in the new era of economic reform toward privatization. Business people in the Middle East don't know that in the U.S. and Europe, public relations is much more than generating favorable publicity and knowing what kind of story is likely to be printed or broadcast. They don't

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know that a strategic goal is to project a favorable public image, one of good corporate citizenship. Nor, that allied with that is the first responsibility of public relations: to persuade management that the reality must correspond with the public image. One Egyptian practitioner, who works with 15 foreign clients, sees his company's client list growing in the next five years, but is pessimistic about any growth among Egyptian companies working with the profession. Halim Abou Seif, public relations manager for RadaResearch, says, "There is not enough understanding among Egyptian companies about what public relations can do. Whatever growth comes will come from international companies." He notes that the Egyptian culture differs from the Western experience and that business practices, financing, retail distribution and consumer tastes may appear unusual to a foreign company doing business in Egypt for the first time. He adds that Egyptian culture often requires an approach quite different from accepted practice in North America and Europe. RadaResearch, founded in 1982, is an Egyptian company, independently owned and managed by Loula Zaklama, a dynamic executive who frequently travels through the Western world to meet with clients, being invited into their corporate planning sessions. For example, in July she was in Germany to meet with top executives of Upjohn, one of the firm's clients.She has been a public relations practitioner for a dozen years, teaches the subject at American University in Cairo, and has taken numerous courses in the U.S. and U.K. Zaklama is well known in the American Chamber of Commerce in Cairo as a member of several international public relations associations that work to codify and uphold ethical standards. Understanding PR is rare She says she is disturbed by the status of public relations in Egypt, which she characterizes as a profession like engineering or architecture. She estimates there are about 5,000 people in the country who have the title of public relations practitioner, but they don't understand the concept of the profession at all. In Zaklama's view there are no more than 50 skilled professionals in the country. Some, she says, are employed by industry and hotels. But, overall, she looks askance at the role of public relations in hotels. "The hotels tend to dump public relations into the sales department or guest relations. They do a lot of other things and it's just a side job." Her firm employs 25 Egyptians, with five working on public relations. It is affiliated with the international communication firms of Gallup International, Hill & Knowlton and Charles Barker of London -- and its major clients include Boeing, Pepsi Cola, Procter and Gamble and Glaxo, a British pharmaceutical firm. RadaResearch -- which has done no advertising work for six years -- offers a classic example of what a public relations agency can do for a client wherever the client is located. Its wide range of professional services to help clients meet their corporate relations and communication needs include these standard practices: * Media relations, which includes issuing the news releases, following up with the media on news releases, regular personal contact with media representatives, preparation of media kits for news conferences and special events. * Special events planning and coordination for inaugurations, seminars, open houses, visits, exhibitions and conferences. * Clipping and monitoring of Egyptian and Middle East media on matters concerning clients. Articles are clipped daily and translated into English, Arabic and French and faxed to clients on a regular basis. * Marketing support of public relations programs including visits to factories and offices and distribution of promotional material. Market research a necessity for some A major part of the company's overall operations is market research services which handles both qualitative and quantitative research from small focus groups to national surveys. These services are for attitude studies, new product development, product testing, social research studies and market forecasting. It is one of only several companies specializing in market research in Egypt. Seif says that the media relations aspect of public relations in Egypt is "very tough." "There is a big confusion among the news media people about advertising and public relations. When we call on the media, they often think it's for advertising. For the media to run a story based on a press release it has to be a strong, fantastic event. "It's hard to get the name of your client printed. Our clients understand this. It takes time to build an awareness of a product. In time, maybe you can get the name of the client into the story rather than just 'pharmaceutical firm." Seif recalls a major PepsiCo convention at Mena House, one of the five-star Cairo hotels, attended by more than 300 company executives. The chairman gave a speech on economics; some of the media mentioned the name of the company, some described him as head of a "soft drink company."

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Among the special events RadaResearch has worked on was General Motors Egypt's official factory opening and Northrop Corporation's demonstration of its F-20 Tiger Shark fighter aircraft to the Egyptian Air Force. Seif says the best chance for publicity is via special events because of the "very difficult reception" of news sent to the media in Cairo. However, he notes that magazines are not as difficult as television, radio and the major newspapers (which have severe limitations of space). Photos sent to the major daily print media are "out of the question" whereas magazines will use a quality shot, especially the business weekly Tissadi. Technology lags, pace is slower.A major difference between doing media relations in the Western world and Egypt is that very little communication is done here via fax or telephone. Seif says: "You have to go to the media person each time, explain, and follow-up in person. There's a problem because many are only in the office one hour a day and the trick is to find out what that hour is." Another aspect of RadaResearch's media relations is having clients -- such as Boeing and Upjohn -- invite Egyptian news reporters to their headquarters in the U.S. There, they have an opportunity to learn some key aspects of public relations. These, he says, include:

Translating. Most executives do not excel at public speaking or writing in non-business words -- so the public relations function is to translate the executive's knowledge into intelligible information, without jargon, to an audience.

Acquainting the client with public perceptions of that client so that information disseminated is consistent with the real world.

Preparing technical articles for what is called the "vertical" media (a term not known in the Middle East).

And, responding to "crisis" situations. The concept has not arrived in the Middle East, with one exception, that when a disaster strikes, the public relations practitioner's job, working with legal counsel, is to assess the situation, assemble the facts, and organize the client's response. The exception was several years ago when a Kuwaiti airliner was hijacked, and the Kuwaitis adopted a public relations plan.

Seif, who has been with RadaResearch for two years, after working in market research, says his section works closely with the public relations departments of its clients. For example, he spent 10 days in Seattle, Wash., on a trip to the Boeing Company. RadaResearch is planning now for two events this fall. One is prominent U.S. heart surgeon Adel Matar's return to Egypt to perform several sophisticated operations and participate in medical conferences and, the arrival of the new Boeing 737-500 for the national airline, Egypt Air. In summing up, Seif says the view of public relations by RadaResearch is remarkably in sync with prevailing practice in the U.S. But, it's a loner in the Middle East. Paul Spiers is a media consultant and freelancer in Cairo.Source: International Association of Business Communicators

Development in Southern Africa

The development of PR practice is more advanced in South Africa than other countries in the region. Although the practice is developing in Zambia, there is no PR association in the country. Swaziland and Zimbabwe have national PR associations, while Namibia is a member of the Public Relations Institute of Southern Africa, PR practice is also developing in Lesotho, although there is no national PR association.The era of modern PR in South Africa could be traced to the colonial era, this led to the establishment of PRISA.

PRISA - the Institute for Public Relations & Communication Management was founded in 1957 by a handful of public relations practitioners. Membership grew over the years - today membership stands at 3 510 including students. “The institute represents senior practitioners and consultants as well as student members. It is dedicated to delivering dynamic, value-added services to members and to ensure continued growth and professionalisation of the industry”. Source: PRISA

Public Relations is evolving in South Africa, according to Kate Bapela (PRISA former president) the vision of PRISA is “Recognition of public relations professionals as role players of significance in Southern Africa and beyond”. (Bapela, 2003 Communika). This is not just on the paper, it is being pursued logically for actualization.According to Jane Weaver on his experience of PR practice in South Africa (which portrays the level of the development of PR practice in the country):

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Gone are the days of public relations being a stand alone tool as the method of communicating an organization's message to its target audience.In order to survive in the media noise of today, companies must consider implementing an integrated communications strategy. Such a strategy needs to encompass all elements of the traditional or classical marketing mix in addition to other, more innovative tactics.The evolution in the "classical" marketing world has led to a blurring of boundaries in terms of what each service provider offers to its client base. However, it is this very blurring of boundaries that has spearheaded the revolution in what is generally referred to as the public relations space. Public Relations has evolved to being a service involving strategic thought and implementation across all elements of the communications mix.An early definition, coined by Edward Bernay, held that: "Public relations was a management function which tabulated public attitudes, defined the policies, procedures and interest of an organisation, which was then followed by the execution of a programme of action to earn public understanding and acceptance."EvolvingModern PR approaches are required to be far more integrated and dynamic. Not only are they compelled to keep pace with an industry that is continually evolving with the changing media landscape, but they also have to ensure that they are tuned into the concomitant revolution in the marketing arena. Today, any self-respecting communications consultancy that offers public relations as a tool, acknowledges that public relations is - as Robert Heath says - a set of management, supervisory and technical functions that foster an organisation's ability to strategically listen to, appreciate and respond to those persons whose mutually beneficial relationships with the organisation are necessary to achieve its mission and values.Essentially, an organization that invests in PR is investing in a management function that focuses on two-way communication and fostering of mutually beneficial relationships between that company and its target audiences.Because the essence of public relations, or rather - integrated communications - is so deeply embedded in relationships (those between an organisation - its publics and the media), a further enhancement to the modern approach is a focus on relationship development and management. Communications is fast becoming an applied social science where psychology, as well as knowledge of disciplines related to understanding human behaviour is considered an essential skill for successful practice of the craft.Strategic communications - PR - is no longer about disseminating press releases. It's a 'brave new world' which embodies a well considered strategic communications process (which, by its very nature, must be dynamic and evolutionary). The thinking behind this process has to go way beyond the perceived logical benefits of a traditional PR campaign to a point where every customer touch point is optimised.(Jane Weaver is client service director at HMC Seswa Corporate Communications).Source: www.E:\allAfrica_com South Africa PR is Only One Part of Integrated Communications (Page 1 of 1).htm

According to Margaret Moscardi (the executive director of PRISA) at the annual review 2003/2004.PRISA’ success can be summarized thus:

Establishment of board for public relations and communication in the Business chamber Representation on the Business Chamber of the services SETA Exco. Leadership within G/A and FAPRA ISO certification to new standard Positioning within Africa through EAPRA and FAPRA Hosting of 2006 FAPRA conference Launch of Progressions-CPD for the profession Expansion of skills development Benchmarked levels of practice Registration system aligned to levels of practice Expanded code of ethics and professional standards aligned with global protocol Standards generation Leadership development( Moscardi 2004 Communika).

Development in West Africa

The development of PR is more noticeable in Nigeria and Ghana being former British colonies, couple with growth of civilization, industrialization and political development in the two countries, although still at low ebb. The profession is growing also in The Gambia (a former British colony), the three countries have national PR associations. There are PR firms in Nigeria and Ghana. There is no PR association in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Togo and other West African countries.

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The development of modern public relations in Nigeria started in 1948 when the then colonial administration set up a public relations department with offices in Lagos, Ibadan, Kaduna and Enugu. In charge of the department was a public relation expert, Mr. Harold Cooper, who successfully modernized government information services, and initiated the policy of interpreting government policies to the people. The department was designed to monitor the reaction of the people to official policies and activities; serve as liaison between the mass media and the government and carry out general public relations functions for the government.

The activities of Mr. Cooper and his team of expatriates and Nigerians were initially concentrated on publicity work dealing with problems arising from the second world war such as shortages of goods, deprivation of the necessities of life and imposition of an austere regime by the colonial government. A special section of the department was engaged in publicizing and popularizing the work of the marketing board which at time needed the support of the producers at the grass roots level.Similar publicity activities were simultaneously taking place in such large organizations as the Nigerian Railway which for example used the services of Ernest Ikoli, a veteran journalist on a trainer basis.In addition to ensuring a regular flow of information covering the facets of government activities to the people and interpreting the prevailing policies, Harold Cooper established contacts with selected leaders of thought whose views and attitudes were calculated to be helpful to the overall communication efforts. One interesting novelty was to address letter of welcome to all Nigerian returning from abroad offering them assistance towards the finding of jobs or resettlement in other ways. Harold Cooper was succeeded by his deputy, Mr.John Stocker, who was assisted by such Nigerian stalwarts as Ayo Ljadu, and Mobolaji Odunewu consolidated and expanded government information and public relations activities in the country.

The growing wave of nationalism which followed the end of the war, the emergence of political parties, the fight for independence, campaign for Nigerianization of both the public and private sectors suddenly awakened the foreign firms which dominated the economy of the country to the need for some form of public relations activities calculated to meet press criticisms and misconception of their roles on the part of the people. The only form of pr practised by the trading firms consisted mainly in occasional Hand-outs of specimen items of trade to customers directly or through agents.The next significant changes in the development of pr in Nigeria occurred between the years 1950 and 1960.This period witnessed political, social and economical changes in the country including the attainment of independence with all its implications, the discovery of oil and the shift of emphasis from general trading to industrialization.Led by Shell and U.A.C, the companies were compelled to launch planned programmes covering government press and community relations. They also helped to popularize the creation of pr departments in their various companies, and the development of Nigerians to man such positions.Simultaneously with these developments, the public relations group in the press club of Nigeria in 1959 decide to organise its own separate activities beginning with lunches, film shows, lectures, and such activities as are calculated to be in consonance with the fundamental principles of public relations practice in a developing society.

Following these rapid and extensive spread of public relations activities during the decade, the activity gained professional identity in 1962 with the establishment of the Public Relations Association of Nigeria under the leadership of late Dr.Sam Epelle, a one time director of the federal ministry of information.The association helped to draw together an increasing number of practitioners who over the years had become members, associates of the British institute of public relations, from the mid sixties to the mid-eighties, the association subsequently adopted the more professional name of the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations.

Other contributors to the progress of pr in Nigeria include such as Dennis Buckle, formerly of UAC, and John Stocker, one time regional director of information based in Enugu, Eastern Nigeria.Mass Communication which provides the back-bone for effective practice of the profession was introduced as a course in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, the University of Lagos and the Institute of Management Technology, Enugu. (Offonry, 1985).

According to Dayo Duyile (Duyile, 2006), the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (NIPR) was chartered in 1990, it has over 10,000 members in 36 state chapters.The evolution PR in Nigeria in the private and public sectors has resulted to the establishment of Public Relations firms, this led to the formation of the Nigerian Public Relations Consultants Association in 1983.

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Public Relations is developing in Ghana, there is a national professional body.The Institute of Public Relations, Ghana was established in 1972 as the Public Relations Association of Ghana (PRAG) and registered as a professional body in 1972. PRAG was re-organized and a new constitution and code of ethics were adopted on December 6, 1991 which transformed PRAG into Institute of Public Relations, Ghana (IPR).

Development in East AfricaThe wave of growth in PR practice is moving across the continent. To strengthen PR practice in the eastern region of Africa, the Eastern African Public Relations Associations (EAPRA) was established on December 13, 2002, comprising the Public Relations Society of Kenya (PRSK), Public Relations Associations of Uganda (PRAU), Public Relations Associations of Tanzania (PRAT) and Rwanda’s association. According to Peter Mutie “With the birth of EAPRA, Public Relations practice in the region is expected to take deeper root and cross-border consultation expedited. EAPRA will be seeking observer status in the East Africa Community and the preliminary indication from the community shows no objection to this status. The association will also be seeking to play a leading role in building the image of the region and supplementing the EAC’s endeavours in projecting the true face of the region’s economic, socio-political and environmental status”. (Mutie, 2003 PR Arena).

PR is evolving in Mauritius, an independent Island republic in the Western Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar, which is in East Africa. Although she is not a member of EAPRA, she has a national PR association named Public Relations Association of Mauritius, which is a member of APRA.

Development in Central Africa

The PR practice is noticed in Cameroon, there is a national PR association in the country, while other countries in the regions have no PR associations.

AFRICAN PUBLIC RELATIONS ASSOCIATIONS (APRA)APRA formerly FAPRA is a non–governmental-non–political and non–profit making professional Association established to foster unity and interaction amongst Public Relation Practitioners in Africa as a whole.The African Public Relations Associations (APRA) was inaugurated in Nairobi Kenya in the year 1975, as the umbrella body of all National Public Relations Associations in Africa. (APRA’s website)APRA is the continental body of the PR practitioners. It was established to improve public relations co-operation and development in Africa. It aims at functioning like European Confederation of Public Relations (CEPR), its European counterpart but with focus on environmental adaptation to make modern PR practice relevant to African nations.

MISSION

“Our primary purpose is to help in creating an enabling professional environment for accurate perception, goodwill and understanding of necessary and effective performance of Public Relations practice in Africa”.

APRA (African Public Relations Assiociation)The African Public Relations Association (APRA) inaugurated in 1975, Nairobi Kenya is the umbrella body of all National Public Relations Associations in Africa.

The Association set out to achieve the following aims & objectives: - To be the clearing house for public relations information in Africa

- To set standards of public relations practice through its code of ethics.

- To foster the establishment of national and sub-regional public relations organisations so that the profession can flourish in the continent.

- To promote African Unity and Co-operation especially as consultant body to the African Union and its various agencies.

- To publish bulletins and journals on public relations in Africa.

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- To affiliate with all other similar international professional bodies.These aims and objectives are complemented by a 17-paragraph Code of Professional Conduct approved by its Council. (APRA’s website)

Focus of APRA Collaborating with the higher educational institutions in providing education/training Conducting research on African Union (AU) on PR affairs in the continent Establishing a Public Relations Education Training (PRETFUND) to promote public relations

education, training and research. Publishing of the professional journal, ‘Public Relations in Africa’ Re-positioning Africa’s image and reputation, correcting the misperceptions and misrepresentations. Exploiting the power of the mass media, establishing a continental broadcasting network and

encouraging the exchange of news stories between journalists and PR practitioners. Transparency, trust, honesty and integrity should portray PR practice in the continent. Forging partnership with NGO, private and public enterprises and governments to galvanise change on

the continent. Making the practitioners to intensify training, change orientation, update knowledge of current issues,

engage in peer review mechanisms, self-critique and assess their contributions to Afro-optimism beyond rhetoric.

Making the national PR associations to become more active and add impact on the activities and image of APRA.

National PR Associations which are members of APRA

NigeriaNigeria Institute of Public Relations28/30 Ajanaku Street, off Opebi Road,Ikeja , Lagos.Tel: (234) 1 497 5444

South AfricaPublic Relations Institute of Southern Africa ProComm House, 108 Hendrik Verwoerd Drive Ferndale, P.O.Box 2825, Pinegowrie, 2123, RandburgTel: (11) 326 1262, Fax: (11) 326 1259 E-mail: info@prisa.co.za

SwazilandSwaziland Public Relations AssociationBox 5374, MbabaneTel: (268) 40 47977, Fax: (268) 40 47977

UgandaSwaziland Public Relations AssociationP.O Box 3206, KampalaTel: (256) 77 405 759, Fax: (256) 41 233 818

ZimbabweZimbabwe Institute of Public RelationsP.O.Box 445, HarareTel: (263) 4 795 031, Fax: (263) 4 792 516

CameroonCameroon Public Relations AsociationBP 7768, Yaounde Tel: (237) 23 39 41, Fax: (237) 23 39 31

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EgyptArab Public Relations Society 15, Emad Eldin Street, P.O.Box821, CairoTel: (20) 2 900 257Email: rrpr@intouch.comAPRA Membership Network

Ghana Institute of Public Relations In GhanaNo. 196/9 Fifth Estate Road,Kanda. P.O.Box 15118,Accra, Ghana.Tel: (233) 21 228 337, Fax: (233) 21 225 879

Kenya Public Relations Society of Kenya99, Mucai Drive, Off Ngong Road, C/o Corporate Reflection Ltd. P.O. BOX 47711-00100 Nairobi.Tel: (254) 2 720014, 2 720670Fax: (254) 2 723816Email: prsk@prsk.co.ke

MauritiusPublic Relations Association of MauritiusC/o Imagine Communications Ltd, 43, Ternay Street, Port Louis,Tel: (230) 210 1631 Fax: (230) 210 5035Email: imacom@bow.intnet.mu

The GambiaPublic Relations Association of the GambiaP.O.Box 570, Banjul, The GambiaTel: 220 422 5427

According to Dayo Duyile, “Today in Africa PR is being acknowledged as an important communication tool to sustain democratic process and to help preserve the economy, and preserve cultural history and to some extent the African political systems. (Duyile, 2006)There are indigenous and foreign Pr firms in some African countries. Many organizations and the government are employing PR practitioners to meet up with challenges from the publics.

Public Relations Education in AfricaPR education is evolving in Africa, there are many universities in South Africa offering degree course in PR. In Nigeria, the first University to offer a degree programme in PR is the University of Nigeria Nsukka, (MSC Public Relations), some Nigerian Universities are now offering first degree in PR.The Ghanaian Institute of Journalism, Accra is offering public relations courses along its 2- year Diploma course in Journalism.African PR associations play important role in the development of public relations course in many colleges and universities. They also organise seminars, conferences, workshops, etc for the improvement and development of the profession and the professionals.PRISA and NIPR run professional qualifying courses and examinations, PRISA and NIPR professional diploma exams

PRISA also conduct Accreditation programmes (APR) for standardization, professionalism and education for the practitioners. 4 Odedele, S 2012 p 19 - 30

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Current Development

Africa is experiencing public relations evolution, as African nations seek political, industrial, and socio-economic growth. As international trade increases in the continent, African nations are seeking industrial technological development and their governments endeavor to improve their status in the world community.Public Relations is era-friendly and era-compliant, it is not static but dynamic and evolutional. The advent of digital media and social media has come; Public Relations and Communication Management practitioners in Africa are also making use of these media to achieve the desired results.

Media in Africa

Media channels exist that serve the African landmass, such as the BBC World Service, Voice of America,

Channel Africa (satellite television originating from the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) as

well as MultiChoice Africa(MCA). The Nigerian Television Authority International is very visible in its

international broadcasting through its different cable platforms. However, as practical paths for public relations

and corporate communication managers, these have limited value: first, in trying to be broadly “African,” they

lose much of the localism and relevance on which editorial communications depend; and second, they are

essentially limited to particular publics: English speaking, relatively literate and affluent audiences 5

(Mersham& Skinner, 2009, p. 274).

In addition, French is widely spoken in many parts of Africa (West and Central) as is Arabic in North Africa.

Such diversity suggests that the successful application of multi-lingual, multicultural media policies is required

to satisfy diverse audiences throughout the continent. So, the need to plan and manage communications at a

local level or country-by-country is essential. To illustrate such diversity, Kenya currently enjoys 37 TV

stations, 161 FM radio stations, 16 newspapers and 71 consumer magazines, together with a number of trade

technical and professional journals and directories. However, Tanzania leads the rest of East Africa with more

than 55 newspapers, 63 TV stations, 184 FM stations and 73 magazines. Social media and mobile marketing are

having a huge impact on the way individuals are communicating. 6 (Skinner et al 2012)

In North Africa, Egypt has a mix of state-run and private broadcast media. State –run TV operates two national

and six regional terrestrial networks as well as a few satellite channels. About 20 private satellite channels and a

large number of Arabic satellite channels are available via subscription. State-run radio operates about 70

stations belonging to 8 networks. Only two privately owned radio stations are operational. In 2010, the country

had 200,000 internet hosts and more than 20 million internet users.

In West Africa, Ghana has seven TV stations, one state-owned and six private. There are over 120 private radio

stations, one state-owned, while 12 are community-owned. The Ghana Journalists Association has more than 40

registered newspaper houses, two being state-owned.

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Nigeria was the first country in Africa to have TV and radio stations. All 36 states operate TV stations and there

are now some 70 federal government-controlled national and regional stations. There are a number of private

TV stations in major cities, for example in Lagos and Abuja. There is a similar network of state operated radio

stations typically carrying their own programmes except for news broadcasts. In all there are over 120 public

and private radio stations operating throughout Nigeria. Similarly there is also a great diversity of newspapers

and magazines, so media plurality is indeed high involving the state, private owners and communities. 7

(Skinner et al., 2012)

The South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) operates four TV stations, three are free-to-air and one is

for-pay TV;eTV, a private station, is accessible to more than half the population. Multiple subscription TV

services provide a mix of local and international channels. The country enjoys a well developed mix of public

and private radio stations at the national, regional and local levels. The state-owned SABC radio network

operates 18 stations, one for each of the 11 official languages, four community stations and three commercial

stations. There are more than 100 community-based stations that extend coverage to rural areas. As of 2010,

South Africa had 4,835 million internet hosts and more than five million internet users. (Skinner Chris)

African Press Organization

The African Press Organization (APO) is the leading press release wire in Africa, and the global leader in media relations related to Africa.

With headquarters in Dakar, Senegal, the APO owns a media database of over 25,000 contacts and the main Africa-related news online community.

It offers a complete range of media relations tools such as press releases wire and monitoring services, online press conferences, interactive webcasts, media interactions, strategic advice, public diplomacy, government relations, and events promotion.

The APO provides free services to African journalists, innovative communications products to communication agencies, companies, governments, and supports many international institutions and NGOs in their strategic communications.

http://www.apo-opa.org

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Public Relations Campaign in Africa

Using PR in Africa grew out of relatively consistent research findings demonstrating that focused, receiver oriented communication strategies could play a significant role in accelerating the rate of technology transfer, whether it be process or product- or both. The use of PR could accelerate awareness of, and adoption rates toward, recommended technologies through information, motivational messages and training.

PR campaigns have been used in many African countries, with outstanding results. According to Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): Certainly among the best documented campaign examples were those launched in Tanzania during the 70's, namely, the 1973 health campaign, Man is Health, which ran for a 12 week period, and the 1975 nutrition campaign, Food Is Life, which extended over an 18 week period. Both campaigns, conducted on a national level, were built around organized, village-based study groups. About 70 000 such groups, with 15 people in each, were targeted in the first campaign and 75 000 in the second. Basic elements included a weekly half-hour radio broadcast, an accompanying text book with a specific chapter reinforcing each radio lesson, and trained group leaders supplied with study guide manuals. Radio was also used in a variety of ways to encourage enrolment. Songs written especially for the campaigns were promoted (one written for the health campaign quickly climbed to the top ten in the national hit parade), and catchy commercials were aired frequently. Several speeches were carried by the Prime Minister calling for full participation. Additional promotion materials included posters, press releases, and T-shirts and dresses bearing the campaign logos.

The target for the first campaign was one million participants, and 1.5 million for the second. Both campaigns exceeded these targets with some 2 million initially showing up for the sessions. As a result, a number of problems arose which were not initially foreseen. Chief among these were the supplies of both study texts and group leader manuals; and because of the burgeoning numbers, some of the group leaders which had to be quickly pressed into service were inadequately trained. Some critics have also questioned the length of each campaign as being too short to expect many behavioural changes, with the length of time between campaigns, i.e., two years, dissipating the effects of one before the next began. And while positive results were recorded during the first campaign, in terms of knowledge of causes and prevention of common diseases and improvement in some health practices, no Before-after' impact evaluation studies were conducted in the second. The more compelling legacies of these campaigns thus rested in the guidelines they provided for orchestrating action on a national level to improve the quality of rural life, and lessons for doing it better.9 Odedele, S 2012 p.33

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Case Study-1

PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP TO PROMOTE HAND WASHING IN GHANA

A poster from the Ghana Public-Private Partnership to promote handwashing with soapBACKGROUNDIn Ghana, diarrhoea accounts for 25 percent of all deaths in children under five and is among the top three reported causes of morbidity. Children under five typically have three-five episodes of diarrhoea and a similar number of respiratory infections a year. Nine million episodes of disease could be prevented each year by washing hands with soap. Ghanaians use soap, and they buy a lot of it. However, the soap is almost all used for cleaning clothes, washing dishes and bathing. In a baseline study, 75 percent of mothers claimed to wash hands with soap after toilet use, but structured observation showed that only 3 percent did so, while 32 percent washed their hands with water only. Mothers who did wash hands with soap generally did so because it felt good to remove dirty matter from hands, it was refreshing, it was a way of caring for children and it could enhance their social status. PROBLEM STATEMENTDiarrhoea increases children morbidity rate in Ghana, 25 percent of all deaths in children under five are caused by diarrhoea. Nine million episodes of disease could be prevented each year by washing hands with soap.OBJECTIVES

To make contamination visible to the ordinary Ghanaian To effectively communicate a hygiene message using commercial marketing

techniques.

METHODThe Ghana Public-Private Partnership to Promote Handwashing with soap crafted a high-impact communication strategy with the slogan “For Truly Clean Hands, Always Wash with Soap.” The intensive phase of the program’s communication activities was carried out in the period 2004-06. During this phase, the program used three routes to bring the handwashing with soap message to the target audiences – mothers and caregivers of children under five years and children in basic school, ages 6-15 years, across the whole country. The routes included mass media, direct consumer contact and a district-level program through schools, health centers and communities. The communication strategy also included a public relations and advocacy component that targeted policy makers and opinion leaders and promoted the provision of handwashing infrastructure in schools and public latrines.

The Communication Strategy AchievementsMass media: The program employed state-of-the-art marketing strategies. The guiding concept for this phase of work was “Your hands are only truly clean if washed with soap.” Two radio and two TV adverts suggested that there was “‘something’ on your hands,” suggesting an unknown menace, an unseen contamination that only soap could remove. The two radio adverts and a TV advert targeted mothers and caregivers, while the other TV advert targeted children. The radio and television adverts were supported by posters and billboards sited in all 110 district and 10 regional capitals of the country, and the distribution of promotional items like badges, T-shirts, branded poly bags and soap. The radio and TV adverts ran for six months, with particularly intense activity in the first three months of the campaign. Direct to consumer contact: Under the Direct Consumer Contact (DCC) Programme, an event management firm visited two districts per region in six regions and conducted 128 high-impact events in schools to reach 103,313 school children, 2,930 teachers, 926 food vendors and 132 events in health centers and communities for 11,500 mothers. DCC is used as an interpersonal communication strategy that provides information on handwashing with soap in an innovative and interactive,

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face-to-face manner. This direct contact allows consumers to ask questions and converse about handwashing with soap, which facilitates behavior change. PR campaign: A public relations program targeted at opinion leaders and strategic targets delivered continued press and media coverage in support of the aims of the handwashing program. A number of radio and television discussion programs and interviews were held throughout the country on national media and district-specific FM radio stations. An advocacy brochure that outlined the strategy for the initiative was also produced and distributed to strategic targets and partners.

RESULTAn evaluation reported that, after six months of the campaign, rates for handwashing with soap for mothers were over 80 percent. Exposure to all campaign materials was also high, with almost everyone aware of and able to sing the campaign theme song, and with more than 80 percent of children and adults reporting more handwashing with soap since the campaign. The Ghana handwashing program for the first time made contamination visible to the ordinary Ghanaian and was able to communicate a hygiene message in an innovative manner along the lines of commercial marketing.

LESSONS LEARNEDA major lesson from the Ghana program was that when partners from different backgrounds and sectors are not accustomed to working together, establishing common grounds and trust takes time and effort. Another important take-home lesson was that the public and private sector can work together for the public good when there is transparency, the strengths of each are recognized and each member is treated as an equal in the partnership.

Source: UNICEF’s Overview | Aperçu

QUESTIONS1. Was the campaign of handwahing successful?, discuss

2. Success of a public relations campaign is determined by the campaign plan used, do you agree?, discuss. Was the campaign plan of handwashing effective or defective?

3. In a public relations campaign, identifying the stakeholders before the campaign and designing an appropriate communication strategies of reaching such, will lead to the success of the campaign. Is it true?, discuss. If you are the Communication Manager of UNICEF, Ghana how would you handle the campaign on hand washing?.

4. Evaluation is not necessary in public relations campaign, do you agree?, comment. Design the evaluative programme for the hand washing campaign as the Communication Manager of UNICEF, Ghana.

5. Design the media plan of reaching the stakeholders as the Communication Manager of UNICEF.

10 Odedele, S 2012 p.70 - 72

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Case Study-2

PUBLIC AWARENESS ON WATER SCARCITY IN EGYPT

This case is on Public Awareness Campaign.

BACKGROUND

From 1995 to 1998, GreenCOM assisted USAID and Egypt’s Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources (MPWWR) in initiating a participatory communication program to educate different segments of the public about water conservation and water pollution prevention. The MPWWR is responsible for managing the waters of the Nile, including irrigation canals, drains, and groundwater. Its mandate is of the utmost importance, as water sustains the social and economic well being of Egypt. In the mid-1990s, however, the country’s limited water supply was under great strain from population growth, increasing use of intensive agricultural practices, and industrial development

Although the MPWWR traditionally focused on the engineering issues related to water delivery, the late minister Dr. Mohammed Abdel Hady Rady recognized that engineering expertise had to be matched by careful consideration of people’s needs and behaviors. He requested USAID’s help to build his ministry’s ability to involve water users in formulating and implementing new policies promoting efficient delivery, use, conservation, and protection of water resources.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

In the mid-1990s, Egypt’s limited supply was under great strain from population growth, increasing use of intensive agricultural practices and industrial development. Although the Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources traditionally focused on the engineering issues related to water delivery, the minister of Public Works and Water resources recognised that engineering expertise had to be matched by careful consideration of people’s needs and behaviours.

OBJECTIVES :

To build the Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources’ ability. To involve water users in formulating and implementing new policies. To promote efficient delivery, use, conservation, and protection of water resources.

METHOD

Establishment Of The Water Communication Unit

GreenCOM’s first step was to develop a water communication strategy for the MPWWR. Included in this strategy was a recommendation to create a special department within the ministry that would be dedicated solely to communication. One month Establishment of the Water Communication Unit after GreenCOM’s strategy was presented to the minister and his senior staff, a ministerial decree was issued to launch the MPWWR’s new Water Communication Unit (WCU). The decree encouraged all departments of the ministry to cooperate with the WCU..One of GreenCOM’s primary objectives was to build the WCU’s capacity to carry out its critical mission within the ministry. A two-week training course was designed for unit staff and introduced them to development communication in theory and practice.Specific topics included:* Development communication for behavior change * Tasks of a development communicator* Assessment of MPWWR communication needs* Planning and implementing communication campaigns * Project and personnel management

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* Producing communication materials

After the WCU was established, its staff members collaborated with GreenCOM on a pilot research activity in the village of Manshat Essam in the governorate of Menoufia. Research was focused on mesqa (irrigation canal) clean up and consisted of focus group discussions and in-depth interviews to determine the issues facing village farmers.Following this initial practicum, GreenCOM and the WCU expanded their research to three other governorates—Aswan, Fayoum, and Damietta— before developing the WCU’s first national public awareness campaign.Research indicated that many people did not realize the gravity of Egypt’s water shortage, nor did they trust the

MPWWR because they perceived past experiences with the ministry in a negative light. Despite their lack of awareness about water quantity, they were very anxious about quality,voicing a high level of concern about pollution in the mesqas and other sources.Research indicated that many people did not realize the gravity of Egypt’swater shortage.

First National Campaign

After GreenCOM helped the WCU staff conduct formative research and learn basic development communication skills, they were ready to implement their first national public awareness campaign on water scarcity. This campaign concentrated on four themes:* Egypt’s water comes from other countries and a treaty limits the amount Egypt can use. * As the population increases, the amount of water available per person will decline.* Farmers use the most water and can conserve the most. * MPWWR field staff are in frequent contact with farmers and play an important role in shaping farmers’ water conservation behaviors.

Target AudienceFarmers were the main target audience of this campaign, but GreenCOM and the WCU also targeted MPWWR field staff and the mass media. Campaign tools and products included:

* Media ExposureThe WCU arranged 19 radio or television appearances for senior MPWWR staff, who were interviewed about the campaign. As relationships were built between the WCU and major media outlets, the two groups began to work together, identifying key MPWWR officials to be interviewed, developing interview questions, and preparing ministry staff for their television appearances. The WCU also arranged workshops in Cairo, Port Said, and Alexandria to brief media representatives about the campaign and introduce them to the roles and responsibilities of the ministry.

* Communication Support MaterialsGreenCOM guided WCU staff in preparing a set of print materials for distribution to MPWWR field staff, media representatives, and schools.Important links with other government agencies were built, as the WCU collaborated with the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Agriculture on these materials.

Products included a special issue of the WCU monthly newsletter for field engineers to highlight the awareness campaign and a briefing folder for fact sheets, reports, and other written products for ministry field staff and media representatives. For schools, the WCU created a teacher guide on water scarcity issues and a wall chart to illustrate proper and improper uses of water. Students also received a colouring book calendar and an irrigation calendar to take home to their parents.

*Public Service AdvertisementsAnother important aspect of the WCU’s first campaign was the use of television, radio, and print advertisements on water scarcity.GreenCOM helped the WCU contract an Egyptian advertising agency to develop five radio and six television spots, two newspaper ads, and a set of promotional handouts (hats, bumper stickers, and pocket calendars) for MPWWR field staff and other groups. The reach of the campaign was extensive. During a three-month period,

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the television spots were broadcast free of charge more than 1,000 times and were viewed by almost 26 million Egyptians.

Building MPWWR CapacityAfter GreenCOM had assisted the Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources in establishing the Water Communication Unit and developing the WCU’s first public awareness campaign, USAID asked the project to provide further assistance to the WCU under the auspices of the Agricultural Policy Reform Project. There were two specific objectives for this next phase. The first was to increase water users’ awareness of the need for water conservation and pollution prevention. The second was to build better relationships between water users and the MPWWR field staff, especially the district water engineer.To design appropriate training interventions, GreenCOM conducted a knowledge, attitudes, and practice study with more than 1,000 farmers and their wives. The objective of this study was to help the MPWWR understand the concerns and perspectives of this critical segment of the population. Allowing the research was a remarkable step for the ministry, which was used to operating in a highly centralized, top-down manner, dictating from Cairo how much irrigation water each farmer received and even which crops the farmers could plant. * Demand for the resulting research report was so high that a second printing was required.

The research found that farmers were distrustful of the MPWWR and its district engineers, who worked in the field on managing irrigation water. Likewise, a survey of 183 district water engineers revealed that they perceived the farmers as ignorant and tended to blame them for all water problems. Thus, GreenCOM and the WCU’s main task was to help each group appreciate the perspective of the other, build trust and open communication channels between farmers and engineers, and demonstrate the potential benefits accruing to each side from greater collaboration through such innovations as water user associations.GreenCOM and the WCU implemented a comprehensive communication training program for district engineers and other MPWWR employees. By the end of this program, 180 engineers had been trained in communication and customer service skills and 125 senior and mid-level ministry staff had taken part in seminars on management and problem solving. Eighty ministry inspectors also received management training. In addition, WCU representatives made nearly 20 visits to district engineer sites to help the engineers facilitate partnership meetings with farmers. The WCU staff and engineers also hosted four educational meetings with about 5,000 schoolchildren.To complement the district engineer training, GreenCOM continued to strengthen the skills of WCU staff to enable the unit to support both the engineers and farmers as the MPWWR implemented new policies. GreenCOM provided training for the WCU in a variety of areas including technical writing, graphics software, video production, materials pretesting, evaluation, and customer service.For example, GreenCOM purchased video and audio production equipment and trained staff members in producing short videos. One product was a14-minute video illustrating aspects of field engineer staff training and meetings with farmers. Other videos documented the implementation of MPWWR policy initiatives such as the formation of water user associations. Staff members also gained experience by videotaping all training events during the first six months of 1999 and covering the MPWWR’s Nile 2000 Conference.During this phase of the project, GreenCOM not only engaged in capacity building activities for ministry staff but also developed a second public awareness campaign on water scarcity.

*Television and Radio SpotsSix television spots on Egypt’s growing water scarcity were broadcast in the summer of 1998.Selected national and regional stations aired them more than 300 times per month for a total of 1,028 airings. It is estimated that the spots were seen at least once by 90 percent of the rural population (or 13,310,000 people) and by 87 percent of the total population (or 25,838,000 people).A follow-on campaign of twelve television and radio spots was produced to exemplify the theme of government and farmers as partners, joined in a common endeavor to confront water scarcity. In this series, farmers were portrayed as successful businessmen who recognize that water is an essential resource upon which their prosperity depends. The benefit/rationale for behavior change was financial security and increased income for farmers who adopt recommended water management practices.

*DocumentariesTwo 15-minute video documentaries were produced as part of the campaign that focused on specific water conservation practices in certain geographical areas and particular agricultural sectors. These documentaries were designed for use in farmer meetings conducted as another part of USAID’s Agricultural Policy Reform Project. The first featured a water saving method for sugar cane irrigation. The second encouraged farmers to plant a new variety of rice that consumed less water due to a shorter growing season. The need for such a video

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was underscored by data from the KAP study of farmers, which revealed that only 36 percent of farmers believed they had sufficient information to select new, water-saving crops.WCU media personnel cooperated with a commercial producer to create the videos, which provided additional on-the-job training.

*News ProgramsTwenty-six episodes of a 10-minute television show called Water News for Farmers were produced with the cooperation of a television station that covered the entire Delta in Lower Egypt, where agriculture is intensive.Viewership for that channel was estimated at more than three million. The program featured news about water developments, recommendations and schedules for irrigation water delivery, and interviews with local farmers. The program was very useful for disseminating water messages and also served as a model for future co-production with regional broadcasters.

*Other Video ProductionsGreenCOM and the WCU also collaborated on educational/instructional videos, water announcements based on verses from the Koran, and two other documentaries. Training and experience provided through GreenCOM gave the MPWWR a strong foundation for future media campaigns. By the end of the project a new facility had been designed and constructed and an annual budget secured for the WCU, thus enabling the group to produce materials on its own.

*Print MaterialsGreenCOM and project partners produced an extensive library of print materials, including fact sheets to convey core campaign messages to a wide variety of groups including senior staff of the MPWWR, donor agencies, water specialists, and journalists. Such widespread information sharing was not a standard practice in Egypt, so it was a very significant part of the campaign. Other print and electronic materials (posters, booklets, leaflets, brochures, wall charts, calendars, notebooks, coloring books for children, t-shirts, and an assortment of promotional giveaways) were also produced after extensive pre-testing with target groups to ensure message comprehension. Post distribution reports from field staff, trainers, and farmers confirmed the appeal and usefulness of WCU print materials, and in many cases, the MPWWR provided funding to increase print runs.

*Community MobilizationIn addition to the materials produced with GreenCOM, WCU representatives made visits to meetings organized by district engineers to build partnerships with approximately 500 farmers. The WCU staff members helped engineers distribute educational materials and collaborated with them on educational sessions with nearly 5,000 school children.

RESULTS

From 1995 to 1998 GreenCOM played a significant role in helping USAID and the Egyptian government reshape the relationship between a major water user group—farmers—and the Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources. One important result was the formation of the MPWWR’s Water Communication Unit, which reflected the ministry’s commitment to a better relationship with farmers. Through training in research and a wide variety of communication tools, GreenCOM also sharpened the professional skills of ministry staff. The WCU, for example, gained the ability to implement research based communication interventions to help other MPWWR departments carry out their work more effectively. One concrete result was the creation of Egypt’s first national communication campaign on water scarcity. The WCU participated in all stages of this campaign, from the formative research to message development and materials production. WCU staff also began to make regular visits to the field to meet with district engineers, a necessary step for improving internal ministry communications.Another major outcome for GreenCOM and project partners was an increase in district engineers’ knowledge about water-saving techniques and the importance of water user associations. An evaluation at the end of the project found that engineers’ knowledge of water-saving techniques for farmers increased by more than 100 percent; the percentageof engineers who could define a water user association jumped from 53 to 100 percent; and the percentage of engineers who could cite at least two reasons why a farmer would join a water user association increased from 51 to 76 percent.

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After participating in GreenCOM’s training workshops, the engineers began to hold community meetings with farmers to discuss water scarcity issues (representing an almost 200 percent increase in the number of meetings held) and built a framework for creating water user associations in the future, a long-term goal of the MPWWR.

LESSON LEARNED

USAID and Egypt’s Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources used GreenCom in providing solution to the masses’ needs. This shows the importance of using a PR firm (external practitioners) in providing solution to PR problems.Engineering expertise of the Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources was to be matched with careful consideration of people’s needs and behaviour.Research indicated that many people did not realize the gravity of Egypt’s water shortage. It points to the importance of research as a public relations tool, which should be used in diagnosing the organizational problem before the prescription of a solution.Relevant PR strategies were used by GreenCom which led to the success of the campaign.

Source: GreenCom.

QUESTIONS

1. Is it important to employ the service of a PR firm by an organization, even if there is a PR department in the organization?, discuss.

2. What are the functions of the Water Communication Unit of the Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources?.

3. Is the establishment of the Water Communication Unit necessary?, comment.4. What role does research play in the success of the campaign?.5. Identify the audience and the stakeholders reached in this campaign. How would you

these audience and stakeholders if you were the PR executive of the Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources.

11 Odedele, S 2012 p.83 - 88

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References

1. Odedele, S 2012 p.33. Public Relations and Communication Management in Africa second edition. PR for Africa, Lagos p 12 – 18

2. Odedele, S 2012 p 19 – 21

3. Skinner, J.C., Kiuluku, P., Tikolo, K., & Yankah, K. (2012).Proactive public relations. Nairobi: Moran

4. Odedele, S 2012 p 19 – 30

5. Mersham, G.M.,& Skinner, J.C. 2009 p. 274.”The nature and status of public relations practice in Africa”.

The Global Public Relations Handbook: Theory, Research and Practice. Routledge: New York

6. Skinner et al 2012

7. Skinner et al., 2012

8. http://www.apo-opa.org

9. Odedele, S 2012 p.33

10. Odedele, S 2012 p.70 – 72

11. Odedele, S 2012 p.83 - 88

For further Reading:

1. http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/life/home.html

2. Communika - PRISA Journal 2003 & 2004

3. Offonry, H, K 1985, Guide To Public Relations Practice In Nigeria, Lagos

4. Public Relations Practice-African Perspective (Duyile, 2006), Lagos

5. PR Arena PRSK Journal 2003

6. African Public Relations Associations website: http://afapr.org/apra/