T03 M Chap7 - Boston College · 2021. 7. 15. · 266 TIMSS & PIRLS INTERNATIONAL STUDY CENTER, LYNCH SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON COLLEGE CHAPTER 7: CLASSROOM CHARACTERISTICS attitudes

TIMSS & PIRLS INTERNATIONAL STUDY CENTER, LYNCH SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON COLLEGE 265

CHAPTER 7: CLASSROOM CHARACTERISTICS

Chapter 7 Classroom Characteristics and InstructionAlthough the school provides the general context for learning, it is in the classroom setting and through guidance by the teacher that most instruction and learning take place. To provide information about the environment of mathematics classrooms and the instruction that takes place, Chapter 7 presents teachers’ reports from the second part of the teacher questionnaire about their mathematics classrooms and instruc-tional practices, as well as students’ reports about the classroom activi-ties they do in learning mathematics. Data are presented about class size, various limitations on instruction, instructional time, instructional emphases given different mathematics topics, and classroom activities. Information also is presented about the use of calculators and comput-ers in mathematics lessons, the role of homework, and the reliance on different types of assessment approaches.

Teachers and the instructional approaches they use ultimately determine the mathematics students learn. Teachers structure the content and pace of lessons, introducing new material, selecting various instructional activities, and monitoring students’ developing under-standing of the mathematics concepts being studied. Teachers may help students use technology and tools to investigate mathematical ideas, analyze students’ work for misconceptions, and promote positive

TIMSS & PIRLS INTERNATIONAL STUDY CENTER, LYNCH SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON COLLEGE266


attitudes toward mathematics. They may also assign homework and conduct informal as well as formal assessments to evaluate achieve-ment outcomes.

How Do the Characteristics of Mathematics Classrooms Impact Instruction?

Because it can affect pedagogical strategies, class size data are shown in Exhibit 7.1. Teachers’ reports about the sizes of their eighth-grade mathematics classes reveal that across countries the average class size was 30 students, but there was considerable variation – from more than 54 students in the Philippines to 20 students in Belgium (Flemish). At the fourth grade, classes typically were smaller. The average class size for the TIMSS participants was 26 students, ranging from 40 in the Philippines to 20 in Belgium (Flemish), Italy and Slovenia.

The relationship between class size and achievement is difficult to disentangle, given the variety of policies and practices that countries have in determining class size. For example, countries and schools cannot always control class size. Because of this, the ability to cap class sizes can indicate the availability of more resources in general. As another complicating factor, smaller classes can be used for advanced or practical classes such as computer laboratories on one hand, and for remedial learning or students with special needs on the other. The complexity of this issue is evidenced in the TIMSS results that show a curvilinear relationship, on average, between class size and mathemat-ics achievement at both the eighth and fourth grades.

At the eighth grade, mathematics teachers were asked about the instructional impact of six characteristics of their students – dif-fering academic abilities, range in backgrounds, students with special needs, uninterested students, low morale among students, and dis-ruptive students. Responses were given on a four-point scale; “not at all,” “a little,” “some,” and “a lot.” TIMSS used the teachers’ responses to construct an index and the results are presented in Exhibit 7.2.



Students were placed in the high category, if, on average, teachers reported their classrooms were impacted only a little (or less) and in the low category, if, on average, these factors impacted instruction at least somewhat. The remaining students fell in the medium category. The results show that average mathematics achievement is related to the impact of student characteristics on classroom instruction, with lower achievement related to having more instructionally challeng-ing and diverse students in the class. On average, internationally, 20 percent of the students were in such classrooms.


TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.1:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Class Size for Mathematics Instruction

Background data provided by teachers.

¶ Did not satisfy guidelines for sample participation rates (see Exhibit A.9).

( ) Standard errors appear in parentheses. Because results are rounded to the nearest whole number, some totals may appear inconsistent.

A tilde (~) indicates insufficient data to report achievement.

An "r" indicates data are available for at least 70 but less than 85% of the students. An "s" indicates data are available for at least 50 but less than 70% of the students. An “x” indicates data are available for less than 50% of the students.

CHAPTER 7: CLASSROOM CHARACTERISTICS TIMSS2003

GradeMATHEMATICS4


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.1:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Class Size for Mathematics Instruction




An "r" indicates data are available for at least 70 but less than 85% of the students. An "s" indicates data are available for at least 50 but less than 70% of the students. An “x” indicates data are available for less than 50% of the students.


TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.2:

Netherlands 81 (3.7) 549 (4.6) 16 (3.3) 482 (11.2) 3 (1.9) 477 (18.4)

Egypt 80 (3.0) 410 (4.2) 19 (2.9) 392 (6.8) 1 (0.0) ~ ~

Belgium (Flemish) 73 (2.8) 556 (3.6) 20 (2.5) 506 (7.3) 7 (1.7) 454 (18.3)

Lithuania 71 (3.6) 508 (3.3) 29 (3.6) 484 (5.4) 0 (0.0) ~ ~

Bahrain 68 (3.6) 400 (2.2) 31 (3.6) 403 (3.7) 1 (0.7) ~ ~

Scotland 65 (4.3) 519 (5.2) 29 (3.8) 475 (6.5) 6 (2.0) 439 (10.9)

Japan 63 (4.1) 574 (3.1) 33 (3.7) 565 (3.0) 5 (1.7) 547 (12.4)

Sweden 62 (3.2) 512 (3.6) 30 (3.2) 485 (4.3) 8 (1.7) 456 (7.7)

Hungary 54 (3.7) 544 (4.0) 43 (3.7) 513 (5.6) 2 (1.3) ~ ~

Estonia 54 (4.3) 543 (3.4) 36 (4.2) 522 (4.6) 10 (2.5) 497 (7.7)

Malaysia 53 (3.8) 529 (6.3) 39 (3.9) 487 (5.8) 8 (2.1) 472 (14.4)

Iran, Islamic Rep. of 53 (4.0) 413 (3.7) 45 (4.0) 410 (4.2) 3 (1.2) 411 (10.4)

United States 51 (2.9) 530 (3.9) 30 (2.8) 492 (5.3) 19 (2.1) 474 (7.7)

Latvia 50 (4.1) 515 (5.0) 40 (4.6) 505 (3.9) 10 (2.9) 480 (7.8)

Australia 42 (4.1) 538 (6.0) 42 (4.4) 497 (7.5) 16 (3.2) 448 (13.4)

New Zealand 40 (4.6) 510 (8.4) 39 (4.9) 491 (7.2) 21 (3.6) 482 (11.5)

Israel 40 (3.5) 519 (6.1) 36 (3.9) 490 (5.9) 24 (3.4) 468 (9.3)

Lebanon 39 (4.6) 437 (6.0) 47 (4.6) 433 (5.3) 13 (2.7) 435 (9.7)

Russian Federation 37 (2.8) 516 (6.2) 41 (3.1) 502 (5.6) 23 (3.0) 506 (8.3)

Slovenia 36 (4.0) 494 (4.5) 42 (3.8) 491 (3.4) 22 (3.6) 497 (4.1)

Moldova, Rep. of r 36 (4.5) 463 (8.3) 43 (5.0) 457 (7.4) 22 (3.8) 454 (9.6)

Singapore 35 (2.5) 633 (5.4) 41 (2.9) 607 (6.0) 24 (2.8) 566 (6.8)

Indonesia 35 (4.0) 437 (8.8) 40 (4.7) 399 (8.5) 25 (4.2) 392 (9.4)

Macedonia, Rep. of 34 (4.2) 442 (7.6) 49 (4.2) 424 (6.1) 18 (3.1) 452 (10.1)

Serbia 34 (3.9) 478 (4.1) 45 (4.3) 474 (4.3) 21 (3.3) 479 (6.8)

Romania 32 (3.7) 490 (8.7) 43 (4.2) 470 (7.1) 25 (3.4) 463 (7.7)

Hong Kong, SAR 32 (4.3) 612 (7.0) 35 (3.9) 577 (5.7) 33 (4.2) 569 (8.4)

Philippines 31 (4.3) 380 (11.2) 47 (4.6) 381 (9.2) 21 (3.8) 368 (11.0)

Korea, Rep. of s 31 (3.0) 598 (5.0) 54 (3.3) 587 (3.3) 15 (2.7) 585 (5.9)

Bulgaria 29 (3.7) 492 (7.4) 45 (4.1) 468 (7.2) 25 (3.7) 466 (7.1)

Armenia r 29 (4.0) 476 (5.7) 45 (3.9) 478 (5.2) 26 (3.4) 479 (5.9)

South Africa r 29 (3.8) 269 (13.6) 44 (4.4) 265 (8.7) 27 (3.4) 249 (8.7)

Chile 28 (3.3) 407 (6.8) 36 (3.4) 389 (5.8) 36 (3.6) 370 (5.2)

Norway 27 (3.8) 473 (4.3) 58 (4.2) 459 (3.5) 15 (3.2) 453 (5.6)

Ghana 26 (4.0) 289 (9.6) 45 (4.4) 271 (7.1) 29 (4.1) 262 (7.6)

Slovak Republic 26 (3.2) 529 (7.7) 51 (4.7) 502 (4.8) 23 (3.8) 496 (5.6)

Saudi Arabia 25 (5.1) 341 (8.6) 46 (5.3) 330 (5.3) 29 (5.3) 334 (7.1)

Italy 24 (3.4) 500 (8.2) 52 (4.0) 481 (4.2) 24 (3.0) 472 (6.1)

Tunisia 23 (3.4) 408 (5.7) 44 (3.9) 411 (2.7) 32 (3.7) 410 (4.5)

Palestinian Nat'l Auth. 21 (3.2) 388 (7.1) 46 (4.1) 388 (5.7) 33 (4.3) 394 (6.5)

Jordan 20 (3.6) 450 (8.5) 53 (4.6) 422 (6.2) 27 (3.7) 411 (6.8)

Cyprus 20 (2.7) 476 (3.8) 36 (2.7) 461 (2.7) 44 (2.4) 452 (2.7)

Chinese Taipei 19 (3.1) 623 (8.8) 44 (3.8) 590 (6.5) 37 (3.9) 559 (7.1)

Botswana 19 (3.4) 374 (6.5) 41 (4.6) 366 (5.5) 41 (4.6) 362 (3.7)

Morocco s 5 (3.1) 383 (17.9) 51 (7.1) 384 (5.1) 44 (7.6) 394 (5.9)

¶ England r 52 (5.8) 540 (8.4) 42 (5.7) 479 (9.7) 6 (2.2) 417 (11.9)

International Avg. 40 (0.6) 480 (1.1) 41 (0.6) 460 (0.9) 20 (0.5) 449 (1.4)

Benchmarking Participants

Basque Country, Spain 20 (4.4) 496 (5.5) 42 (5.1) 490 (4.3) 37 (4.6) 480 (5.4)

Indiana State, US 42 (5.5) 539 (9.5) 45 (5.3) 489 (6.4) 13 (3.8) 479 (15.8)

Ontario Province, Can. 55 (5.2) 530 (3.8) 33 (4.7) 517 (4.2) 11 (3.2) 488 (7.1)

Quebec Province, Can. 64 (4.1) 556 (4.3) 30 (4.2) 526 (4.4) 6 (2.1) 497 (7.6)

CountriesPercent ofStudents

Index based on teachers'responses to six statementsabout student factorslimiting mathematicsinstruction: 1) Students withdifferent academic abilities;2) Students who come from awide range of backgrounds;3) Students with specialneeds; 4) Uninterestedstudents; 5) Low moraleamong students;6) Disruptive students. Averageis computed across the sixstatements based on a4-point scale: 1. Not at all/Notapplicable; 2. A little; 3.Some; 4. A lot. High levelindicates average is less thanor equal to 2. Medium levelindicates average is greaterthan 2 and less than 3. Lowlevel indicates average isgreater than or equal to 3.

AverageAchievement

HighMCFL

LowMCFL

Percent ofStudents

AverageAchievement

Percent ofStudents

AverageAchievement

MediumMCFL

Index of Teachers' Reportson Teaching MathematicsClasses with Few or NoLimitations on InstructionDue to Student Factors

Index of Teachers’ Reports on Teaching Mathematics Classes with Few or No Limitations on Instruction Due to Student Factors (MCFL)





An “r” indicates data are available for at least 70 but less than 85% of the students. An “s” indicates data are available for at least 50 but less than 70% of the students.



How Much School Time Is Devoted to Mathematics Instruction?

Exhibit 7.3 presents information about the amount of mathematics instruc-tion given to students at the eighth and fourth grades. Since different systems have school years of different lengths and different arrangements of weekly and daily instruction, the comparisons are given in terms of the average number of hours of mathematics instruction over the school year as reported by mathematics teachers. At the eighth grade, countries provid-ing 150 or more hours per year were the Philippines, Indonesia, and Chile. Countries providing fewer than 100 hours were Bulgaria, the Netherlands, Sweden, Macedonia, and Cyprus. The percentage of instructional time at the eighth grade that was devoted to mathematics ranged from 17 percent in the Philippines to 8 percent in Cyprus.

At the fourth grade, even with fewer participating countries than at the eighth grade, a substantial number of countries provided 150 or more hours of mathematics instruction, including Italy, Belgium (Flemish), Scotland, the Netherlands, Australia, Singapore, and the Philippines. Even though Chinese Taipei was at 99 hours, the rest of the countries provided at least 110 hours of mathematics instruction per year. The percentage of instructional time at the fourth grade that was devoted to mathematics ranged from 21 percent in Italy to 12 percent in Chinese Taipei.

Exhibit 7.4 provides teachers’ reports about how mathematics instructional time is allocated across the five major content areas assessed by TIMSS 2003. At the eighth grade, on average, internationally, the two areas receiving about one-fourth of the instructional time each were algebra with 27 percent and geometry with 26 percent. Number was next with 21 percent. Measurement and data each were given 10 percent and other topics 6 percent. At the fourth grade, the profile was much different. As would be anticipated, number received the largest amount of mathematics instructional time – 38 percent, on average, internationally. Patterns and relationships (beginning algebra), measurement, and geometry each were given 15 to 16 percent, data 9 percent, and other 6 percent.


TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

� ��

Exhibit 7.3: Mathematics Instructional Time

Mathematics instructional time provided by teachers, and total instructional time provided by schools.

1 Computed as the ratio of mathematics instructional time to the total instructional time averaged across students (1 hour = 60 minutes).



An “r” indicates data are available for at least 70 but less than 85% of the students. An “s” indicates data are available for at least 50 but less than 70% of the students. An “x” indicates data are available for less than 50% of the students.


GradeMATHEMATICS4


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

Exhibit 7.3: Mathematics Instructional Time

Mathematics instructional time provided by teachers, and total instructional time provided by schools.

1 Computed as the ratio of mathematics instructional time to the total instructional time averaged across students (1 hour = 60 minutes).




TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.4:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Percentage of Time in Mathematics Class Devoted to TIMSS Content Areas During the School Year




A dash (–) indicates comparable data are not available.



GradeMATHEMATICS4


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.4:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Percentage of Time in Mathematics Class Devoted to TIMSS Content Areas During the School Year







What Activities Do Students Do in Their Mathematics Lessons?

Exhibits 7.5 and 7.6 present information about the frequency of stu-dents doing particular content related activities, as reported by the students themselves and by their mathematics teachers, respectively. The data presented are for doing the activities in half of their lessons or more. At the eighth grade, the activities were: 1) practicing numeri-cal operations without a calculator, 2) working on fractions and deci-mals, 3) interpreting data in tables, charts, or graphs, and 4) writing equations and functions to represent relationships. According to the eighth-grade students, internationally, on average, considerable effort was devoted to working on the two activities most likely related to the number content area. Fifty-seven percent of the students reported being asked to practice numerical operations in at least half of their lessons and another 51 percent reported working on fractions and deci-mals at least this frequently. Fifty-five percent reported writing equa-tions and functions in half their lessons. The smallest percentage of students spent time on data interpretation tasks in at least half their lessons (41%). Teachers’ reports agreed with that of their students when it came to the emphasis on number activities. For doing the activities in at least half of the lessons, teachers reported the largest percentages of students for practicing operations (62%) and working on fractions and decimals (43%). In contrast to students’ views, teach-ers reported less emphasis on writing equations (30%) and far less on data interpretation (17%).

At the fourth grade, the activities were: 1) practicing operations, 2) working on fractions and decimals, 3) measuring things, 4) making tables charts or graphs, and 5) learning about shapes such as circles, triangles, rectangles, and cubes. Similar to the eighth-grade reports, students reported a much more balanced approach. The international averages were two-thirds of the students practicing operations in at least half the lessons and more than half (54%) working on fractions and decimals and learning about shapes. According to the students, 39 percent, on average, were making graphs in more than half their



lessons, and one-fourth were measuring things. In contrast, teach-ers reported an overwhelming emphasis on having students practice numerical operations. The teachers said they asked 82 percent of the students, on average, internationally, to practice adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing in half of the lessons or more. They reported asking 29 percent, on average, internationally, to work on fractions and decimals this frequently. According to teachers, measuring things, making graphs, and learning about shapes were relatively infrequent activities for more than 80 percent of the fourth-grade students.


TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.5:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Students’ Reports on Mathematics Content Related Emphasis in Classroom Activities

Background data provided by students.




GradeMATHEMATICS4


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.5:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Students’ Reports on Mathematics Content Related Emphasis in Classroom Activities






TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.6:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Teachers’ Reports on Mathematics Content Related Emphasis in Students’ Classroom Activities






GradeMATHEMATICS4


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.6:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Teachers’ Reports on Mathematics Content Related Emphasis in Students’ Classroom Activities




An “r” indicates data are available for at least 70 but less than 85% of the students. An “s” indicates data are available for at least 50 but less than 70% of the students. An “x” indicates data are available for less than 50% of the students."



Educators, parents, employers, and most of the public support the goal of improving students’ capacity for mathematics problem-solving. To examine the emphasis placed on that goal, TIMSS asked eighth-grade students and teachers about how often students were asked to do the following three activities – relate what was being learned in mathematics to their daily lives, explain their answers, and decide procedures for solving complex problems.

Exhibits 7.7 and 7.8 present students’ and teachers’ reports, respectively. In most of the countries, students reported a moderate emphasis on doing these types of problems in mathematics class. About two-thirds (67 percent), on average, internationally, said they were asked to explain answers in at least half their lessons, and more than half (53%) reported deciding problem-solving procedures this frequently. Students reported the least attention to relating mathematics to their daily lives (44%). On average, internationally, teachers reported more emphasis on explanations than did the students. They reported asking about three-fourths of the students (78%) to explain answers in at least half the lessons. Perhaps as a matter for some concern, the teachers reported somewhat less emphasis on problem-solving procedures (45%) than did the students. Teachers reported half the students were asked to relate mathematics to their daily lives in at least half the lessons.


GradeMATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��





An “r” indicates data are available for at least 70 but less than 85% of the students.

Exhibit 7.7: Students’ Reports on Problem Solving Related Emphasis in Classroom Activities 8


TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��





Exhibit 7.8: Teachers’ Reports on Problem Solving Related Emphasis in Classroom Activities



What Instructional Strategies Are Used in Mathematics Classes?

As shown in Exhibit 7.9, the textbook is often the foundation of math-ematics instruction at both the eighth and fourth grades. On average, internationally, nearly two-thirds of the eighth- and fourth-grade stu-dents (65-66%) had teachers who reported using a textbook as the primary basis of their lessons. For another 32 percent of the eighth-grade students and 29 percent of the fourth-grade students, teachers reported using textbooks as a supplementary resource.

Exhibit 7.10 presents a profile of the activities most commonly encountered in mathematics classes around the world, as reported by mathematics teachers. At the eighth grade, the three most predominant activities, accounting for 59 percent of class time, on average, inter-nationally, were teacher lecture (19 % of class time), teacher-guided student practice (22 %), and students working on problems on their own (18%). At the fourth grade, these activities accounted for approxi-mately about the same percentage of time as at the eighth grade (61%). The distribution was slightly different, though, since problem-solving activities with teacher guidance (22%) and on students’ own (23%) accounted for nearly half the time. Teachers reported that 16 percent of the time, on average, was devoted to teacher lecture.


TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.9:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Textbook Use in Teaching Mathematics






GradeMATHEMATICS4


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.9:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Textbook Use in Teaching Mathematics





TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.10:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Percentage of Time in Mathematics Lessons Students Spend on Various Activities in a Typical Week






GradeMATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.10:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Percentage of Time in Mathematics Lessons Students Spend on Various Activities in a Typical Week 8






TIMSS2003

GradeMATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.10:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Percentage of Time in Mathematics Lessons Students Spend on Various Activities in a Typical Week 4





GradeMATHEMATICS4


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.10:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Percentage of Time in Mathematics Lessons Students Spend on Various Activities in a Typical Week






How Are Calculators and Computers Used?

Exhibit 7.11 shows the number of countries with national policies on calculator use, the percentages of students not permitted to use cal-culators in mathematics class, and the percentages of students using calculators for various activities in about half of the lessons or more. At the eighth grade, 29 countries and all four benchmarking participants reported that their official curriculum contained statements about using calculators. According to their teachers, the percentages of students not permitted to use calculators varied dramatically from country to country. More than half the eighth-grade students were not permitted to use calculators in Bahrain, Cyprus, Ghana, Iran, Jordan, Romania, and Saudi Arabia. The countries permitting calculator use for essen-tially all eighth-grade students (98% or more) included Egypt, Hong Kong SAR, Lithuania, Morocco, the Netherlands, Norway, the Palestin-ian National Authority, Scotland, Sweden, and England. The percent-ages of eighth-grade students asked to use calculators in at least half of their lessons for each of four different activities reveal that, on average, internationally, teachers asked the most students to use calculators for checking answers (27%), performing routine computations (29%), and solving complex problems (31%). Only 14 percent, on average, were asked to explore number concepts.

At the fourth grade, 14 participants reported that their national or regional mathematics curriculum contained statements about using calculators. Compared to eighth grade, teachers in the TIMSS countries reported that greater percentages of fourth-grade students were not permitted to use calculators – 57 percent, on average. The countries permitting widespread calculator usage (90% of the students or more) at the fourth grade included Australia, Cyprus, England, New Zealand, and Scotland. However, even in those countries, teachers reported asking relatively small percentages of students to do any calculator activities in half the lessons or more.



Countries’ reports on computer use in mathematics class are presented in Exhibit 7.12. Across countries, 26 participants at the eighth grade and 12 at the fourth grade reported that their math-ematics curriculum contained statements about computer use, nearly as many as reported statements about calculator use. Yet, access to computers remains a challenge in many countries. Teachers reported that, on average, internationally, computers were not available for 68 percent of the eighth-grade students and 58 percent of the fourth-grade students. Beyond that, using computers as often as in half the lessons was extremely rare at either grade, even in countries with relatively high availability.


TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.11:

Armenia j r 8 (2.5) r 23 (3.2) r 35 (3.9) r 32 (3.9) r 18 (3.5)

Australia k 4 (2.2) 62 (4.5) 74 (4.1) 56 (4.7) 25 (3.6)

Bahrain j 69 (2.6) 10 (1.1) 4 (1.0) 11 (2.2) 6 (1.2)

Belgium (Flemish) k 3 (1.4) 32 (3.6) 27 (3.1) 61 (3.8) 18 (2.8)

Botswana k 37 (4.5) 7 (2.1) 8 (2.5) 9 (2.4) 5 (1.9)

Bulgaria j 29 (4.1) 9 (2.7) 11 (2.6) 10 (2.2) 2 (1.5)

Chile k 14 (2.5) 38 (3.4) 22 (3.0) 33 (3.6) 23 (3.4)

Chinese Taipei k 34 (4.0) 2 (1.3) 4 (1.6) 8 (2.4) 6 (2.0)

Cyprus j 65 (2.8) 7 (1.8) 8 (1.4) 6 (1.7) 2 (1.2)

Egypt k 0 (0.0) 46 (4.0) 64 (4.1) 52 (4.1) 36 (3.9)

Estonia k 5 (1.7) 59 (3.9) 65 (4.1) 51 (4.2) 18 (3.4)

Ghana k r 61 (5.0) 5 (2.0) 4 (1.7) 7 (2.4) 4 (2.0)

Hong Kong, SAR j 2 (1.1) 49 (4.4) 66 (4.4) 50 (4.6) 13 (3.1)

Hungary k 19 (3.1) 29 (3.7) 23 (3.4) 33 (3.9) 9 (2.3)

Indonesia j 28 (4.0) 8 (2.4) 7 (2.3) 19 (3.4) 7 (2.3)

Iran, Islamic Rep. of j 52 (4.1) 8 (2.1) 5 (1.7) 10 (2.4) 3 (1.5)

Israel k 8 (2.2) 50 (3.7) 53 (4.1) 47 (3.8) 28 (3.2)

Italy k 16 (2.9) 40 (4.2) 45 (3.9) 55 (4.0) 11 (2.3)

Japan k 37 (4.1) 0 (0.0) 2 (1.2) 1 (0.9) 3 (1.6)

Jordan k 55 (4.4) 4 (1.7) 6 (2.1) 14 (3.5) 3 (1.4)

Korea, Rep. of k s 35 (3.3) s 2 (1.3) s 2 (1.2) s 3 (1.0) s 2 (0.8)

Latvia j 47 (4.5) 10 (2.7) 8 (2.4) 7 (2.0) 5 (1.7)

Lebanon j 6 (1.8) 46 (4.5) 39 (4.4) 34 (4.1) 26 (3.8)

Lithuania k 1 (0.7) 59 (3.7) 60 (3.8) 68 (3.5) 17 (2.9)

Macedonia, Rep. of j 24 (3.7) 19 (3.4) 19 (3.0) 19 (3.3) 9 (2.3)

Malaysia j 46 (3.9) 14 (2.7) 12 (2.6) 23 (3.7) 10 (2.4)

Moldova, Rep. of j s 15 (3.4) r 24 (4.2) r 23 (3.9) r 23 (3.5) r 22 (3.8)

Morocco j s 1 (1.1) s 15 (4.8) s 10 (4.0) s 13 (4.1) s 15 (5.0)

Netherlands k 0 (0.0) 72 (4.3) 94 (2.3) 75 (4.1) 42 (4.8)

New Zealand k 4 (2.5) 60 (4.8) 77 (3.2) 64 (5.4) 42 (4.5)

Norway k 0 (0.0) 72 (3.6) 77 (3.8) 68 (4.0) 21 (3.4)

Palestinian Nat’l Auth. k 1 (0.7) 24 (4.0) 21 (3.9) 39 (4.1) 8 (2.4)

Philippines j 28 (4.1) 10 (2.0) 6 (2.1) 16 (3.4) 13 (2.9)

Romania k 52 (4.1) 4 (1.6) 6 (1.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)

Russian Federation k 20 (2.4) 20 (2.6) 13 (2.3) 19 (3.2) 5 (1.5)

Saudi Arabia j r 59 (4.6) 10 (3.3) 4 (2.0) 9 (3.1) 2 (1.0)

Scotland k 2 (1.4) 11 (2.3) 22 (3.8) 37 (5.2) 12 (3.2)

Serbia k 36 (4.2) 19 (3.4) 22 (3.4) 17 (3.2) 11 (2.7)

Singapore k 0 (0.0) 63 (2.4) 63 (2.1) 65 (2.5) 32 (2.2)

Slovak Republic j — — r 36 (4.6) r 38 (4.5) r 22 (4.0) r 9 (2.8)

Slovenia k 40 (4.4) 9 (2.5) 9 (2.3) 13 (2.7) 3 (1.4)

South Africa k r 6 (1.8) 21 (3.3) 18 (2.5) 32 (3.4) 23 (3.1)

Sweden k 1 (0.4) 43 (3.5) 70 (3.7) 55 (4.0) 13 (2.1)

Tunisia j r 44 (4.6) 6 (2.0) 8 (2.4) 5 (1.9) 8 (2.4)

United States k 6 (1.4) 55 (3.1) 52 (2.6) 69 (2.7) 48 (3.0)

¶ England k r 0 (0.0) r 42 (6.7) r 35 (5.4) r 51 (6.3) r 16 (4.1)

International Avg. 23 (0.5) 27 (0.5) 29 (0.5) 31 (0.5) 14 (0.4)


Basque Country, Spain k 27 (4.3) 24 (4.3) 27 (4.6) 48 (5.2) 16 (3.3)

Indiana State, US k 14 (3.9) 51 (5.9) 40 (4.4) 62 (5.7) 42 (6.8)

Ontario Province, Can. k 1 (1.0) 62 (4.5) 56 (4.6) 75 (4.4) 44 (4.7)

Quebec Province, Can. k 0 (0.0) 91 (2.2) 86 (4.0) 87 (3.7) 49 (4.5)

National CurriculumContains Policies /Statements About

the Use ofCalculators

ExploringNumberConcepts

Countries

Percentage of Students Whose Teachers Reported onCalculator Use About Half of the Lessons or More

Percentage ofStudents Whose

Teachers ReportedThat Calculators Are

Not PermittedCheckingAnswers

Doing RoutineComputations

SolvingComplexProblems

Yesk

j No

Background data provided by National Research Coordinators and by teachers.





Emphasis on Calculators in Mathematics Class


GradeMATHEMATICS4


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.11:

Armenia j s 74 (3.8) r 3 (1.0) r 4 (1.4) r 2 (0.8) r 5 (1.7)

Australia k 6 (2.4) 15 (3.3) 5 (1.9) 13 (2.6) 11 (2.9)

Belgium (Flemish) j 29 (3.8) 9 (2.1) 2 (0.7) 9 (2.2) 1 (0.5)

Chinese Taipei j 54 (4.3) 0 (0.0) 1 (1.0) 4 (1.7) 3 (1.4)

Cyprus k 3 (1.3) 21 (3.3) 16 (3.2) 15 (3.3) 24 (3.6)

England k r 1 (0.6) r 18 (4.2) r 7 (2.7) r 22 (4.4) r 14 (3.7)

Hong Kong, SAR j 87 (3.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.9) 1 (0.9) 2 (1.1)

Hungary j 87 (2.9) 1 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)


Italy k 88 (2.3) 1 (0.9) 2 (0.7) 1 (0.4) 1 (0.0)

Japan k 32 (3.7) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.0) 3 (1.4) 1 (1.0)

Latvia j 95 (1.8) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.5)

Lithuania k 69 (3.6) 1 (0.6) 0 (0.0) 4 (1.4) 2 (1.1)

Moldova, Rep. of j r 66 (4.6) r 4 (1.6) r 4 (1.7) r 7 (2.5) r 3 (1.5)

Morocco j x x x x x x x x x x

Netherlands k 61 (4.8) 1 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)

New Zealand k 4 (1.3) 11 (2.0) 3 (1.1) 13 (2.2) 7 (1.6)

Norway k 10 (2.7) 3 (1.2) 1 (0.5) 2 (1.0) 2 (0.9)

Philippines j 96 (1.7) 1 (0.7) 1 (0.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)

Russian Federation j 89 (2.2) 2 (1.1) 1 (0.6) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.8)

Scotland k s 9 (2.4) r 2 (1.6) r 0 (0.0) r 5 (2.0) r 4 (1.7)

Singapore j 97 (1.5) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)

Slovenia j 95 (2.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.0) 1 (1.0) 0 (0.0)

Tunisia j r 97 (1.6) r 4 (1.9) r 3 (1.5) r 5 (2.0) r 2 (1.3)

United States k r 31 (2.6) 7 (1.4) 2 (0.8) 9 (1.8) 6 (1.4)







the Use ofCalculators

ExploringNumberConcepts

Countries


Teachers ReportedThat Calculators Are

Not Permitted

Percentage of Students Whose Teachers Reported onCalculator Use About Half of the Lessons or More

CheckingAnswers

Doing RoutineComputations

SolvingComplexProblems

Yesk

j No




Emphasis on Calculators in Mathematics Class


TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.12:

Armenia j r 80 (3.4) r 0 (0.4) r 3 (1.8) r 1 (0.7) r 1 (0.9)

Australia k 46 (4.2) 0 (0.4) 1 (0.4) 1 (0.6) 0 (0.0)

Bahrain j 65 (3.5) 1 (0.6) 1 (0.7) 3 (1.1) 5 (1.3)

Belgium (Flemish) k 52 (3.8) 1 (1.0) 1 (0.9) 1 (0.9) 1 (0.8)

Botswana k r 93 (2.6) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (1.5)

Bulgaria j 91 (2.2) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.0)

Chile j 48 (3.8) 1 (0.8) 2 (0.8) 9 (2.1) 7 (2.0)

Chinese Taipei k 71 (3.3) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (1.0) 1 (1.0)

Cyprus j 92 (1.9) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)

Egypt k – – – – – – – – – –

Estonia k 69 (3.8) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (1.0)

Ghana k 85 (3.5) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.0) 1 (0.9) 2 (1.1)

Hong Kong, SAR j 61 (4.3) 0 (0.4) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.9) 3 (1.5)

Hungary k 73 (3.5) 1 (0.7) 1 (1.0) 1 (0.7) 1 (0.7)

Indonesia j 89 (2.5) 1 (0.7) 2 (1.3) 1 (0.8) 1 (0.8)


Israel k 53 (3.8) 5 (1.3) 9 (2.1) 3 (1.0) 7 (1.8)

Italy j 68 (3.6) 0 (0.3) 1 (0.6) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.8)

Japan k 14 (3.2) 2 (1.2) 1 (0.9) 1 (1.0) 1 (0.7)

Jordan k 89 (2.8) 0 (0.0) 1 (1.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.0)

Korea, Rep. of k s 27 (3.4) s 17 (2.6) s 7 (1.7) s 11 (2.3) s 6 (2.0)

Latvia j 77 (4.1) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.4) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.5)

Lebanon j 76 (3.8) 8 (2.4) 8 (2.4) 6 (2.3) 10 (3.2)

Lithuania j 30 (3.6) 0 (0.0) 3 (1.5) 3 (1.3) 3 (1.7)

Macedonia, Rep. of j 96 (1.4) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.5) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)

Malaysia j 95 (1.7) 1 (0.7) 0 (0.5) 0 (0.5) 0 (0.0)

Moldova, Rep. of j r 72 (3.7) r 13 (3.6) r 14 (3.2) r 12 (2.9) r 14 (3.1)

Morocco j x x x x x x x x x x

Netherlands k 70 (4.6) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)

New Zealand k 29 (4.6) 1 (0.3) 0 (0.3) 1 (0.6) 1 (0.6)

Norway k 45 (4.1) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.9) 3 (1.4) 3 (1.3)

Palestinian Nat'l Auth. k 71 (4.1) 3 (1.4) 3 (1.3) 2 (1.2) 0 (0.0)

Philippines j 90 (2.9) 2 (1.4) 2 (1.4) 3 (1.6) 2 (1.4)

Romania j 88 (2.7) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.8) 0 (0.0)

Russian Federation j 89 (2.6) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.6) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.7)

Saudi Arabia j 81 (3.6) 1 (0.9) 3 (1.5) 5 (1.7) 3 (1.3)

Scotland k 60 (4.8) 2 (1.0) 2 (1.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)

Serbia k 92 (2.4) 3 (1.7) 3 (1.5) 3 (1.5) 3 (1.5)

Singapore k 33 (2.7) 3 (1.0) 4 (1.0) 3 (0.9) 3 (0.8)

Slovak Republic j 75 (3.5) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.6) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)

Slovenia k 62 (4.1) 0 (0.1) 1 (1.0) 0 (0.1) 1 (0.2)

South Africa j r 85 (2.7) 3 (1.4) 3 (1.2) 3 (1.2) 2 (1.1)

Sweden k 54 (3.6) 0 (0.0) 2 (0.9) 1 (0.7) 1 (0.5)

Tunisia j 77 (3.5) 3 (0.8) 3 (0.8) 4 (1.3) 5 (1.3)

United States j 54 (3.0) 2 (0.7) 4 (1.0) 3 (1.0) 2 (0.7)

¶ England k r 34 (6.6) r 1 (0.8) r 5 (2.9) r 2 (1.4) r 1 (1.3)



Basque Country, Spain k 65 (4.5) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)





the Use ofComputers

Processing andAnalyzing

Data

Countries

Percentage of Students Whose Teachers Reported onComputer Use About Half of the Lessons or More


Teachers ReportedThat Computers Are

Not Available

DiscoveringPrinciples and

Concepts

PracticingSkills and

Procedures

Looking up Ideasand Information

Yesk

j No

Computer Use in Mathematics Class







GradeMATHEMATICS4


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.12:

Armenia j r 88 (2.6) r 0 (0.0) r 0 (0.0) r 1 (0.6)

Australia k 24 (3.6) 5 (2.3) 8 (2.4) 3 (1.7)

Belgium (Flemish) j 33 (3.4) 0 (0.3) 9 (2.2) 1 (0.2)

Chinese Taipei k 84 (3.3) 1 (0.0) 1 (0.0) 1 (0.6)

Cyprus j 19 (3.3) 2 (1.2) 7 (2.1) 6 (1.8)

England k r 19 (3.4) r 4 (1.9) r 5 (2.3) r 2 (1.4)

Hong Kong, SAR j 47 (4.4) 1 (1.0) 1 (1.1) 0 (0.0)

Hungary j 86 (3.3) 1 (0.9) 3 (1.4) 2 (1.1)

Iran, Islamic Rep. of j 98 (1.1) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)

Italy k 75 (3.1) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.3) 0 (0.0)

Japan k 16 (3.2) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.7) 1 (0.7)

Latvia j 89 (2.9) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.3)

Lithuania j 87 (2.5) 0 (0.2) 3 (1.3) 0 (0.0)

Moldova, Rep. of j r 94 (2.1) r 1 (0.0) r 2 (1.2) r 1 (0.0)

Morocco j x x x x x x x x

Netherlands j 24 (3.5) 11 (3.0) 31 (4.4) 1 (0.0)

New Zealand k 30 (3.1) 1 (0.5) 4 (1.4) 1 (0.6)

Norway k 41 (4.5) 1 (0.6) 3 (2.2) 0 (0.0)

Philippines j 95 (2.3) 1 (0.0) 2 (1.1) 2 (1.1)

Russian Federation j 96 (1.2) 1 (0.4) 1 (0.4) 2 (0.7)

Scotland k r 19 (3.8) r 0 (0.3) r 2 (1.1) r 0 (0.3)

Singapore k 21 (3.3) 6 (1.9) 14 (3.0) 4 (1.5)

Slovenia j 76 (3.7) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.8) 0 (0.0)

Tunisia j r 89 (2.9) 2 (1.2) 5 (1.9) 10 (2.7)

United States j 40 (2.4) 3 (0.8) 7 (1.3) 3 (0.9)

International Avg. 58 (0.6) 2 (0.2) 4 (0.3) 2 (0.2)


Indiana State, US k 43 (5.3) 1 (1.1) 9 (3.4) 1 (0.8)

Ontario Province, Can. k 43 (4.6) 1 (0.9) 3 (1.8) 2 (1.3)

Quebec Province, Can. k 54 (4.7) 1 (0.6) 2 (1.1) 1 (1.0)

Looking up Ideasand Information

Percentage of Students Whose Teachers Reported onComputer Use About Half of the Lessons or More


the Use ofComputers

Countries


Teachers ReportedThat Computers Are

Not Available

DiscoveringPrinciples and

Concepts

PracticingSkills and

Procedures

Yesk

j No

Computer Use in Mathematics Class



An “r” indicates data are available for at least 70 but less than 85% of the students. An “x” indicates data are available for less than 50% of the students.



What Are the Roles of Homework and Assessment?

The amount of time students spend on homework assignments is an important consideration in examining their opportunity to learn math-ematics. Exhibit 7.13 presents the index of teachers’ emphasis on math-ematics homework. Students in the high category had teachers who reported giving relatively long homework assignments (more than 30 minutes) on a relatively frequent basis (in about half the lessons or more). Those in the low category had teachers who gave short assign-ments (less than 30 minutes) relatively infrequently (in about half the lessons or less). The medium level includes all other possible combina-tions of responses.

The results show substantial variation across countries in the emphasis placed on homework. At the eighth grade, more than 70 percent of the students in Romania and Italy were in the high cat-egory. For the majority of countries, most students were in the medium category. More than half the students were in the low category in Sweden, Belgium (Flemish), Korea, Japan, and Scotland. It can be noted, however, that students in Japan and perhaps Korea may be more likely to spend extra time in tutoring and special schools than doing homework.1 At the eighth grade, there was a slight, but notice-able positive relationship between teachers assigning more homework and students having higher mathematics achievement. At the fourth grade, teachers reported giving homework much less frequently than at eighth grade. On average, internationally, only 14 percent of the fourth-grade students were in the high category. About half (49%) were in the medium category and 37 percent were in the low category. The fourth-grade students in the high category had the lowest math-ematics achievement, on average, suggesting that homework often was being used for remedial purposes.

Exhibit 7.14 presents eighth-grade teachers’ reports about how they usually use homework in their mathematics instruction. Inter-nationally, the eighth-grade mathematics teachers reported always or

1 Robitaille, D.F., (1997), National Contexts for Mathematics and Science Education: An Encyclopedia of the Education Systems Participating in TIMSS, Vancouver, BC: Pacific Educational Press.



almost always monitoring whether homework was completed (for 78 percent of the students, on average). For more than half the eighth-grade students, on average, teachers reported always or almost always correcting assignments and giving feedback to students, but for about one-third, on average, the students corrected their own homework in class. About one-fourth of the students, on average, had teachers that reported using homework as basis for class discussion (27%) and to contribute toward grades or marks (25%).

As shown in Exhibit 7.15, eighth-grade teachers reported sub-stantial variation across countries in the frequency of testing in math-ematics class. On average, internationally, nearly half the students (47%) reported having a mathematics test or examination every two weeks or more and another 40 percent reported such testing about once a month. Testing every two weeks or more for most students (80% or more) was reported by eighth-grade teachers in Bahrain, Belgium (Flemish), Chinese Taipei, Lebanon, Lithuania, the Philippines, the Russian Federation, the Slovak Republic, and the Canadian prov-ince of Quebec. Even though the international average was low (14%) for infrequent testing, there were countries where teachers reported testing only a few time a year or more for half or more of the eighth-grade students, including Scotland, Slovenia, Sweden, and England.

Exhibit 7.16 presents eighth-grade teachers’ reports about the types of test formats they use for mathematics tests in relation to average mathematics achievement. On average, internationally, more than half the eighth-grade students (56%) had teachers who used only or mostly constructed-response tests or examinations. These students had higher mathematics achievement, on average, than did students whose teachers used some constructed-response and multiple-choice items or only multiple-choice items. However, very few students (12%, on average) had teachers who reported using only or mostly multiple-choice testing.


TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.13:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Index of Teachers’ Emphasis on Mathematics Homework (EMH)







GradeMATHEMATICS4


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.13:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Index of Teachers’ Emphasis on Mathematics Homework (EMH)






TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.14:

Armenia r 86 (2.6) r 68 (3.8) r 18 (2.9) r 16 (2.7) r 9 (2.1)

Australia 75 (3.4) 56 (3.6) 25 (3.7) 16 (3.2) 22 (3.3)

Bahrain 92 (2.4) 91 (2.3) 70 (1.8) 50 (3.9) 66 (2.4)

Belgium (Flemish) 88 (2.9) 83 (2.8) 24 (3.3) 7 (1.8) 22 (3.2)

Botswana 97 (1.8) 93 (2.4) 31 (4.3) 30 (3.8) 8 (1.6)

Bulgaria 79 (3.9) 53 (4.7) 7 (2.2) 22 (3.6) 3 (1.2)

Chile 79 (3.4) 72 (3.4) 59 (4.0) 37 (3.9) 20 (3.0)

Chinese Taipei 75 (3.6) 48 (4.5) 46 (3.9) 48 (4.5) 57 (4.1)

Cyprus 85 (1.9) 84 (1.8) 28 (2.1) 44 (2.6) 46 (2.4)

Egypt 80 (3.1) 72 (3.8) 31 (3.5) 37 (3.7) 42 (4.3)

Estonia 72 (3.6) 20 (3.3) 19 (3.2) 21 (3.5) 13 (2.2)

Ghana 87 (3.3) 83 (3.8) 45 (4.7) 43 (4.6) 52 (4.5)

Hong Kong, SAR 86 (3.2) 78 (3.8) 20 (3.5) 23 (3.7) 20 (3.5)

Hungary 97 (1.6) 38 (3.6) 73 (3.5) 13 (2.7) 7 (2.2)

Indonesia 92 (2.5) 85 (3.0) 22 (3.6) 14 (3.0) 37 (4.2)

Iran, Islamic Rep. of 76 (3.5) 43 (3.6) 56 (3.7) 41 (3.6) 38 (3.9)

Israel 71 (3.3) 39 (3.7) 29 (3.5) 38 (3.6) 47 (3.5)

Italy 82 (2.5) 41 (3.8) 59 (3.7) 48 (3.3) 9 (2.2)

Japan 51 (3.7) 15 (2.7) 41 (3.8) 9 (2.3) 24 (3.2)

Jordan 83 (3.0) 73 (3.6) 66 (3.9) 54 (3.8) 35 (4.2)

Korea, Rep. of s 76 (3.0) s 13 (2.9) s 28 (3.4) s 3 (1.3) s 28 (3.2)

Latvia 80 (3.1) 57 (4.1) 11 (3.0) 9 (2.0) 26 (3.0)

Lebanon 77 (3.7) 66 (4.3) 62 (4.6) 44 (4.8) 15 (3.0)

Lithuania 67 (3.5) 26 (3.5) 8 (2.3) 6 (1.6) 6 (1.8)

Macedonia, Rep. of 69 (4.0) 54 (3.8) 24 (3.8) 27 (3.9) 42 (4.5)

Malaysia 89 (2.8) 86 (3.3) 14 (3.0) 31 (3.9) 5 (1.8)

Moldova, Rep. of r 70 (5.0) r 34 (4.7) r 33 (4.0) r 21 (4.1) r 25 (4.5)

Morocco s 60 (7.0) s 79 (6.1) s 59 (5.5) s 41 (6.4) s 8 (3.6)

Netherlands 44 (4.5) 39 (5.0) 69 (4.4) 13 (3.0) 4 (1.9)

New Zealand 68 (4.9) 34 (4.2) 41 (5.4) 13 (3.4) 12 (3.5)

Norway 21 (3.4) 4 (1.6) 12 (2.6) 10 (2.4) 20 (3.6)

Palestinian Nat’l Auth. 92 (2.5) 66 (3.8) 66 (3.5) 50 (4.1) 38 (4.2)

Philippines 85 (3.6) 83 (3.6) 43 (4.7) 41 (4.5) 55 (4.9)

Romania 86 (3.0) 49 (4.1) 15 (3.1) 35 (3.7) 9 (2.3)

Russian Federation 86 (3.3) 48 (3.1) 16 (2.3) 8 (1.7) 6 (1.7)

Saudi Arabia 95 (1.2) 84 (5.1) 65 (5.5) 42 (5.4) 68 (5.7)

Scotland 88 (3.0) 62 (4.6) 13 (3.0) 19 (3.7) 11 (3.0)

Serbia 77 (3.4) 38 (3.7) 21 (2.8) 22 (3.4) 11 (2.7)

Singapore 89 (1.8) 87 (1.8) 5 (1.2) 24 (2.1) 18 (1.6)

Slovak Republic 74 (4.0) 46 (4.2) 19 (3.1) 12 (2.6) 6 (2.1)

Slovenia 79 (3.7) 23 (3.2) 60 (3.8) 18 (3.6) 3 (1.5)

South Africa 85 (2.5) 80 (2.3) r 38 (3.6) r 38 (3.9) 30 (3.2)

Sweden 67 (3.3) 42 (3.5) 12 (2.6) 7 (1.9) 11 (2.4)

Tunisia 68 (4.2) 58 (3.8) 75 (3.5) 30 (4.0) 6 (2.1)

United States 90 (1.6) 45 (3.6) 55 (2.8) 50 (3.2) 77 (2.7)

¶ England r 94 (2.0) r 72 (5.4) r 8 (2.9) r 15 (4.4) r 37 (6.4)



Basque Country, Spain 79 (4.0) 54 (5.4) 86 (3.5) 29 (4.9) 62 (4.8)

Indiana State, US 97 (1.6) 42 (6.5) 58 (5.5) 55 (6.3) 80 (5.8)

Ontario Province, Can. 82 (3.6) 47 (4.9) 56 (4.8) 38 (4.7) 38 (5.0)

Quebec Province, Can. 64 (4.7) 66 (4.1) 53 (4.5) 24 (3.9) 19 (3.5)

Countries Monitor Whether orNot the Homework

Was Completed

Percentage of Students Whose Teachers Always or Almost Always

Correct Assignmentsand Then Give

Feedback to Students

Have StudentsCorrect Their OwnHomework in Class

Use the Homeworkas a Basis

for Class Discussion

Use the Homeworkto Contribute

Toward Students’Grades/Marks

Use of Mathematics Homework






GradeMATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

Exhibit 7.15:

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Frequency of Mathematics Tests 8







TIMSS2003

Grade8MATHEMATICS


SOU

RCE:

IEA

's T

rend

s in

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mat

hem

atic

s an

d Sc

ienc

e St

udy

(TIM

SS) 2

003

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

� ��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

Exhibit 7.16: Item Formats Used by Teachers in Mathematics Tests or Examinations




A dash (–) indicates comparable data are not available. A tilde (~) indicates insufficient data to report achievement.

"An “r” indicates data are available for at least 70 but less than 85% of the students. An “s” indicates data are available for at least 50 but less than 70% of the students. An “x” indicates data are available for less than 50% of the students."



Documents

T03 M Chap7 - Boston College · 2021. 7. 15. · 266 TIMSS & PIRLS INTERNATIONAL STUDY CENTER, LYNCH SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON COLLEGE CHAPTER 7: CLASSROOM CHARACTERISTICS attitudes