Sustaining Local Food Systems,Agricultural Biodiversity and Livelihoods

Traditional ResourceRights and IndigenousPeople in the Andes

Indigenous farmers in the Andean region ofPeru are the most extraordinary innovatorsand conservers of agricultural biodiversity.The potato originates in this area, and during

centuries of experimentation and domesticationfarmers have bred and selected varieties that thrivein each of the many different ecological niches ofthe Andes. Conserving these varieties, and thehistorical, cultural and social character of thelandscape – in the southern Andes alone there are18 different agro-ecological zones – is extremelyimportant to the Andean indigenous communities.People’s long experience and knowledge of theregion’s plants and animals enables them to earn alivelihood by developing, using, and managing theirresources. But these resources, and the complexsystems that ensure their survival, are under threat.The greatest current threats are social, economicand political and include: • the undervaluation of native crops and animals; • the introduction of new biotechnologies such

as transgenic crops; • people’s extreme poverty; • inappropriate agricultural policies, including the

lack of pro-poor market and economic policies; • a lack of clear rights over knowledge and

genetic resources; • a lack of political will;• a lack of secure land tenure;• loss of cultural identity and spiritual values;• erosion and marginalisation of traditional

knowledge; and • poor understanding of the role of such

knowledge and agrobiodiversity in providing

goods and ecological services for sustainabledevelopment. Peru is one of four countries in which IIED

and its partners are analysing how decentralisedgovernance, farmer participation and capacitybuilding can promote the adaptive management ofagricultural biodiversity in such a way that localfood systems and livelihoods are improved andsupported.1 The others are India, Iran, andIndonesia. IIED’s partner in Peru is ANDES – theQuechua–Aymara Association for SustainableLivelihoods. ANDES is governed by a generalassembly which is largely composed ofindigenous people in different villages in theAndes. They have three professional staff in theiroffice in Cusco, in southern Peru, while another15 technicians and university- trainedprofessionals and 25 local villagers work in thefield with a number of local communities.

All four of the country research teams sharethe same basic principles and understandings, andthere is a shared aim and objectives. It is up toeach country, however, to decide exactly whatactivities would be most helpful in their situation.In Peru ANDES has from the beginning workedwith local communities, making sure that at eachstage those communities were able to say whetherthey wanted to slow down or not, whether theyneeded more information, and whether they werehappy with the process. In the end the decisionsabout what activities to pursue and prioritise weremade by the communities themselves. ANDES

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1 See: www.diversefoodsystems.org for more information on the ‘Sustaining LocalFood Systems, Agricultural Biodiversity and Livelihoods’ action research.

and IIED arranged training for communitymembers in the facilitation and technical skillsneeded for collective deliberation, planning,analysis and action. It is evident from thesuccesses achieved so far that people are puttingtheir new skills into practice.

The action research facilitated by ANDESand IIED emphasises participatory and people-centred processes in sustaining local foodsystems, diverse ecologies, livelihoods andculture. In the language of sustainablelivelihoods, the research partners focus on therelationship between ‘livelihood outcomes’and the role of ‘transforming structures andprocesses’ such as organisations, institutions,laws and policies that transform assets(natural, physical, financial, human, social,cultural) into those outcomes. Examples ofindigenous ‘transforming structures andprocesses’ include: • The development of community- to-

community and farmer- to-farmer learning

networks based on the principle of Ayni(reciprocity). Exchange is promoted throughthe sharing of information, practices andlearning processes. ‘Barefoot technicians’, whoare elected by their own communities,network with other communities and createopportunities to share and transfer traditionalknowledge and innovations.

• The consolidation of local, grassroots

enterprises. These groups are anchored inAndean principles of reciprocity and a localdefinition of well-being, and work using theprinciples of Andean economy with the goalof reinforcing local food systems.

The research methods combine traditionalQuechua research techniques with ethnographicand contemporary participatory enquirymethods that promote equity and social justicethrough the direct involvement of, and controlof the process by, the local indigenouspopulation. Quechua methods include the use ofprophesies and myths (where communityprocesses and practices are communicatedthrough myths); traditional forecasting andbackcasting techniques; visual and narrativetechniques; and memory, writing, recordkeepingand informationcoding traditions.Contemporary participatory methodologiesinclude Participatory Rural Appraisals,community-based evaluation, methods fordeliberation and inclusion, and practicalparticipatory governance evaluation.

Within this framework emphasis is given to:

(1) The goals and interests of the Quechuacommunities, which are about:

• solving problems; • achieving through this process political goals

such as social justice and having a voice inpolicy and decision-making; and

• emphasising knowledge systems, the Quechuaworld view, and particularly the importance ofindigenous cultural and spiritual values.

(2) The equity and fairness of the researchprocess, including:

• local control of decision-making; • fair selection of participants; and • in-depth participation by the different

members of the community. 3

Words and pictures The Andean communities that are part of this action research have a veryrich oral culture which relies on symbols, ceremonies, rituals and elementsin the natural environment. As an important part of this action research isabout documenting indigenous knowledge to help the communities todemonstrate their ownership of it – and learn from sharing it with others –it was felt that video would be the most appropriate tool to record thatknowledge. As part of the project’s farmer exchange activities, a collectiveof women ‘barefoot’ videomakers from India were able to visit thecommunities in Peru. The Indian women shared their experiences withusing video not only to record events, but also to look back and analyse,and to edit and make the choices about how to present information topeople outside their community. The 12-day exchange was a richencounter for all those who took part.

The Potato Park Women’s Video Collective increased their knowledgeabout not only the research process, but also the project overall and itsoutcomes. The Video Collective works with both the Potato Park andbarefoot technicians to document traditional knowledge, makingdocumentaries that show how the Park came into being and why arights-based approach can help sustain not only local livelihoods,diverse food systems and culture, but also biodiversity – from genes towhole landscapes.

The overall aim of each of the countrystudies is to analyse how, and underwhat conditions, decentralisedgovernance, farmer participation, andcapacity building can help farmers tomanage ecosystems well, ensuring thatlocal food systems continue to provideboth food, medicine and incomes forlocal people, as well as conserving thelandscape and agricultural biodiversityfor future generations.

People have special rights when itcomes to food, and claiming andexercising these rights to ‘FoodSovereignty’ has become a movementthat is very much in tune with the workof this project. The People’s FoodSovereignty Network defines theconcept like this:

Food Sovereignty is the right of peoplesto define their own food and agriculture; toprotect and regulate domestic agriculturalproduction and trade in order to achievesustainable development objectives; todetermine the extent to which they want tobe self reliant; to restrict the dumping ofproducts in their markets; and to provide

local fisheries-based communities thepriority in managing the use of and therights to aquatic resources. Food Sovereigntydoes not negate trade, but rather it promotesthe formulation of trade policies andpractices that serve the rights of peoples tofood and to safe, healthy and ecologicallysustainable production.

Context of work in Peru The action research involves indigenousQuechua people who live on the westernslope of the Eastern Mountain Range ofthe Andes, between a latitude of 72°00’31”and 71°21’20” west and a longitude of13°13’10” and 13°58’43” south.

The research area spans a corridor221km long covering approximately1,285,970 hectares between 1,200 and6,000 metres above sea level. It has beendescribed as a micro-centre of origin forpotatoes and other important Andeancrops. The Cusco region has more wildpotato species than anywhere else in theworld, as well as a high cultivated(native) potato diversity. This researcharea alone contains more than 400 of

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Mapping history The Potato Park project has been using a mix ofhigh-tech and innovative participatory mappingto capture the wide range of knowledgeconnected to the Park. A GeographicInformation System (GIS) specialist has createdthree-dimensional topographical models of thePark, which barefoot technicians and ANDESstaff have used to help the communities toidentify and show the locations of sacred sitesand culturally critical areas, social areas, andsocial infrastructure such as schools, health andcommunity centres, meeting places, watersupply points, roads, communication facilities,etc. They have also recorded patterns ofaccess, control and tenure, and land use. Thedistribution of different varieties of potatoes andother Andean crops, medicinal plants, andwildlife is mapped, along with patterns ofsettlement, erosion, sedimentation anddevelopment. At the same time, sketches, aerialphotos and relief models are used in groupdiscussions as a jumping-off point for people todescribe knowledge that is not so easilyrecorded. These maps are used to record therelationships between culture and biodiversitythat are an integral part of Quechua life, and willsupport the design of part of the agro-ecotourism project by identifying landmarks, oldroutes and trails, and biocultural hotspots.

the approximately 1,300 different varietiesof native potatoes found in the region. Italso has seven of the eight knowncultivated species and about 32 per centof wild cultivars. (The distinction in thisregion between cultivated and wildpotatoes is rather blurred and there is aconstant geneflow between the twogroups.)

Small corridors bordering thecultivated farms link the agriculturallandscape with other habitats such as highmountain native forests, grasslands, andwetlands and they play an important rolein hosting a rich variety of endemic plantand animal species. The area is a criticalgenetic reservoir for wild food species.There are also many varieties of otherAndean crops such as Ollucu (Ollucustuberosus), Oca (Oxalis tuberosa), Mashua(Tropucolum aestium), Tarwi (Lupinusmutabilis), Kiwicha (Amarantus caudatus),and Quinua (Chenopodium quinoa) andmany native horticultural species andmedicinal plants. Andean camels such asthe vicuña (Vicugna vicugna), alpaca (Lamapacos) and llama (Lama glama) live in thearea and have significant social, economic,cultural and scientific importance.Threatened or endangered wild mammalsin the area include the taruca(Hippocamelus antisensis), the Andean fox(Pseudalopex culpaeus), weasel (Mustelafranata), vizcacha (Lagidium peruvianum),and the puma (Felis concolor). The mostnotable of the local bird species is thecondor (Vultur gryphus). As for vegetation,the Stipa, Festuca, and Calamagrostis

genuses of the Poaceae family aredominant. There are also unique shrubssuch as Quena (Polylepis sp.) and Quasar(Buddleja sp.).

About 4 million indigenous people livein the project area, where farming is themain way of life. Indigenous communitieslive in relatively isolated cultural pocketsand their farming systems functionmainly outside of the global marketeconomy. According to the World Banksome 19 per cent of poor and 27 per centof extremely poor Andean Peruvians areindiginous people. More than 90 per centof the Quechua people – prouddescendants of the Incas – are includedamong the ‘extremely poor’. This actionresearch primarily involves Quechuacommunities whose main economicactivities are agriculture and livestock.About 10 per cent of people are alsoeither trading within the region orworking in the nearby mines. Indigenousand rural people in the region have seenvery little benefit from tourism.Education levels in Cusco District arelow: less than 20 per cent of local peoplehave more than a primary education and40 per cent do not read or write. Only 33per cent of households have access topotable water, either private or from apublic fountain/basin, 73 per cent have nosanitary facilities, and only 0.5 per centhave motorised transportation.

Most people speak Quechua andmaintain many pre-Hispanic culturaltraditions. They still identify intenselywith their historical origins in agrarian 5

The Tawantinsuyu The Inca civilisation was the largest and most advanced society in theAmericas before its invasion by Europeans. At its height, the Inca stateextended from northern Ecuador to central Chile and from the Andes to thecoast. Their domain spanned 4,000km, including all of the highlands andcoast of Peru, most of the highlands of Ecuador, northern Chile, part ofwestern Bolivia, and part of northwestern Argentina. In Quechua, thelanguage of the Incas, the empire was known as ‘Tawantinsuyu’ whichmeans ‘land of the four quarters’. As the name implies, the realm wasdivided into four parts, coming together at the capital of Cusco:Chinchasuyu to the northwest, Condesuyu to the southwest, Antisuyu tothe northeast, and Collasuyu to the southeast.

The Incas were originally a highland tribe who spoke Quechua.According to a mythological account, they came from the south andsettled in the Cusco basin, to which they were at first confined. The Incaeconomy was based on the intensive terracing of mountain slopes andirrigation. They developed urban centres, a road network, and a well-organised and efficient administration, and had remarkable skills in metalrefining and metalworking, architecture, weaving, pottery, and other arts.The Spanish invasion brought to an end the Inca civilisation in 1532.

communities and rural lifestyles, andcontinue to contribute to theenhancement of biodiversity that isimportant for food and agriculture.Communities are organised into Ayllus,or traditional communities, whichmaintain collective land stewardship andsocial relations. Their agriculturalmanagement systems are based onprinciples of ecological, productive, andsocial sustainability which have at theircore a profound respect for Mother Earth(Pacha Mama) and reverence for thepower and fragility of the Mountains(Apus). The present-day inhabitants of thearea manage, as did their ancestors, a largearray of plant and animal species indifferent stages of domestication, andhave helped to create the area’s richgenetic diversity. Their ecologicalknowledge system is unique. Traditionalagriculture in the region has long beenbased on ecosystem approaches thatnurture the diversity of domesticated andwild food crops, the biological or lifesupport of the production system (forexample soil biota, pollinators andpredators), and the ecosystem functionsand resilience of surrounding landscapes(for example maintenance of wateravailability and quality, wildlife habitatsand soil structure). Cultural beliefs andpractices such as Sacred Groves (Pakarina)have played a crucial role in conservingbiodiversity in the region. The area’sindigenous knowledge is rich ininformation, attitudes, values, skills, andpractices relating to a diversity of localbiological resources and landscapes.

Community Conserved Areas forsustainable food systems Local knowledge systems are the basis for

the adaptive management of highlycomplex Andean ecosystems. Knowledgeis highly dynamic and farmer-ledinnovation is high, especially in naturalresource management, for example in themanagement of ecological niches andplant breeding. Moreover, the localQuechua farmers are well known for theirremarkable ingenuity in the use ofhabitats and species. The majority ofindigenous people in the area continue tofarm traditional crop varieties and animalbreeds, maintaining a high level of geneticdiversity that is well suited to theircomplex and risk-prone environments.Many plots contain more than 100different varieties of potato.

Since 1997 ANDES and sixcommunities of the Pisac area began theconceptual work and implementation ofthe Potato Park. In early 2000 the Peruteam and communities celebrated theopening of the Potato Park, as a‘Community Conserved Area’ (CCA).This is a remarkable result of great visionand years of hard work. The Parkconcept is unusual in that unlike someconservation projects this one isprotecting not only the naturalenvironment, but also the socio-culturalsystems that created the landscape in thefirst place. It is also slightly unusual inthat many of the most important formsof biodiversity in this CCA aredomesticated – in fact they are theproduct of hundreds of years ofdeliberate ecosystem management, geneticselection and breeding by the Andeanfarmers. Most importantly, along with thepark itself there is an ‘Association ofCommunities of the Potato Park’, whichis responsible for running the park. TheAssociation’s members include the

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Vilcanota Spiritual Park In December 2004 the Quechua communities of Q’eros andAusangate launched the Vilcanota Spiritual Park in Cusco. Thefirst Natural Sacred Site in Peru, it recognises and promotesQuechua values and principles in the conservation andsustainable use of biodiversity. Like the Potato Park, it is aCommunity Conserved Area, where the community isresponsible for planning and managing the landscape,integrating new and old ideas as they see fit, and makingtraditional agriculture fit with ecotourism. The Vilcanota regionhas the second most important glacier system in Peru,dominated by Ausangate (6,372m), the main Apu of theSouthern Andes. It is recognised as a hotspot of biodiversity, acritical ecosystem, and one of the main centres of geneticdiversity of important Andean crops. For the Q’eros, mountainsor Apus are sacred beings that represent the most importantexpression of human aspirations.

traditional head authority of each of the communities along withrepresentatives of local residents, local co-operatives, non-government organisations, traditional authorities, and others. Thecommunity members visited other indigenous community projectsin Peru, Bolivia, and Costa Rica to learn from their models, and inSeptember 2003 they presented their plans for the Potato Park toan international audience at the World Parks Congress in Durban,South Africa. Working with other indigenous representatives, localresidents of the Potato Park were instrumental in ensuring that theconcept of Community Conserved Areas was endorsed as a majorpolicy recommendation by the World Parks Congress.

CCAs are natural and/or modified ecosystems containingsignificant biodiversity values, ecological services and culturalvalues, voluntarily conserved by indigenous, mobile and localcommunities through customary laws or other effective means.CCAs can include ecosystems with minimal to substantial humaninfluence as well as cases of continuation, revival or modificationof traditional practices or new initiatives taken up by communitiesin the face of new threats or opportunities. Several of them areinviolate zones, ranging from very small to large stretches of landand waterscapes. Three features are important:

• The relevant communities closely relate to the ecosystems andspecies culturally and/or because of survival and dependence forlivelihood.

• The relevant community’s management decisions and effortslead to the conservation of habitats, species, ecological servicesand associated cultural values, although the conscious objectiveof management may be different (e.g., livelihood, water security,safeguarding of cultural and spiritual places).

• The relevant communities are the major players in decision-making and implementation regarding the management of thesite, implying that community institutions have the capacity toenforce regulations; in many situations there may be otherstakeholders in collaboration or partnership, but primarydecision-making is with the community.

The Peruvian Patent Office has granted the Park Association a‘Collective Trade Mark’ that will be used to market potatoesand other products from the Potato Park. This logo willguarantee that products are from the Park and are of highquality, and will enable the communities to highlight both thecollective nature of their enterprise, and the culturalcharacteristics of the Association. The long-term viability of thePark will partly depend on persuading customers that productsfrom the Park are special and worth buying. In the longer termthe Association plans to use other soft intellectual propertytools to promote and protect their collective biologicalresources as well as to share their experience with and learnfrom other indigenous communities.

While the Potato Park is a working, living and culturally uniquefood system, there are many other benefits that can be earned frompreserving such a beautiful landscape. The Park is pioneering a newagro-ecotourism project that will invite people to enjoy theagricultural landscape, watch wildlife, live closely with the localculture, learn how to cook and prepare local foods, exchangeknowledge, and share elements of Quechua language and culture.Earning income in new ways from the fruits of their labour is allpart of the evolving Quechua culture, and being able to do so ontheir own terms means living independently and with dignity in ourrapidly globalising world. 7

National Day of the Potato Recognising the creativity and genius of theindigenous peoples of the Andes and helping tomaintain their values is what the Potato Park is allabout. To spread the word and encourage othercommunities in Peru to create their own parks,ANDES-IIED and the Association of Communities ofthe Potato Park called on the National Office for theEnvironment (CONAM) to create a National Day ofthe Potato. The appeal, as well as calling forrecognition of indigenous peoples’ knowledge andinnovation systems, asked for specific policies tosupport the efforts of indigenous people toconserve and manage their natural resources and tohelp market and promote the native varieties ofpotatoes. On 23 February 2005 the Peruviangovernment, by decree No 009- 2005-AG, officiallyinstituted the ‘National Day of the Potato’,recognising the potato’s contribution to foodsecurity, cultural and biological diversity, andtraditional knowledge. The Potato Parkcommunities feel particularly proud seeing theirinitiative recognised.

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Indigenous people in PeruAs is common throughout Latin America, indigenous peoplemake up the lowest socio-economic and political strata.Illiteracy is high: until 1998 Peru’s education system did notaccommodate languages other than Spanish, and the schoolyear is still not co-ordinated with agricultural labour cycles.Many people suffer from intestinal disorders and other illnessesassociated with the lack of both potable water and sanitationfacilities.

There are two main and very different groups of indigenouspeople in Peru: those from the Amazon (1.2 per cent of thepopulation) and a much larger group from the Andes (43 percent). Of 6,030 indigenous communities (961 in the Amazon),more than three-quarters are classified as living in extremepoverty or worse.

Isolated from other sectors of Peruvian society, theAmazonian people maintain unique traditional semi-nomadic oragricultural cultures. Their major rights issues are territorialautonomy and protection from resource development thatdamages their local environment and communities. In recentyears, some of the region’s organised political groups have beenable to develop links with indigenous groups from othercountries to share resources and experiences of interacting withthe dominant social and economic systems.

Andean indigenous people Most of Peru’s indigenous people are from the central and

southern Andean regions. They make up 43 per cent of thepopulation and use over 80 different indigenous languages: 30per cent speak Quechua and 22 per cent speak Aymara orrelated dialects. Both languages are recognised by thegovernment, but Spanish is the official state language. Despitea recent wave of urban migration, only 6.7 per cent ofindigenous people live in Lima, and 16.9 per cent in other cities.Half of the remaining 67 per cent live in the rural areas of thesouthern Sierra region.

In the seventeenth century, following Incan imperialpractices, the Spanish conquistadors organised highlandgroups into collectives known as Ayllus. Thereafter, the SpanishCrown protected the borders of the Ayllu lands, but in 1854 thePeruvian government rescinded its support, selling many of thelands. Indians were not represented in the government, nor werethey allowed to negotiate because, as they were illiterate, theywere considered ‘second-class citizens’. Literacy votingrestrictions were not lifted until 1980.

From 1919 to 1930 the government vigorously pursued amodernisation programme to try to integrate indigenous peopleinto modern markets. In 1926, 59 indigenous communities wereofficially recognised. The 1920, 1933, and 1980 constitutions allprotect communal lands. By 1958, the first indigenous unionwas formed to mobilise against the selling of indigenousterritories; as an official union, they received counsel and wereheard in front of judicial bodies.

In 1970 the Statute on Peasant Communities was passed,limiting indigenous organisation and organising a staterepresentative for the groups. In 1979, the Peruvian constitutionwas reformed to protect all ethnic groups and recognise theright of people to adhere to their own ‘cultural identities’.Bilingual education was recognised, including the right to dealwith the state in one’s own language, through an interpreter ifnecessary. Article 149 also gives indigenous communitiesjudicial functions within their territory in ‘accordance withcustomary law’. However, the realisation of such guarantees hasbeen long delayed. The 1980s also saw the formation of severalpeasant organisations that mobilised against agrarian reformand the development of indigenous lands. These include thePeasant Confederation of Peru and the National AgrarianConfederation.

Protecting traditional resource rights Indigenous people in Peru and elsewherehave been conspicuously absent from thedevelopment of policy, legislation orplans aimed at protecting theirknowledge, practices and the landscapesin which they live. Existing internationaland national policy and legislation has sofar failed to integrate their worldview andcustomary laws into such arrangements.Furthermore, much of the work that hasbeen done to date by NGOs, members ofgovernment, and multilateral agenciesregarding the protection of indigenousknowledge and lands has consisted ofsingle approaches. For example, theyusually fail to take into account the factthat indigenous communities alreadyhave systems of knowledge control anddissemination. Policies and practicesdesigned to protect knowledge also fail torecognise the dynamism of traditionalknowledge that is at the very core ofindigenous people’s ability to adaptivelymanage ecosystems and biodiversity atdifferent scales.

This action research has thereforeemphasised more appropriate ways of

protecting indigenous knowledge systems.Current efforts thus aim to furtherincorporate indigenous customary lawsinto local decision-making tools andensure that they are recognised byexisting legal mechanisms or can influencethe development of appropriate nationallegislation. The recently signed potatorepatriation agreement with aninternational genebank (see box on page10) and the development of CommunityBiodiversity Registers linked with opensource software (see box on page 11) aregood examples of this.

By using local customary laws andpractices associated with the protectionand management of knowledge andinnovations, these activities seek to createa Community ‘Protocol’ to be used to: • control and regulate foreign access to the

traditional knowledge and innovationsystems and associated genetic andbiological resources contained inCommunity Conserved Areas such asthe Potato Park and the VilcanotaSpiritual Park (see box on page 6);

• develop guidelines for the managementof Community Conserved Areas;

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Barker marketsThe valley of Lares-Yanatile in Cusco is rich inbiodiversity, containing three different agroecologicalzones between 1,000 and 4,850m in altitude: yunga,quechua, and puna. Andean tubers and potatoes aregrown in the highest zone, corn, legumes andvegetables in the middle area, with fruit trees, coffee,coca and yucca in the lower part. Every week a bartermarket is held in the middle area of the valley, wherenearly fifty tonnes of goods are traded each marketday – ten times the volume of food distributed by theNational Programme of Food Assistance. Anyone canparticipate, and can trade any amount of any crop.

Women are key players in the market, which is vitalin ensuring that their families have enough food to eat,and that they have a balanced diet. The rainforestsupplies Vitamin C, potassium and sodium throughfruits, such as citrus and bananas, that do not exist inthe quechua and puna zones. The middle and highzones supply starches, mainly potatoes and corn,which provide desperately needed carbohydrates tothe rainforest zone. This participatory action researchenabled local actors and outsiders to assess thesocial, economic and ecological values of the bartermarkets. The analysis of these non-monetary marketsshows that they are helping not only to support andstrengthen traditional institutions, but also that theyare conserving valuable biodiversity. Principles ofreciprocity and solidarity guide the economicexchange of a diversity of foods, ensuring thatimportant needs of people and the land are met inculturally unique ways.

• create local institutions to manage local knowledge andinnovations, and be responsible for providing prior informedconsent;

• serve as guidelines for managing the information containedin the Community Biodiversity Registers;

• strengthen customary cultural/‘legal’ relationships within andbetween indigenous communities; and

• foster the intergenerational reproduction of the local culture.An innovative sui-generis2 system of protection andmanagement of indigenous knowledge and associated geneticresources is being generated through this action research.

Unlike knowledge concerning undomesticated biodiversity,in the case of agrobiodiversity, the genetic material and itsassociated knowledge are intimately intertwined, in the sensethat if the traditional knowledge about its use is lost, the sameis likely to happen to the genetic material. When the knowledgeabout undomesticated biodiversity disappears, it is likely to bethe only loss. Given the nature of Andean biodiversity it israther difficult in practice to make a distinction betweendomesticated and undomesticated forms of life, and both are amatter of great importance to indigenous peoples. ProvidingIPR protection to Andean biodiversity therefore poses aconceptual problem. While indigenous peoples contend thatprotection should cover all objects and characteristics that areevidently natural, and that private property over theirbiocultural assets should not be allowed, the current trend isthat possession of organisms implies exclusive control of all oftheir features.

Against this backdrop ANDES have proposed an alternativemodel to the exclusive intellectual property system, in order toprotect thousands of potato varieties in Andes region. Thisincludes a repatriation agreement with a gene bank, recognisesthe right of Quechua communities over their knowledge andassociated genetic materials, and maintains traditional openexchange models of genetic resources by strengthening themwith elements of the modern information technology ‘opensource’ paradigm. The repatriation agreement, signed betweensix indigenous communities of the Potato Park and theInternational Potato Centre, allows Andean communities tounlock the potato gene bank and repatriate biological diversityto farming communities and the natural environment for localand global benefit. Protection of rights is established in aprovision of the agreement that states that genetic resources

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Reclaiming rights overgenetic resources

Who owns the seeds and other genetic materialscurrently in gene banks worldwide? Who controls andprofits from that material? Certainly not the farmerswhose many years of development go uncredited andunrewarded. The Potato Park communities and theInternational Potato Centre – working together withthe help of a lawyer provided by the IIED project –developed a model agreement that enables them tobring their genetic heritage back home, and tocontinue to develop it for the benefit of their people.A legally binding potato repatriation agreement wassigned between the indigenous communities and theInternational Potato Centre in December 2004.

The model agreement stresses that the Andeancommunities are well aware of the importance ofconserving their genetic resources for the presentand future use of farmers all over the world, but alsothat they feel that they are the best people to manageand carry out this conservation. The Andeanindigenous farmers want to be part of the globalcommunity that is conserving, developing, sharingand exchanging knowledge for the benefit of allhumankind. A fundamental part of the model is thatfarmers will be able to save, use, exchange and sellfarm-saved seed and other propagating material, andwill participate in any decisions about the sharing ofbenefits from the use of agricultural biodiversity.

This agreement is of historical importance. Itcreates a significant legal precedent for the CGIAR3

centres and national gene banks’ policies on accessand benefit sharing for biodiversity important for foodand agriculture. It also opens up new opportunitiesfor more effective conservation of biodiversity bycombining both in situ and ex situ approaches incomplementary ways.

3 CGIAR – the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research.The International Potato Centre is one of 15 CGIAR centres that work withnational agricultural research systems and that are responsible for theworld’s largest gene bank collections of agricultural biodiversity.

2 A unique form of intellectual property protection, specially designed to meet certain criteria and needs.

and knowledge remain in the custody of localcommunities and do not become subject tointellectual property rights in any form. Thischallenges the trend of privatising geneticresources and indigenous knowledge which isthreatening local livelihoods and culturallyspecific ways of life. To strengthen this challengethe model encourages communities to exchangegenetic materials freely, but requires that allmodified material and derivatives of theresulting exchange are free as well. The exchangeis done, however, under the umbrella of localbiodiversity registers and a protocol based oncustomary laws. The register establishes rightsover knowledge and resources and a protocolwhich underlines the cultural and spiritual valuesof the indigenous knowledge and traditionalconcepts of collective ownership and opensharing of resources. The community protocolin particular commits all users to the principlesof no patents on life forms and opposition togenetic manipulation and transgenics.

In sum, the ANDES-IIED action research isactively developing an integrated model toprotect traditional knowledge systems based onthe conservation and sustainable use of theecosystems in which indigenous peoples’knowledge and innovations thrive. The modelbuilds on the Andean concept of ‘workinglandscapes’ and integrates indigenous people’sown concepts of rights over their knowledgeand resources. The approach is rooted in localinstitutions, customary law, collective decision-making and indigenous management systems.Protecting the ‘working landscape’ or ‘culturalspace’ where local knowledge and innovationsare produced, managed and transmittedensures that such an approach is in line withbroader goals of securing indigenous landrights, maintaining the diversity of indigenouscultures and livelihoods. Throughout, theemphasis is on a rights-based approach tosustaining local food systems, agriculturalbiodiversity and livelihoods.

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Community Biodiversity RegistersIf Andean communities are to be able to protect and benefit

from their agricultural biodiversity, it is essential that they canshow in a modern court of law that they have some‘ownership’. Peru is considered the ‘biopiracy’ capital of theworld. Biopiracy is the illegal appropriation of life and thetraditional cultural knowledge associated with it, usually forcommercial gain and without any acknowledgement orcompensation. (This subject is dealt with in depth in anotherpaper in this series.) The project is using CommunityBiodiversity Registers (CBRs) to make an inventory of theknowledge and resources of the region, building on farmerinnovations in Andhra Pradesh, India. When some of the Indianwomen farmers visited Peru with IIED’s Indian partner, theDeccan Development Society, they were able to show howCommunity Biodiversity Registers can be used to documentpeople’s knowledge of plants and their many uses.

Video is again being used to record specific informationabout how particular plants are collected, prepared, and usedand where they grow. It is also recording the process of usinga simple matrix to help people to register not only thepractical uses of plants and animals for food, medicine, fuel

and ecosystem renewal, but also their associated cultural andspiritual values.

This information is currently being stored in a multi-mediainteractive database with audio, video, text, QuickTime VR, GISmaps, scanned images, and digital photos. IIED partners arenow working to define how the information will be arranged andaccessed.

The project is now exploring the potential to use a robust,open-source software programme to enable indigenous peopleto preserve and protect their unique cultural and biologicalknowledge through digital technology. The software is beingdeveloped to ensure that local communities can: • define and control the rights, accessibility and re-use of their

digital resources; • uphold traditional laws pertaining to secret/sacred

knowledge or objects; • prevent the misuse of indigenous heritage in culturally

inappropriate or insensitive ways; • ensure proper attribution to the traditional owners; and • enable indigenous communities to describe their resources in

their own words through oral annotation tools.

In Peru:

Ingeniero Alejandro Argumedo Country Coordinator, ANDES –Asociacion Kechua-Aymara para Comunidades Sustenables Apartado 567, Cusco, Peru Tel: +51 (0)84 245021 E-mail: andes@andes.org.pe

slfsal-peru@terra.com.pe

At IIED:

Dr Michel Pimbert Director of the Sustainable Agriculture, Biodiversity andLivelihoods Program, overall project coordinator IIED – International Institute for Environment and Development 3 Endsleigh Street, London, WC1H 0DD, UK Tel: +44 (0)20 7388 2117 E-mail: michel.pimbert@iied.org Websites: www.iied.org

www.diversefoodsystems.org

ISBN: 1 84369 571 5

How – and under what conditions – can diverse, localised food systems be sustained in the twenty-firstcentury? Who gains and who loses when local food systems are strengthened? These are some of thequestions examined by the Sustaining Local Food Systems, Agricultural Biodiversity and Livelihoods project.

This project combines a political ecology perspective on food systems and livelihoods with action researchgrounded in local practice. As such it seeks to bridge the gap between the academic orientation of politicalecology and the largely activist focus of food sovereignty, human rights and environmental justice movements.

The decentralised management of agricultural biodiversity by farmers and their communities is increasinglyseen as a prerequisite for sustaining food systems, livelihoods and environments. Although the internationalcommunity does emphasise the need to involve farming and local communities more centrally in themanagement of agricultural biodiversity, there are huge gaps in knowledge and institutional constraints that limitnational capacities to scale up these approaches. In order to help fill these gaps, this research seeks to analysehow and under what conditions can decentralised governance, farmer participation and capacity buildingpromote the adaptive management of agricultural biodiversity in the context of localised food systems andlivelihoods.

The project is working with partners in four different countries, India, Iran, Indonesia and Peru. The researchadopts an international, action-oriented, interdisciplinary and case study approach that builds on the expertiseof local resource users and national and international partners. Throughout, the emphasis is on doing researchwith, for and by people – rather than on people – for learning and change.

PERU The action research facilitated by ANDES (Quechua–Aymara Association for Sustainable Livelihoods) andIIED emphasises participatory and people-centredprocesses in sustaining local food systems, diverseecologies, livelihoods and culture.

INDONESIAWorking with a new foundation, FIELD – FarmersInitiatives in Ecological Literacy and Democracy – theproject builds on the pioneering approach to farmertraining, the Farmer Field School, and their work oncommunity integrated pest management (CIPM),which depends heavily on both using functionalbiodiversity to control rice pests and co-ordinatingaction by farmers to sustain local livelihoods andchange policies.

IRANDialogues with partners identified in Iran have focusedon a ‘learning by doing’ project aimed at revivingnomadic pastoralism and associated livelihoods andagricultural biodiversity. The Centre for SustainableDevelopment (CENESTA) is IIED’s project partner inthis endeavour.

INDIALocal control over biodiversity important for food andagriculture in the drylands of Andhra Pradesh is thefocus in India. IIED’s partner is the DeccanDevelopment Society, and joint work between localfarming communities and women’s collectives(sanghams) has grown out of village-level dialogueswhere farmers identified priorities and opportunitiesfor this participatory action research.

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