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Inclusive Teaching Guide

Lower Elementary

Brandy Gay and Sara Parrow SED 5600

Dr. Peterson Wayne State University

May 2, 2005

Table of Contents

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Introduction……………………………………………………. I. Description of the School, its Structure and Organization……………………………….. II. Classroom Design……………………........................................ III. Building a Classroom Community……………………………. IV. Staff Support and Collaboration……………………………… V. Parent Involvement and Support……………………………… VI. Inclusive Academic Instruction Strategies…………………… VII. Assistive Technology ………………………………………….. VIII. Strategies for Mild to Serious Behavior Problems …………… IX. Methods to Facilitate Change…………………………………. X.

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Educational Philosophy All children have the right to an education. As educators, we have the unique opportunity to touch and shape each one of our student’s lives. Education involves more than just teaching important content. It is a time for children to develop personal life skills. These skills are gained in the classroom and utilized throughout their lives. A safe, positive and nurturing environment that promotes creativity and individual educational experiences will reinforce this belief. All students can be taught regardless of their age, race, gender, or disability. This approach will be accomplished by developing a functional curriculum that is both meaningful and edifying to the individual student’s needs. Children are unique and each one is equipped with specific talents and strengths. As educators, our objective is to use various methods to address individual learning styles, as indicated in the multiple intelligences theory. By incorporating interactive and hands-on learning activities, presenting materials that have relevancy to the child and taking advantage of new technology offered within the schools, teachers can meet those needs. The students and their families must feel comfortable when communicating with staff. An open mind is imperative at all times in order to understand the students and their families. Our role as educators is to provide our students with the knowledge and skills necessary to become successful adults. Inclusion “Inclusion represents the belief or philosophy that students with disabilities should be fully integrated into general education classrooms and schools and that their instruction should be based on their abilities, not their disabilities.” (Friend and Bursuck, 2002) Inclusion, when utilized correctly, can be a valuable tool for all involved, both non-disabled and disabled individuals. In order for an inclusive setting to be successful, ample planning, preparation and support must be implemented. This guide will provide concrete descriptions for how an effective inclusive general education classroom may function. Universal Design Many educators feel that their classrooms are all encompassing when it comes to their students’ learning environment. It is necessary to recognize that in addition to the classroom, teachers should explore the school building, its grounds and the community which surrounds it. All of these areas together can offer many more opportunities for creative learning. Universal Design can be found in many of these various settings. Universal design is "the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design." (Sheryl Burgstahler, Universal Design of Instruction) It can be considered an approach to designing the environment and products that takes into consideration the

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changes experienced by everyone during their lifetime. Rather than focus on adapting things for an individual at a later time, an accessible environment is created from the beginning. When designers apply universal design principles, their products and services meet the needs of potential users with a wide variety of characteristics. Disability is one of many characteristics that an individual might possess. For example, one person could be five feet four inches tall, female, forty years old, a poor reader, and deaf. All of these characteristics, including her deafness, should be considered when developing a product or service she might use. Making a product or service accessible to people with disabilities often benefits others. For example, sidewalk curb cuts, designed to make sidewalks and streets accessible to those using wheelchairs, are today more often used by kids on skateboards, parents with baby strollers, and delivery staff with rolling carts. If television displays in airports and restaurants were captioned, they would benefit people who cannot hear the audio because of a noisy environment, as well as those who are deaf. Principles of Universal Design • Equitable Use – The design is useful and marketable to people with diverse

abilities. For example, a Web site that is designed so that it is accessible to everyone, including people who are blind, employs this principle.

• Flexibility in Use – The design accommodates a wide range of individual preferences and abilities. An example is a museum that allows a visitor to choose to read or listen to the description of the contents of a display case.

• Simple and Intuitive Use – Use of the design is easy to understand, regardless of the user's experience, knowledge, language skills, or current concentration level. Science lab equipment with control buttons that are clear and intuitive is a good example of an application of this principle.

• Perceptible Information – The design communicates necessary information effectively to the user, regardless of ambient conditions or the user's sensory abilities. An example of this principle not being employed is when television programming is projected in noisy public areas like academic conference exhibits without captioning.

• Tolerance for Error – The design minimizes hazards and the adverse consequences of accidental or unintended actions. An example of a product applying this principle is an educational software program that provides guidance when the user makes an inappropriate selection.

• Low Physical Effort – The design can be used efficiently and comfortably, and with a minimum of fatigue. For example, doors that are easy to open by people with a wide variety of physical characteristics demonstrate the application of this principle.

• Size and Space for Approach and Use – Appropriate size and space is provided for approach, reach, manipulation, and use regardless of the user's body size, posture, or mobility. A science lab work area designed for use by students with a wide variety of physical characteristics and abilities is an example of employing this principle. (http://www.washington.edu/doit/Faculty/Strategies/Universal)

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Learning Environments and Universal Design The following is a list of recommendations that can be employed to promote learning among students of differing abilities through the arrangement and design of the physical environment. Academic Classroom • Have books and other resources that span ability levels • Invest in talking computer software and other technology • Use of sound amplification devices • Use of visual magnification devices and large print display software • Offer sign language courses for credit

School • Allow for work to be created and done all over the building • Employ an entire staff that see themselves as supporting members of student

support • Have an effective and accessible media center which contains materials for all

ability levels • Computers should be equipped with assistive technology

Community • Have mentors present in the students lives • Community organizations should host many student learning based activities • Places of interest (playgrounds, museums, etc.) should be accessible to all

Social-Emotional Classroom • Have places where students can work together in groups and also individually • Allow for peer buddy activities • Create circles of support for those in need • Allow students to assist in creating the classroom environment through

organization and decoration • Display an abundance of student created work

School • Create a welcoming place for all • Use parent and community volunteers • Create a caring and supportive culture • Create a cheerful and welcoming feel by displaying student work throughout

Community • Local businesses and community members should welcome students • Involve students in after-school mentoring programs • After-school programs should involve parents and community members

Sensory-physical Classroom

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• Many types of assistive technology, such as talking software and Braille computer printers can be used

• Create space to allow for movement within the classroom • Allow students to have food and beverages in the classroom • Clearly label materials – picture cues can also be used • Provide space for wheelchair access

School • Schools should have various points of wheelchair access • Have clear signs that use both words and pictures • Display student work that encourages response

Community • Playground equipment should be accessible by all individuals • Public building and businesses should be accessible by all individuals

Physical Design of the Classroom The use of physical space is essential in a total learning environment. Not only can it affect student learning, but also their behavior. The classroom design, while open to interpretation, should vary depending upon the context. A safe and orderly environment along with accessibility to learning should be included in the organization of the classroom. For example, the furniture arrangement should be safe and accommodate efficient traffic flow. Moreover, depending on the instructional goals and the planned activity, the furniture should be arranged in the most advantageous means possible. The student’s work area and the teacher’s area are features to consider when preparing a classroom. Here are some ideas to reference when planning these areas: The Student’s Work Area:

• Students should be able to clearly see the teacher, as well as any instructional materials (bulletin boards, screens, demonstration areas and displays).

• The traffic areas should be kept uncluttered. • Storage areas should be easily accessible.

The Teacher’s Area:

• The teacher’s desk, file cabinets, and other equipment should be placed accordingly so that they do not interfere with the flow of traffic.

• The teacher’s desk should also be positioned to easily monitor the classroom while working in that area or with individual students.

When organizing a classroom, cleanliness, lighting, temperature and noise level should be considered. Think about the floor plan. Lower grades may include many different learning areas, such as a Reading Center, Play Center, Art Center and Technology Center. However, when setting up these areas remember to address these issues:

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Centers:

• Always be able to make eye contact with all students. • Art or untidy areas are best located near a sink. • Room dividers are quite useful, yet they should be low so that all areas are visible. • Areas that promote group work should not be located next to quiet areas where

students are able to read silently or work independently. Lighting:

• Create both well-lit and dimly-lit areas in the classroom to ensure a positive and calm learning environment for all students’ learning styles.

• Use bookcases, screens, plants and other furniture to create such areas. • Allow students to sit where they feel most comfortable. A visually-impaired

student may need to be seated in a well-lit area that is glare-free, while a hyperactive student may accomplish more in a dimly-lit area.

(http://teacher.scholastic.com/professional/futureteachers/classroom_organization.htm) Temperature:

• Help students become aware of their own temperature preference. • Encourage students to dress accordingly, using layers that can be added or taken

off. (http://teacher.scholastic.com/professional/futureteachers/classroom_organization.htm)

Noise Level:

• Establish listening stations and a quiet area for students who work better in silence.

• While engaging in group work, allow the students to use indoor voices. • Noise is not always a bad thing. Discussions and interaction can only benefit

students. • Although students should be permitted to move about the classroom, the teacher

must establish the appropriate time to do so, as well as enforce respect of others while doing so.

(http://teacher.scholastic.com/professional/futureteachers/classroom_organization.htm) Encourage the students to make the classroom space their own. Welcome their contributions to its decoration and urge them to take responsibility for its maintenance. Here are some ideas for making a classroom inviting:

• Attempt to represent the cultural backgrounds of students when dressing the walls in order to promote student diversity.

• Designate a section of the bulletin board for the students’ Wall of Fame. Post children’s drawings, written work and other projects there. Make sure each student’s work is displayed often.

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• Use interesting and eye-catching visual aids, such as bulletin boards and posters. • Wall decorations should be colorful, appealing and relevant to current class work.

However, they should be refreshed and rotated frequently. (www.prodev.learningnetwork.com)

To determine seating arrangements for the accomplishment of classroom tasks, take into consideration the following:

• Desk arrangements have a considerable impact on student learning. There are a variety of ways that the desks can be positioned: rows, circles even small groups. Always be flexible and permit design changes that can be most beneficial for all students.

• Establish informal furniture arrangement through the opportunity to use soft chairs, pillows or relax on the carpet.

• During story time, gather the students on the floor together. • During a group activity, sit at tables or arrange the desks in a circle or cluster. • During a test, video or lecture, arrange the desks in rows. • During discussions or demonstrations, permit the students to place their desks

in a circle along the perimeter of the classroom. The teacher can then be positioned in the center of the circle acting as the facilitator.

Friend and Bursuck (2002) believe that organization of an inclusive classroom

involves the following five themes:

1. Physical Organization- This category includes the appearance of the classroom, as well as the use of wall and floor space, lighting and storage. Enhance classroom walls with student work, classroom expectations, posters and decorations. Do not stop inside the classroom! Decorate the hallways and door with student work. However, be aware that students with attention problems should not be situated near distractions on the wall, such as pictures or busy bulletin boards. In regards to floor space, a non-slip surface can make wheelchair travel more effortless. High traffic areas should be accessible and orderly to ensure safety. Students with hearing and visual impairments may need to be in a well-lit area in order to read speech or see visual aids. On the other hand, students with learning disabilities and emotional impairments may benefit from a dimly-lit area. *See Lighting.

2. Routines for the Classroom- Routines are an important factor in both academic and nonacademic areas. They must be clear to the students, as well as structured. Implementing routines not only reduces nonacademic time and increases learning, but also prevents discipline problems due to unpredictability. Most students, especially those with special needs, find stability in knowing that classroom activities will be similar each day.

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3. Classroom Climate- This category relates to the overall atmosphere of the classroom. It is influenced by the attitudes of the teacher and the students concerning individual differences. When establishing the classroom climate, consider these questions:

• Is the classroom characterized by a cooperative or a competitive atmosphere?

• Is the classroom a safe place for all students to take risks? • Are skills for interacting positively with children and adults actively

supported in the classroom? 4. Classroom Rules- The rules assist in creating a sense of order and expectations for a classroom. When creating classroom rules with the students, remember to keep them few in number, word them in a positive way and thoroughly explain them to ensure comprehension. 5. Use of Time- The use of instructional time and managing transition time constitute two significant areas of a teacher’s classroom organization. Instructional Time: 1. The overall organization of a classroom will effect instruction. The more time the students spend meaningfully engaged, the more they learn. 2. Minimize the amount of time spent on organizational activities, such as sharpening pencils and using the restroom. 3. Select activities with the greatest teaching potential and augment the understanding of the core curriculum. For instance, use authentic, hands-on activities to reinforce lessons. Managing Transition Time: 1. Move quietly 2. Put books away and get what is needed for the next activity 3. Move chairs quietly 4. Keep hands and feet to oneself An important factor in an inclusive classroom design is technology. Not only does technology provide children with various tools for learning, but it may also act as a source of information. Technology can include such items as a computer, microphone, television and audio cassette/CD player. Additionally, assistive technology can be used in many forms to assist students of all levels. *Please see the Assistive Technology portion of this guide for more details.

Building a Classroom Community Building a community requires support of individuals in making and maintaining connections with people in their community. As a result, relationships develop and interdependence flourishes. “Excluding people from the community, requiring them to enter segregated facilities to meet their needs, as opposed to meeting their needs in the community, reduces the individual’s quality of life, as well as the overall quality of the community as a whole. However, expanding each person’s circle of friends, supports and

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connections, enhances their quality of life and enhances their capability to contribute to society using their abilities.” (kidstogether.org) The goal of building a community in the classroom is to help students truly understand and accept the diversity of their peers. In doing so, they are able to build on their strengths while emotional support and a secure environment are offered by staff. In order to understand the foundation of building a community, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs must be discussed. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow stated that humans are motivated by unfulfilled needs. He classified these needs into five levels that create a pyramid. The lower needs must be met before the higher needs can be satisfied. His model is as follows which begins with the lowermost need and progresses to the highest: 1. Physiological Needs- Air, food, water, shelter, sleep and sexual gratification 2. Safety/Security- Physical and emotional survival and safety 3. Belongingness and Love- Being part of a community and experiencing caring relationships 4. Self-esteem- A positive sense of self, often attained through personal achievement 5. Self-actualization- The realization of the inner self’s full potential in the world

(Peterson and Hittie, 2003) According to Eric Schaps (2003), there are long-term benefits in creating a caring classroom community:

• Helps parents take active roles in the school and their child(ren)’s education • Enables students from diverse backgrounds to bring their personal thoughts,

feelings and experiences into the classroom • Stresses the qualities essential to good character and citizenship, such as fairness,

concern for others and personal responsibility • Understanding the school’s values helps shape daily interactions • Students learn the skills of collaboration • Students develop wider and richer relationships • Students experience the many satisfactions of contributing to the welfare of others • Having a voice in the classroom in regards to establishing the agenda and climate

is intrinsically satisfying and helps prepare students for citizenship as adults Peterson and Hittie (2003) provide a number of strategies for establishing a sense of community in classrooms. The following is an excerpt from Inclusive Teaching: Creating Effective Schools For All Learners. It begins with the first step: 1. Foundations of the School Community

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• Democratic and Collaborative Decision Making- All school staff should participate in decision making, including the custodians, teachers, secretary and lunch aides.

• Support for Teachers and Students- Collaboration and support among staff members is a must in order to mirror the support given in the classroom.

• Parent and Community Connections- These relationships are vital in building a sense of community.

2. Classroom Community • Routines and Structures- Precise daily routines help build community in

the classroom. This can be accomplished through class decorations and arrangements, what the class as a whole wants to learn, democratic exercise of power, classroom rules, getting to know the classroom community, daily routines,

• class meetings, sharing, communicating respectfully, making choices and games/learning activities

• Student Roles- Classroom leadership, helping others as experts, buddies, tutors, peer mentors and circles of friends

• Dealing with Difference- Discuss ability differences up front, provide examples of children’s literature that promote diversity and implement thematic units

3. Schoolwide Community • Creating Child- and Family-Centered Vision- Create a combined vision of

the school that focuses on children and families. • Culture of Respect- Treat the students with respect and develop a

trustworthy relationship with them. • Collaborative Learning Circles- Gather with fellow staff members to

discuss new techniques, build relationships and just talk with one another. • Schoolwide Themes- Many staff members may choose a theme to

organize learning, which can link subjects throughout the school. • School Celebrations for All- Assemblies, celebrations and award

ceremonies should include all students rather than singling out a few. It is important that educators create a warm, inviting and comfortable classroom environment. Positive actions and words can ensure this atmosphere. Teachers must exhibit these behaviors in order for the students to learn to genuinely care for one another. The following is a list created by Harry Wong providing examples of how a teacher can create an intentionally inviting backdrop in the classroom: Inviting Verbal Comments:

• “Good morning.” • “I appreciate your help.” • “Yes.” • “How can I help you?” • “Tell me about it.”

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• “Congratulations!” Inviting Physical Environment:

• Living plants • Clean walls • Fresh paint • Fresh air • Comfortable furniture

Inviting Personal Behaviors:

• Waiting your turn • Thumbs up/High five • Listening • Smiling • Holding the door

Inviting Thoughts (Self-Talk):

• “Sometimes I have to think what to say.” • “I could learn to do that.” • “Making mistakes is alright.”

Students Roles in the Learning Community Although the role of students in developing a sense of community in the classroom was mentioned above, it is necessary to discuss a crucial element of encouragement: circle of support or circle of friends. Peer buddies, mentors and tutors can be quite effective, yet these roles are most likely performed in the classroom. A circle of support is a much more influential way to provide assistance to those who need it, disabled and non-disabled alike, that can go beyond the classroom walls. There are a few key factors in setting up a circle of support:

• Ask the student(s) if he/she/they would like a circle of support • The student decides which peers to invite into the circle of support (if the child

is new to the classroom, volunteers may be taken) • Select a meeting time. An adult must attend to facilitate (teacher, social

worker, psychologist) • Use person-centered planning to guide the discussions, activities and

experiences of the circle of support The non-disabled peers have a very significant role in circles of support. It may be necessary for the adult facilitator to train these students in order for success to be met. The circle of support provides assistance with homework, problems with friendships/relationships or emotional issues, as well as genuine friendship. If at all possible, the non-disabled peers will choose to support their disabled friend throughout their school years together and beyond, plus include him/her in activities inside and outside of school.

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Staff Support and Collaboration Effective teachers establish supportive and cooperative relationships with their colleagues. As more and more students are becoming fully included in general education classrooms, the relationship between all of the adults involved becomes more crucial. Administration, general and special education teachers, paraprofessionals and support staff must work together for all students to grow and develop academically and socially. In order for an inclusive setting to be successful, collaboration among co-workers is imperative. According to Friend and Bursuck (2002), there are several steps that individuals need to take in order to collaborate effectively. Characteristics of Collaboration • Collaboration is Voluntary- It is a personal choice to work collaboratively with

others. • Collaboration is Based on Parity- Teachers who collaborate must believe that all

individual contributions are valued equally. • Collaboration Requires a Shared Goal- Understand that teachers collaborate only

when they share a goal. Having separate goals does not work toward one outcome for the student.

• Collaboration Includes Shared Responsibility for Key Decisions- Although teachers may divide the work needed to be done, they must share the responsibility in deciding which activities will be completed in order to reach a goal.

• Collaboration Includes Shared Accountability for Outcomes- This characteristic follows directly from the previous one. If teachers share key decisions, they must also share accountability with the results, positive or negative.

• Collaboration is Based on Shared Resources- Each teacher should contribute some type of resource. This increases commitment and reinforces each person’s sense of parity.

• Collaboration is Emergent- As teachers become more experienced at collaboration, their interactions become apparent by the trust and respect that they experience together.

Prerequisites for Collaboration Creating collaborative relationships requires much effort and hard work. However, as with most situations, it gets better and easier with experience. Here are some useful tips to foster collaboration:

• Reflect on your personal belief system • Reflect on your interaction skills • Contribute to a supportive environment

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Collaboration is the key to building many types of partnerships in an educational setting. There are many situations where individuals such as teachers, administrators, support staff, counselors and paraprofessionals can be of help. Effective Applications of Collaboration In order for collaboration to be successful, there are four categories that need to be addressed. Each category has many steps and requirements. The following is a list of effective applications of collaboration: 1. Shared Problem Solving- This is a complex, yet important part of collaboration. Each participant shares needs, expectations and ideas should blend into shared understandings and mutually agreed-on solutions. There are several steps to properly problem-solve:

• Discover a Shared Need- All participants must agree that a problem exists. They must also believe that they have an impact on changing that problem and can contribute constructively to resolving it.

• Identify the Problem- Problem identification includes gathering data, compiling it, analyzing it and agreeing on the nature of the student’s problem. Have everyone involved share and repeat what the outcome is to eliminate misunderstanding.

• Propose Solutions- Brainstorm possible solutions to solve the problem. • Evaluate Ideas- When evaluating ideas, consider whether they are likely to

resolve the problem and if they are feasible. This can be done by making a checklist of criteria expected to be achieved and how well each idea meets the criteria.

• Plan Specifics- Once an idea or many ideas have been chosen, detailed planning of how to accomplish these goals must begin.

• Implement the Solution- Once everything has been decided, it is time to implement the solutions. Document the staff’s and student’s efforts to achieve the goal, as well as the impact of intervention.

• Evaluate Outcomes- After some time passes, reconvene with the professionals involved to discuss the effectiveness of the solution(s). If the solution has been successful, it can be maintained, discontinued or gradually phased out. However, it may need modification if it is not displaying effectiveness.

2. Co-Teaching- Co-teaching occurs when at least two teachers, usually one general education and one special education teacher, share instruction of a group of students. This strategy is quite effective to achieve inclusion. The idea is that the general and special education teachers combine their ideas and teach a classroom of both disabled and non-disabled students. There are several ways co-teachers can choose to operate a classroom:

• One Teach, One Observe- This approach has one teacher leading instruction while the other is observing and gathering data on the necessary students. The roles should vary so that each teacher has the opportunity to instruct, as well as observe.

• One Teach, One Drift- This approach has one teacher leading instruction while the other teacher quietly assists the necessary students.

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• Station Teaching- In this approach, the curriculum is divided into two parts. Simultaneously, the general education teacher instructs half of the students while the special education teacher instructs the other half. Then the groups switch to hear the other half of the content.

• Parallel Teaching- This approach also divides the class into groups. However, one teacher instructs a group that may be visual learners, while the other teacher instructs the auditory learners. The same information is presented, yet it is done in different ways.

• Alternative Teaching- This option divides the classroom into one large group and a smaller group. The smaller group may benefit from pre-teaching, enrichment activities, or discussions about the content.

• Team Teaching- Both teachers are instructing the students and are equally engaged in the lesson.

• Co-teaching Pragmatics- There are a few factors that teachers need to address when co-teaching. How the teachers arrange themselves and the students during the class period is important. The students are to be heterogeneously grouped in order to properly integrate special needs students. Also, special needs students are to be dispersed into groups. They should not all be placed in one group or only be instructed by the special education teacher. Both teachers take on teaching and supportive roles in the classroom in order to establish credibility. Lastly, teachers can choose the best approach to use by considering the students’ needs, the subject being taught, the teacher’s experience and practical considerations like planning time.

3. Teaming- Teams are formal work groups that have clear goals, active and committed members and leaders. They practice to obtain results and do not let personal issues interfere with the achievement of their goals. The success of teams depends on the commitment of each member and how clear the goals are. Here are several characteristics of a successful team:

• Team Participant Roles- There are several roles a team member must assume: professional, personal and team. Being a classroom teacher is a professional role. In this, the perspective, understanding of students with or without disabilities, subject area knowledge and sense of what is to be taught along with the expectations will strengthen the team. The characteristics that define an individual make up the personal role. Some people are optimists or detail-oriented. These traits will help shape the team as well. A team role may consist of setting up the schedule or taking notes during meetings. Each person’s role is important for the team.

• Team Goals- Clear and precise goals are the key to effective. These types of goals are called task goals and the team should be involved in them. Maintenance goals refer to the team’s position and functionality as a team. These goals include how meetings are scheduled, structured and operated. Teams may not always agree on how well maintenance goals are being handled. Proper communication skills will help in that situation.

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4. Consulting- There may be a time when seeking support is necessary, whether it is to gain knowledge about a student coming into the classroom with an impairment or to understand why a student has suddenly become very withdrawn. “Consultation is a specialized problem solving process in which one professional who has particular expertise assists another professional (or parent) who needs the benefit of that expertise.” (Kampwirth, 1999) There are various types of consultants with different purposes: behavior, speech and vision are a few. Usually, a teacher must fill out a request form or indicate a concern regarding a student. The consultant then contacts the teacher and arranges a meeting. At the meeting, the problem is clarified, discussed and arrangements for consultant observations are made. Observations may be many or few in number. However, there is always a follow-up meeting to discuss the findings. In order for consultations to be effective, both the teacher and the consultant need to be prepared, open-minded and willing to implement the strategies agreed upon. There are five themes that co-teachers have identified as being effective in their classrooms. These themes are listed in the article Collaboration Between General and Special Education Teachers by Suzanne Ripley.

• Confidence in partner’s skills • Design of learning environments for both the educators and students that require

active involvement • Creation of learning and teaching environments in which each person’s

contributions are valued • Development of effective routines to facilitate in-depth planning • Increased productivity, creativity and collaboration over time. Participants in

collaborative programs agreed that the time required for planning does not decrease during the year, but the quality of instruction continues to improve.

(www.teachervision.com) Useful Methods to Increase Knowledge Educators take initiative in contributing a substantial amount of time to volunteering, sharing materials and insights and collaborating with others to better themselves and the students. The following list includes a number of ways for teachers to increase their knowledge and services:

• Join or organize a support group • Listen to others • Listen to cassette tapes or CD’s • Watch videotapes or DVD’s • Read literature • Subscribe to at least one professional journal • Attend conventions, conferences, seminars and workshops • Share your materials with others • Use the Educational Research Information Center (http://www.ericir.syr.edu/) • Observe effective teachers

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• Get to know your colleagues • Meet with staff at least once a week to discuss lesson plans, IEP’s, student

progress and effective/ineffective techniques • Work with a teacher’s aide

(Wong, 2004) Parent Involvement and Support Parents of children with special needs often have mixed feelings about fully including their children in regular education settings. Although they may recognize the benefits of inclusion, they are most likely concerned about the likelihood that their child will be teased or socially isolated. Also, they may worry that their child will be unable to participate in certain activities or feel that inclusion will create too much pressure on their child to keep up with those students in his or her class. Strong parental support is critical to the success of all education, let alone inclusive education. Also, building a positive partnership with parents will yield important benefits in student achievement. Parents are a gateway to their children and educators should take advantage of this opportunity to learn more about their students. The more that an educator knows about his or her pupils, the easier it becomes to meet their individual needs. How to Create Positive Partnerships with Parents

• Establish communication early in the school year • Send home letters of introduction • Invite the parents to the school and classroom • Make yourself available by adjusting schedules • Be sensitive to individual needs • Make parents feel welcome at all times • Avoid using education jargon • Contact parents for positive reasons, not always negative problems • Establish a homework communication line • Set up parent advisory groups within the school • Make parents better aware of their choices for their children by handing out

brochures or putting them in touch with the correct professionals

(Mastropieri and Scruggs, 2004) What Parents can do to assist their Children Academically • Remind child that parents and teachers are always available for extra help • Create a quiet space for homework to be completed • Provide necessary supplies for child to complete assigned work • Keep communication about assignments, projects, and tests open and frequent • Encourage children to read as often as possible • Read with children

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• Assist children in setting realistic goals and work towards them Social-Emotional

• Attempt to keep a family routine concerning dinner, homework, and television • Encourage children to continue trying especially when tasks are challenging • Allow for freedom while staying involved • Remind children that everyone fails and that it is best to learn from experience • Provide consistent praise for children’s contributions to the family, school, and

community • Believe in child’s accomplishments

Sensory-Physical

• Allow child to test a variety of activities in order to find true interests • Make time at home for occupational or physical therapy • Complete an activity (puzzle, game, or educational activity) with child a few

times per week at home Inclusive Academic Instruction The mindset behind inclusive teaching is to “educate all children together well.” (Peterson and Hittie, 2003) Inclusive education teachers intentionally choose to have students of different cultures, academic abilities and social-emotional levels learning together in one classroom. There are several schoolwide and instructional procedures that are followed in order for inclusion to succeed:

1. Partnering with Parents by immediately inviting their children into inclusive classrooms, meeting with them and listening carefully to their thoughts about their children, seeking to understand their child’s gifts, strengths, needs and interests from the parents’ perspective, identifying strategies that work with the child, and inviting them into the school and classroom, making them feel welcome and included in the school family.

2. Providing Support for Teachers, Students and Parents by organizing a support team that meets weekly to discuss the needs of the children with special problems, brainstorming ideas for handling issues, and collaborating with special education teachers, therapists and paraprofessionals whom are involved with the students.

3. Offering Authentic, Multilevel Instruction by designing for diversity and implementing universal design into creating lessons at multiple levels, challenging students at their own level, providing support to push children ahead to their next level of learning, engaging students in learning via activities that relate to the real-world (to their lives at home and in the community), and involving students in collaborative, pair or group work in which children draw on each other’s strengths.

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4. Building Community and Meeting the Needs of Children with Behavioral Challenges by cultivating collaborative, supportive, respectful relationships among staff, parents, and the community. Building structures among children in the classroom so students can help one another via peer buddies, circles of support, conflict resolution and sharing their lives and feelings in conversation, writing, the arts and class meetings. Also, giving children choices and teaching them responsibility.

5. Inclusive School and Classroom Design is centered on creating places of beauty, peace, and fun. Technology also plays a key role in providing children with tools for learning.

6. Empowerment, Leadership and Democracy requires staff to be committed to all students being welcomed, believing inclusion is valuable and articulating and defending reasons for that belief.

(Peterson and Hittie, 2003)

Strategies for Inclusive Teaching Peterson and Hittie (2003) provide many techniques to lay a foundation for brain-based learning and successful inclusive teaching:

1. Multilevel Teaching 2. Scaffolding 3. Multiple Intelligences 4. Learning Styles

The concept behind multilevel teaching is that students with extremely different abilities can learn together. The teacher designs the lessons so that each student is learning the same concept, yet it is directed at individual levels. Here is a four-step plan to guide teachers in developing multilevel units and lessons for their classroom:

1. Identify the Learning Goals (the goals should be realistic enough for the high functioning students to achieve, as well as covering the IEP goals of the lower-ability students).

2. Design Learning Activities that help your highest-ability students with the choice to work in heterogeneous groups or alone/in pairs on related tasks with different materials.

3. Develop Average and Lowest-Level Learning Goals (these types of goals force the teacher to think about how the students can work together at different levels).

4. Consider Individual Students with Special Needs (create realistic goals that pertain to the student’s IEP).

Scaffolding is a form of support that a teacher or student provides in order to help students move from their current abilities toward the intended goal. What follows are a

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few examples of how a teacher can use scaffolding in the classroom in order for adults or peers to assist special needs students:

• Buddy Reading • Dictation (student responds verbally while another writes it down) • Sentences with blank spaces for the student to fill in • Picture Cues • Highlighted material that may even be pre-taught • Role Play • Oral Response rather than written

Teaching toward the multiple intelligences can maximize each student’s potential. It is an approach to identifying one’s natural strengths or style of learning. The Multiple Intelligences Theory was conceived by Howard Gardner, a Harvard educational theorist. He believes that teachers need to provide students with the correct tools and environment to identify their strengths. Acknowledging that every child possesses at least one area that could be a source of accomplishment is the starting point. Designing lessons and activities that allow each student to achieve tasks in their areas of innate interest and skill can generate a positive outcome. The students may even become more willing to face challenges in other domains. The following are eight different intelligences and suggestions regarding Gardner’s theory: Verbal-Linguistic: Definition- The capacity to use language, native language and perhaps other languages, to express what is on their mind and to understand people. Strengths- Memorizing names and dates, reading, writing stories, storytelling Interests- Reading, writing, talking, memorizing Learns Best By- Saying, hearing and seeing words Sample Lesson Plans- Math- Think of as many objects as possible that share a certain property, such as things that are round (sun, balloon, ornament, ball). Encourage creative feedback. Science- Verbally explain the parts and functions of a plant and how they are useful to the earth. Social Studies- Arrange a discussion or debate about the pros and cons of war. Language Arts- For Show and Tell, have the students bring in an object pertaining to a subject or concept being learned or discussed. Logical-Mathematical: Definition- Having an understanding of the principles of some kind of causal system. Strengths- Mathematical equations, reasoning, logic and problem-solving

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Interests- Experiment, problem-solve, work with numbers, ask questions and explore patterns and relationships Learns Best By- Categorizing, classifying and working with abstract patterns/relationships Sample Lesson Plans- Math- Make a chart of diagram comparing the various ages of the students in the classroom Science- Construct a Venn Diagram relating the similarities and differences between two planets Social Studies- Add how many days it took Christopher Columbus to reach America Language Arts- Record and discuss how many hours of homework occupy the student’s time after school during a period of one week Interpersonal: Definition- The ability to understand other individuals Strengths- Understands people, leads others well, organizing, communicating, manipulating and mediating conflicts Interests- Many friends, talk to people and join groups Learns Best By- Sharing, comparing, relating, cooperating and interviewing Sample Lesson Plans- Math- Have the student work with another student who is struggling in an area that they excel in Science- Conduct an interview with a peer that is pretending to be a certain animal Social Studies- Get into groups and discuss a specific era, assigning each group a different perspective. One group can combine with another group to try and understand each other’s point of view. Language Arts- Have students create a classroom play designed around the theme currently being discussed Intrapersonal: Definition- Having an understanding of yourself, knowing who you are, what you can do, what you want to do, how you react to things, which things to avoid and which things to gravitate toward Strengths- Understanding self, focusing inward on feelings and dreams, following instincts, pursuing interests and goals and being original Interests- Working alone, pursuing own interests, reflection, thinking Learns Best By- Working alone, individualized projects, self-paced instruction and having their own space Sample Lesson Plans- Math- Write a short paragraph about the student’s favorite number and explain why

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Science- Keep a science log regarding their pet or an animal. Explain their eating habits, likes and dislikes and responsibilities that come with that pet or animal Social Studies- Imagine what it would have been like to live in the 1900’s and write a short story Language Arts- Write a short-term and long-term goal in a journal that the students would like to achieve (short-term: one that can be accomplished that day or by the end of the week; long-term: one that can be accomplished by the end of the school year) Musical: Definition- The capacity to think in terms of music, to be able to hear patterns, recognize them, remember them and maybe even manipulate them Strengths- Picking up sounds, remembering melodies, noticing pitches and rhythms and keeping time Interests- Sing, hum tunes, listen to music, play an instrument and respond to music Learns Best By- Rhythm, melody and music Sample Lesson Plans- Math- Write lyrics to a song about shapes Science- Write a poem about something found in nature that is significant to the student Social Studies- Listen to samples of music from various countries. Write a song or poem to indicate the student’s favorite type of music Language Arts- Play a sample of music (classical) and have the students draw a picture or write a poem illustrating how they felt while listening to the piece Spatial: Definition- The ability to accurately perceive and represent the visual-spatial world internally Strengths- Imagining, sensing changes, mazes, puzzles and reading maps and charts Interests- Draw, build, design and create things, daydream, look at pictures and slides, watch movies and play with machines Learns Best By- Visualizing, dreaming, using the mind’s eye and working with colors and pictures Sample Lesson Plans- Math- Use geometric shapes for the student to create a puzzle Science- Draw a basic diagram of the human body and label the parts Social Studies- View pictures of modern day locations and compare them to how they looked in a different era Language Arts- Use a graphic organizer to organize the set-up of a short story

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Bodily-Kinesthetic: Definition- The ability to use your whole body or parts of your body to solve a problem, make something or put on a production Strengths- Physical activities (sports, dancing, acting) and crafts Interests- Moving around, touching, talking and using body language Learns Best By- Touching, moving, interacting with space and processing knowledge through bodily sensations Sample Lesson Plans- Math- Allow each student to come to the chalkboard and complete a math equation Science- Learn and act out a song about the different body parts, planets, etc. Social Studies- Have the students role play a significant incidence in history Language Arts- After reading The Very Hungry Caterpillar, have the students reenact the story (what the caterpillar eats, coming out of the cocoon) Naturalist: Definition- The human ability to discriminate among living things as well as having a sensitivity to other features of the natural world Strengths- Identifying flora and fauna, making distinctions and understanding nature Interests- Making distinctions and being involved in nature Learns Best By- Exploring living things, working in nature and learning about nature’s products and natural events Sample Lesson Plans- Math- Draw or photograph how many geometric shapes the students can find in their backyard Science- Have the students collect leaves, label them and create a collage Social Studies- Discuss the differences of two dissimilar environments (desert and tropics) Language Arts- The students can learn to reduce, reuse and recycle and implement these tips into everyday living Recognizing each student’s learning style allows educators to build on the strengths andcreate lessons and activities that respond to the various needs of the learner. Moreover, teachersshould encourage the students to understand their own learning style in order to better understand themselves. Learning styles may include several specific variables. Some focus on visual, auditory and kinesthetic learners while others categorize learning styles according to context, input, processing and response filters. Peterson and Hittie (2003) chose to use a framework adapted from Dunn in 1996. What follows is a comprehensive outline that gives educators an idea of how they can incorporate contextual elements of learning styles into their classroom design and instruction:

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1. Environmental • Sound (the amount of, the use of or silence) • Light (bright vs. dim) • Temperature (warm vs. cool) • Design (formal vs. informal)

2. Emotional • Motivation (high vs. low) • Persistence (ongoing attention to task vs. need for frequent breaks) • Responsibility (conforming vs. needing choices and creativity) • Structure (need for structured guidelines or only for general instruction)

3. Sociological • Response to being with people while learning • Desire to work alone, in pairs or groups • Preferences for working with an authority • Preferences for varied work relationships

4. Physical • Perceptual (auditory, visual, tactile/kinesthetic) • Intake (eating, drinking or chewing to help concentration) • Time (energy and alertness levels at times of day: morning, afternoon,

evening) • Mobility (staying still vs. needing to move)

5. Psychological • Analytic-global (left brain vs. right brain) • Locus of control (external needs for approval vs. internal goal setting) • Reflective-impulsive (thinking deeply but not volunteering answers vs.

reacting immediately) (adapted from Dunn & Dunn, 1987, Dunn, 1996)

Adaptations Before making adaptations, the teacher must first consider the student’s needs, analyze the classroom and school environment, determine inconsistencies between the student and the environment and then develop solutions to his or her needs. In an inclusive setting, traditional teaching involving lectures and worksheets does not encompass the better part of instruction. When implementing adaptations for a special needs student, there are several topics that should be kept in mind. The following is a list of eight principles for making adaptations in the elementary classroom. These principles have been organized using the acronym FLEXIBLE. 1. Feasible- Successful adaptations must be feasible for classroom teachers to implement. Some adaptations are more practical to implement than others, such as establishing consistent routines, providing reinforcement and encouragement and establishing reasonable expectations. Individualizing instruction and rewriting or using alternative materials requires much more dedication and consideration.

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2. Lively- Successful adaptations must be lively, engaging and fun. The more hands-on and authentic the activities are the more students will connect with the concepts. Dull, repetitive and uninviting lessons will most likely disengage the students, which in turn reduce academic learning. 3. Eliminated- Successful adaptations must be developed with the goal of working toward independence, with a gradual fading and eventual elimination of the adaptation. Ideally, an adaptation should be thought of as a temporary scaffold to support student learning. 4. Explicit- Successful adaptations must have a definite purpose- a purpose that is made explicit to students, other professionals in the classrooms, parents, and, if necessary, the student’s peers. Adaptations are most effective when they are purposeful. When students are made aware of the possible benefits of specific adaptations, they are more likely to be receptive to the changes. Sharing the adaptations with peers should be the decision of the student who is using them. 5. Intentional- Successful adaptations should be part of a comprehensive plan for the student with disabilities. While some spontaneous adaptations can be effective, it is best to plan them in advance. Adaptations should coincide with a special needs student’s goals and objectives. 6. Beneficial- Successful adaptations should benefit the student with disabilities and enhance, or at least not detract from, the learning of other students in the classroom. While some adaptations are student-specific, many of them can benefit the entire classroom, such as study guides and graphic organizers. 7. Limelight- Successful adaptations do not place undue attention on the student with disabilities or put the student in a potentially embarrassing situation. The adaptation should be a normal part of the classroom routine. 8. Evaluated- Successful adaptations are continually evaluated. If the desired results are apparent, the teacher should begin to fade it out. If the adaptation is not effective, then adjustments need to be made.

(www.teachervision.com) By using many hands-on and real-world learning experiences in the classrooms, teachers can increase the opportunity that information will be learned. Planning additional adaptations to lessons will also have great benefits for all students. Here is a list of nine types of adaptations educators can implement easily into their classroom instruction:

• Size- Adapt the number of items that the learner is expected to learn or complete • Time- Adapt the time allotted and allowed for learning, task completion or testing • Level of Support- Increase the amount of personal assistance with a specific

learner • Input- Adapt the way instruction is delivered to the learner (visual aids, concrete

examples) • Difficulty- Adapt the skill level, problem type or the rules on how the learner may

approach the work

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• Output- Adapt how the student can respond to instruction (verbal response, communication book)

• Participation- Adapt the extent to which a learner is actively involved in the task • Alternate- Adapt the goals or outcome expectations while using the same

materials • Substitute Curriculum- Provide different instruction and materials to meet a

student’s individual goals (http://www.uni.edu/coe/inclusion/index.html)

Examples of Adaptations When developing lesson plans for classroom instruction, there are quite a few topics that should be considered. Many educators are not aware of the many tools and resources that are available to them and their students. Wayne County RESA provides wonderful ideas and insights into various ways to assist others and make their learning more direct and accessible. The following is a list of guidelines offered by Wayne County RESA that may be beneficial to implement when educating a student with special needs. Please note, accommodations to lessons and activities for special needs students may also be useful to the non-disabled peers. Classroom Accommodations:

• Stand near the student when giving instructions • Allow the student to use a study carrel • Seat the student near positive role models • Arrange the classroom for safe visibility, accessibility and movement • Assign the student to a low distraction area

Presentation of Lessons:

• Remove distractions from worksheets or hand outs • Use buff colored paper rather than white • Give reminders for the student to stay on-task • Call on the student often • Ask the student to repeat instructions to check for understanding and clarification • Give clear behavioral objectives • Provide the student with a study guide • Adjust the workload: reduce assignments or give alternate assignments • Use dark ink • Use large type • Explain the grading criteria for assignments clearly • Highlight instructions • Use visual aids • Acknowledge effort put forth

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Organizational Strategies

• Develop parent to school contact • Implement an AM check- in time to organize for the day • Implement a lunch time check-in to organize for the afternoon • Implement a PM check-out time to organize homework • Give the student time to organize his or her desk • Use checklists • Provide a daily schedule • Use a calendar to plan for long-term assignments • Arrange for a duplicate set of classroom material to be used at home

Alternative Testing:

• Reduce the number of test items • Permit untimed testing • Permit breaks during tests • Use short, frequent quizzes • Arrange for oral testing • Adjust grading criteria based on individual ability • Permit the student to use the computer or type the test

Note-Taking Strategies:

• Provide note-taking training • Give the student a copy of lecture notes • Arrange for a peer to take notes • Provide the student with tape-recorded lessons • Provide time for periodic review of the student’s notes

Math Strategies:

• Allow for use of calculator • Use graph paper for spacing • Reduce the number of problems required • Provide a fact sheet • Use and provide visual aids • Use color boldness to highlight change on paper • Separate problems on the page/reduce the number of problems on a page

Science and Social Studies Strategies:

• Use corresponding software to support instruction • Offer numerous hands-on experiments • Use cooperative learning groups • Modify classroom materials • Arrange for lab use • Use prompts to help solve problems step-by-step

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Reading Strategies:

• Use audio-visual scanning software • Offer frequent review • Use color-coded highlighting • Provide alternative workbooks and worksheets for reinforcement • Use echo reading • Use books on tape • Provide flashcards • Provide repetitive drills including symbols, words and pictures • Use word games and puzzles • Use listening games and activities to reinforce sound and symbol association • Use voice synthesized speech output software

Spelling:

• Use a multi-sensory approach to spelling (use fingers to spell in shaving cream or sand, use magnetic letters, macaroni, Play-Doh)

• Highlight spelling patterns in words • Focus on vital sight words • Use flashcards • Have student repeat the word before and after spelling it • Teach student dictionary skills to locate spellings of words • Allow for spelling test retakes • Reduce the number of spelling words per week • Concentrate on vocabulary words used in content areas • Adapt teaching strategies to the student’s learning style • Use spell check • Use a multiple choice spelling test

Written Expression:

• Allow the use of a tape recorder • Allow the use of voice recognition software for dictation and transcribing • Support handwriting with raised line paper • Give alternate assignments • Do not penalize the student for misspellings or poor penmanship • Provide a model of correct letter and number formation for the student’s desktop • Provide frequent opportunities to practice with story starters or open-ended stories • Provide the student with samples of written work • Reduce the length of written work required • Accept short notes or outlines • Allow computer-use to type written work • Have the student dictate the work and another recopy their dictation • Provide large spaced paper for writing

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Comprehension Strategies:

• Use books on tape • Use a tape recorder • Isolate text into smaller segments • Review regularly • Provide the student with an outline • Provide step-by-step strategies for the desktop • Use picture clues to interpret the meaning • Use color-coded text • Shorten assignments • Allow for additional reading time • Limit the amount of words on a page • Use large books and pointers • Provide additional repetition of directions

Strategies for Multilevel Teaching

Multilevel instructional practices are grounded in a philosophy that believes every child can learn and has the right to do so at their own pace. Teachers must realize that diversity is not only a reality but is something to be embraced. Moreover, classrooms should resemble a community of learners, no matter what the individual level of need or amount of giftedness may be. Creating multilevel lessons can increase the ability for all students to be included and feel like a part of the class. A community is more easily created when lessons contain multiple areas of instruction at varying degrees of difficulty for all to participate. In order to achieve this, teachers must the take time to get to know all of their students and what can be expected from them on an individual basis. When assignments are turned in, they should be completed in a variety of ways and the teacher should not have equal requirements for a high score. All students deserve to earn good grades based upon their own abilities not a set of universal standards.

(http://www.multiage-education.com)

Language Arts

• When teaching a thematic unit using a specific book, allow students with difficulty to choose a book under the same theme, yet at their own level. Gifted and talented students may also have the option of choosing a similar-themed book at a higher reading level.

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• Buddy reading is a wonderful tool to use. It is important that students are not paired according to ability. Students that vary in their abilities tend to learn from each other.

• Do not use one rubric or checklist for the entire classroom. Each student’s work should be evaluated according to his or her ability level and whether his or her personal best was achieved in the final product.

• Do not create one list of vocabulary words for students. Allow for more or less, depending on the ability level. Offer multiple spelling test formats (oral, written, multiple choice, dictation).

• Give students choices for final products (oral presentation, writing a poem, drawing a picture, creating a Power Point presentation).

Science

• When performing experiments or investigations, assign each student a specific role. This does not exclude anyone and everyone has a part in the process.

• Use graphic organizers, tape-recorded lectures and outlines • Be sure to group the students heterogeneously in order to help each other

with assignments.

Math

• Use hands-on, authentic activities as much as possible. • Use models, manipulatives and demonstrations as often as possible. • When working on a geometry unit, lower-ability students can identify and

define shapes in their classroom and home environments. They can draw pictures and create stories. High-ability students can begin to reason and fully understand geometric shapes by exploring their environment and recording their thoughts and ideas in a journal.

Social Studies

• Assign students different roles. For example, one student can be the producer and another can be the consumer, predator and prey, or decomposer and habitat. Let each student describe their role in society via written work, illustrations or oral presentation.

• Role play situations where each student has a part. • Offer the students various choices for a final product (songs, poems,

stories, plays). • Bring in guest speakers so the students may listen to and then interview.

(Adapted from Peterson and Hittie, 2003)

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The following lessons offer examples of how students who are gifted can work side by side with students who require extra assistance. Pairing these students has proven to be a successful method for all involved. Not only to do higher functioning students develop a sense of pride in assisting classmates and the lower functioning students learn new skills, but everyone involved develops communication and social skills. This is also a way to elevate the amount of pressure on teachers and paraprofessionals by freeing up time to spend with all students rather than working next to those who are impaired.

Multilevel Lesson Plans

Animals of the Tropical Rain Forest – Science Objective: Students will be able to describe the basic requirements for living things to maintain their existence in a tropical rain forest. Procedure: 1. The teacher will inform the students that they are going to learn about the tropical rain forest and its inhabitants. 2. The teacher will read a book to the classroom that describes the rain forest and the animals that dwell in it. 3. After the story and a brief discussion of the book, the teacher will explain the assignment to the students. Key vocabulary words include food, habitat and shelter. 4. The students must choose an animal that inhabits the rain forest. For their assignment, they have three choices: 1) Tropical Rain Forest Trading Cards: Choose a white sheet of construction paper and draw and color the rain forest animal that was selected. On the back of the paper, the student will write at least five sentences that describe this animal’s ability to exist in that environment, 2) KWL Chart: A blank outline of a KWL Chart shaped like a parrot will be provided to students who choose this as their assignment. Students will select from the three varying levels of tropical rain forest books, and 3) Channel 3 News Report: Students who choose this task will create a news report as if they were broadcasting from a tropical rain forest. They will describe the environment and at least one animal and its ability to live there. This news report will be videotaped and played for the classroom. It must be written like a script and an illustration must be provided. 5. Students will be given two days of in-class time to work on their final products. The teacher will provide many examples of three books at varying levels of ability to the students for reference. 6. Students who did not choose Channel 3 News Report will have the opportunity to present their finished project to the classroom. Evaluation: The students will be evaluated using rubrics that are designed for their ability level and according to their personal best effort.

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Cooperative Learning Experiences

Cooking: Apple Crescents – Math Objective: Students will practice their measuring skills, follow directions and practice practical application of those skills. Materials: Sliced apples, crescent rolls, cinnamon, sugar, water, butter, muffin pans and muffin liners, pan, tabletop cooking coil, oven access Procedure: Divide students into groups of 3-4. Each group shall follow the recipe for "mini-apple crescents." Students of differing ability will be assigned to tasks according to degree of difficulty and individual goal. For example, those that are lower functioning can be responsible for placing the muffin liners in the pan – thus work on fine motor skills. Those that are of normal functioning level can be responsible for the mathematical portion of the lesson. Also, recipes can be altered to say “½ tsp + ½ tsp” to create a greater degree of difficulty for gifted students. 5-6 apples slices 1 tsp. Cinnamon 1 tsp. Sugar 1 tsp. butter crescent rolls 1. Place butter in pan. Add cinnamon, sugar and apples. Stir while cooking until apples appear tender. 2. Unwrap crescent rolls. Place muffin liners in muffin pan. 3. Place the crescent roll in muffin liner. Do not fold. 4. Spoon apples into roll; then bring up crescent roll corners and crimp. 5. Prick with fork twice. Cook in 300 degree oven for about 15 min. Check to make sure the rolls don't get too brown. 6. Remove from oven, cool and eat!

(http://www.atozteacherstuff.com/Lesson_Plans/Cooperative_Learning) Greeting Friends from other Places – Social Studies Objectives: Students will be introduced to map reading by examining the "Afghanistan, Land in Crisis" map (available in print or online). Students will practice different types of greetings and learn how children in Afghanistan might greet one another. Students will imagine that a puppet is a new friend, try different ways to befriend the puppet, discuss why people react in different ways to greetings, discuss different types of greetings, learn how to greet people from other countries (including Afghanistan) and write a letter to an imaginary friend in Afghanistan telling him or her about their hometown. Materials:

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"Afghanistan, Land in Crisis" map (available in print or online), puppet, globe or political world map and Index cards. *Optional- Computer with Internet access Geographic Skills: Acquiring Geographic Information Answering Geographic Questions Procedure: Opening: Review ways that students might say "Hello" to a new friend. Writing the ideas on the blackboard may reinforce reading skills. Some responses might be "How are you?" "What is your name?" or simply "Hi.” Using the puppet, tell the students that they will be meeting a new friend. But there's a catch: In order to make friends, they have to use a greeting that the puppet will respond to. (Before you begin this exercise, have a "magic phrase" in mind. For example, "How are you today?" or "My name is Shannon! What's your name?") Explain that you will invite each student to greet the puppet. Students should try to greet the puppet in a way that will make the puppet return their greeting. If a child doesn't say the magic phrase, take the puppet to the next child. If a student says the magic phrase, the puppet should respond. Students can take multiple turns, if time allows. Development: If a student selects the magic phrase, stop the exercise and ask the class to recall the greetings the puppet didn't answer. Ask, Why didn't the puppet answer every greeting? Why do you think the puppet answered the magic phrase? Solicit answers that relate to the puppet only knowing what a few words mean, having a favorite way of talking, or being shy. Explain that people in different parts of the world have different ways of saying hello. In France, people say "Bonjour.". In Mexico, a friend would wish you "good day" by saying "Buenos Días." "Guten Tag" is how students in Germany say "Good morning." Invite students to think of greetings they have heard in other languages, as well. This is a good time to introduce sign language or picture cues that may be used by disabled students. Show students the "Afghanistan, Land in Crisis" map. In Afghanistan, children might greet their friends with "salaam" ("sah–LAHM"), which means "peace." But caution students: "Salaam" is a casual greeting used exclusively by children to greet their friends or parents. To say "Salaam" to a stranger would be rude! (Another greeting in Afghanistan is "assalaamu alaikum" ["ah–sah–LAH–moo ah–LIE–kuhm"]—"Peace be upon you.") Closing: Encourage students to think about what they would like to know about children their age in Afghanistan. What do students think Afghan children might ask them? As a class, students will write a letter to an imaginary new friend from Afghanistan. Begin the letter with "Assalaamu alaikum." (If students write a second letter, they could begin it with "Salaam.") In the letter, have students describe some of the unique things in their hometown. Include other things students think Afghan children might like to know. Suggested Student Assessment: Have each student make a postcard to accompany the class letter to their new Afghan

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friend. Each student should draw a picture of one of their favorite things in their hometown on an index card.

(http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/lessons/01/gk2/friends.html)

This lesson incorporates many methods for students to gain involvement. The activity involves role playing and kinesthetic movement. Also, students who are ESL, speech and language impaired, or use visual cues to communicate would greatly benefit from this lesson in addition to their typically developing classmates. Improving Fluency through Group Literary Performance – Language Arts Objectives: Students will identify characteristics of books written by Bill Martin, Jr., including repetition, rhyme, and rhythm, participate in shared reading, choral reading, and readers theater and participate in opportunities to improve reading fluency through repeated readings and performances of the texts. Materials: Books by Bill Martin, Jr., questions for Reflection and Self-evaluation, teacher handout- Chicka Chicka 1·2·3 Choral Reading Chart, Venn diagram, Web resources (listed below), writing materials and supplies and highlighter tape in various colors. *Optional- Tapes, CDs, and videos of Bill Martin, Jr.’s works, tape recorder and cassette tapes, videotaping equipment and Square Dance music. Procedure: Session One: Introducing Bill Martin, Jr. 1. Introduce Bill Martin, Jr. to the students, using the books you’ve collected and the Web sites you’ve chosen. 2. Invite students to browse through your collection of Martin’s books. Students may already be familiar with some of his books. Encourage them to tell about their favorites and share why they like the books. 3. Begin a chart to record the characteristics of Martin’s work, which will include student observations about the repetition, rhythm, and rhyme of the texts. Some student responses might be: • “You can clap his words. His words sing. His books make you dance.” • “He uses lots of rhyming words. B, C, and tree rhyme! So do D, E, G! And P, T,

V, Z! What about F and out of breath?” • “His sentences sound the same. It’s easy to learn because it’s kind of the same. I

can read it after I heard it only twice. I hear a pattern.” 4. After the students have shared their observations, as a group, label and categorize the

responses: • “You can clap his words. His words sing. His books make you dance.” (rhythm) • “He uses lots of rhyming words. B, C, and tree rhyme! So do D, E, G! And P, T,

V, Z! What about F and out of breath?” (rhyme)

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• “His sentences sound the same. It’s easy to learn because it’s kind of the same. I can read it after I heard it only twice. I hear a pattern.” (repetition in Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?, Panda Bear, Panda Bear, What Do You See?, Polar Bear, Polar Bear, What Do You Hear?)

5. Alternately, if students’ skills allow, head a paper with three columns labeled with the words Rhythm, Rhyme, and Repetition and have the students fill in the information on their own.

6. Ask students to explore the books for details on other people who have worked with Martin. Depending upon the books that you have available for students to investigate, they will find that Martin wrote books with John Archambault and Michael Sampson. Illustrators of his books include Lois Ehlert and Eric Carle.

7. Visit the Favorite Things list on the Bill Martin Jr./Michael Sampson Homepage. 8. As a class, brainstorm a list of favorite things, or invite students to create their own

personal lists of favorite things. 9. Compare students’ favorite things with those listed on the Web site. 10. In pairs, groups, or as a whole class activity, visually represent the comparison using

the Venn diagram as a tool. Session Two: Shared Reading with Bill Martin, Jr. 1. Choose one of Bill Martin, Jr.’s books to read aloud to the students. While you can use any of Martin’s books, these books work especially well: • Chicka Chicka 1·2·3 is a great book to share as you get closer to your 100th Day

of School. • Chicka Chicka Boom Boom can be paired with related CD, audiotape, or video to

help students practice their shared reading. The CD includes additional alphabet games that students can play.

• Here Are My Hands makes a nice shared reading focus for an “All About Me” unit or a kindergarten lesson on parts of the body. As students share in the reading of the book, they point to the parts of their own bodies.

2. Read the book aloud to the class, modeling fluent and expressive reading. 3. Reread the book several times, inviting students to join you as you read. 4. Focus on the characteristics of the text: • Help students identify the pattern of the book. • Identify rhyming words. • Clap along with the rhythm of the book or march to the rhythm. • Identify repeating phrases.

5. While reading, point to the words, helping students focus on the print as well as using the clues from the pictures to decode words.

6. Practice the book for several days, reading at the same rate of speed and using the same phrasing so that words can be easily heard and understood by an audience.

7. Invite an audience to the classroom to listen to your students read/perform the story. This audience might include parents or grandparents, another class, the principal, nurse, secretary, librarian, and other school staff.

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8. Update your class chart by recording student observations about the repetition, rhythm, and rhyme of the books.

Session Three: Writing Model Books with Bill Martin, Jr. 1. Choose one of Martin’s books as a model for your own, original class book. While you can use any of Martin’s books, these books work especially well: • Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? can be used as a follow-up to a

class unit on animals, plants, or insects. Students can choose specific items from their unit (e.g., ants, bees, hornets) as the focus for the pages of their book.

• Polar Bear, Polar Bear, What Do You Hear? is an excellent model for a focus on sounds. If you've recently completed a unit on animals, for instance, your model books might focus on animal sounds. Your book might focus on animals from your local area and the special sounds that they make. If possible, make a tape recording of the real animals that can be used in your listening center to inspire the book.

• Panda Bear, Panda Bear, What Do You See? focuses on powerful word choice (participles) to describe how animals move. The book would make a great model for books focusing on how animals, humans, or machines move. Your book might focus on endangered animals that live in your area or ones that your class has explored recently.

• Chicka Chicka Boom Boom provides several options: Focus your book on the students in the class—Chicka Chicka Boom

Boom! Look Who’s in Our Classroom! Ask students to paint a coconut tree on a 9 by 12" sheet of paper. If desired, use body/finger painting. Paint the arm brown and stamp it on the paper for the trunk then paint the hand green and point the fingers downward to stamp the leaves of the coconut tree. Allow the pages to dry overnight. On the following day, have students cut out the letters in their names from magazines. Students glue the letters going up the coconut tree on their pages. A picture of each student can be cut into the shape of a coconut and glued on the tree.

Create number books based on Chicka Chicka Boom Boom, with various numbers of coconuts in each tree. The class book can comprise a counting book, with pages counting from one to twenty (one page for each student in your class). Alternately, you might focus on counting by twos.

After learning the letters from the book, students can also create their own alphabet books, using the Alphabet Organizer.

2. Read the book aloud to the class, modeling fluent and expressive reading. 3. Use the book for shared reading until students are very familiar with the text. 4. Choose a focus for your book (e.g., insects). 5. Ask students to brainstorm a list to use as they write. For a book about insects, for example, 6. the list might include ants, bees, and butterflies. 7. Using chart paper, create the first page of the book—choose one of the items from the brainstormed list, and draw its picture on the page.

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8. Underneath the picture, write the first question for your book. For instance, your first question might be “Butterfly, Butterfly, what do you see?” 9. Post another sheet of chart paper, for the second page of the book. 10. On this new sheet, write the response to the question at the top of the page, the related picture in the center, and the next question at the bottom. For instance, if the butterfly saw a honey bee, the second page would be composed of these parts: Top: The sentence “I see a honey bee looking at me.” Middle: Draw a picture of a honey bee. Bottom: The question “Honey Bee, Honey Bee, what do you see?” 11. Continue working through the brainstormed list, creating pages for each item. 12. Once you've created a page for each animal, end the last page with the sentence “That’s who I see” or the appropriate alternative. For instance, if your book focuses on animal sounds, the last line of the book would be “That’s what I hear.” 13. Assemble the entire book, and read through it as a group. 14. Allow opportunities for students to share their book with an audience. 15. Update your class chart by recording student observations about the repetition, rhythm, and rhyme in the model books. Session Four: Choral Reading with Bill Martin, Jr. 1. Choose another one of Bill Martin, Jr.’s books for choral reading. While you can use any of Martin’s books, these books work especially well: • Chicka Chicka 1·2·3 works best with three groups of students, as shown on the

Chicka Chicka 1·2·3 Choral Reading Chart. • Chicka Chicka Boom Boom can be read by two groups, which take turns reading

the text then jointly read the chorus. For instance, the first group would read the first page of the text. The second group would read the second page. Both groups read the chorus together (“Chicka chicka boom boom! Will there be enough room?”)

2. Read the book aloud to the class, modeling fluent and expressive reading. 3. Use the book for shared reading until students are very familiar with the text. 4. Divide the students into groups to read assigned parts, with whole group reading of the

chorus or repeated phrases. 5. Allow ample practice time. 6. Remind the students how important it is to read with the same phrasing and at the

same rate of speed, so the words can be understood by the audience. It is helpful to video or audiotape the practice sessions, so students can hear themselves and identify places where they need to work on phrasing or speed or enunciation to improve clarity.

7. Allow opportunities for students to share their choral readings with an audience. 8. Update your class chart by recording student observations about the repetition,

rhythm, and rhyme of the books. Session Five: Readers Theater with Bill Martin, Jr. 1. Choose one of Bill Martin Jr.’s books for stronger readers. While you can use any of Martin’s books, these books work especially well:

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• Barn Dance! makes a great focus for performance because of the focus on dancing in the book. Invite students to perform their own square dance as part of the performance.

• The Ghost-Eye Tree is a wonderfully spooky story about a dark, fall night. The main characters include a boy and his sister, with a supporting role for Mr. Cowlander, the milkman. The remaining text can be divided among several students. Be sure to choose a good, spooky screamer for the part of the ghost-eye tree (an owl).

• Polar Bear, Polar Bear, What Do You Hear? uses strong words to describe the sounds that the animals make. In your performance, ask students to act out the animals and their unique sounds.

• Panda Bear, Panda Bear, What Do You See? uses participles to describe how animals move. In your performance, ask students to act out the animals and the way they move.

2. Read the book aloud to the class, modeling fluent and expressive reading. 3. Divide the class into groups of 4–6 students for Readers Theater groups. 4. Assign parts of the texts to each group. 5. Highlight the part of each student in their copy of the text. 6. Provide lots of practice time for groups to practice their scripts. 7. Invite them to practice at home using their parents as their audience. 8. Encourage students to read fluently and expressively with good phrasing so that the

rhythm and rhyme of the text is maintained by each of the readers. 9. Help students define and pronounce any difficult words found in the text. 10. Encourage students to understand the characters’ feelings and emotions—and help

them portray those feelings in their oral reading of the text. 11. Arrange for the performance of the book:

Readers Theater may be performed by students sitting on stools or standing. During the performance, students read their scripts, but are not required to act out the story or wear costumes. Instead, the story comes alive through their expressive reading of the words. Students may want to tape their practice sessions to self-assess their progress and identify areas to work on. They may also choose to video tape themselves.

12. Invite parents to come to your performance. You may also do repeat performances for other classes.

13. Update your class chart by recording student observations about the repetition, rhythm, and rhyme of the books.

Extensions: • Learn more about Michael Sampson and John Archambault and their relationship

with Bill Martin Jr. Research other author-illustrator pair who work together for long amounts of time.

• Since Martin’s books fit well in an early literacy program, continue the work of letter sounds using some of the ReadWriteThink student interactives: Picture Match, Alphabet Organizer, and Word Maker.

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• Obtain the square dance music and learn the steps to a dance well enough to teach the students while reading Barn Dance! You may want to invite a square dance caller to visit your class and teach the dance to the students. You can also visit the Swing Your Partner! lesson plan to learn more about the ties between Barn Dance! and square dancing.

• Create a model book based on your class using the Teacher, Teacher handout. Take digital pictures of each student or use their school pictures. Begin the book with a picture of your school. On the first page, use your name for the question. For instance, “Mrs. Hamner, Mrs. Hamner, who do you see?” Follow on the next pages with each of your students’ names and pictures. At the top of each page, write, “I see _____________ looking at me.” Then glue in each child’s picture in the center of the page with the following pattern sentence below the picture: “_____________, _____________, who do you see?” On the last page, have a class picture in front of your school with the concluding sentence “I see the great kids at _____________ School! That’s who I see!”

Web Resources: Bill Martin Jr/Michael Sampson Official Homepage http://www.billmartinjr.com/bill.htm Visit Bill Martin Jr.’s web site to see his picture, learn more about his life, how he got his pen name, his favorite things and more. Reading Rockets Interview with Bill Martin Jr. http://www.readingrockets.org/transcript.php?ID=66

In this interview, Martin talks about his love of language, his education, and his writing.

Books by Bill Martin Jr http://www.michaelsampson.com/billmartinjr-books.htm

This site provides a comprehensive list of books by the author, Bill Martin Jr. Readers Theater Collection http://www.readerstheatre.ecsd.net/collection.htm

Among many scripts, this site includes Readers Theater scripts for Fire! Fire! and Here Are My Hands.

Examples of How the Previous Fluency Lessons are Multilevel • Students read a wide range of print and non-print texts to build an

understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United States and the world; to acquire new information; to respond to the needs and demands of society and the workplace; and for personal fulfillment. Among these texts are fiction and nonfiction, classic and contemporary works.

• Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, graphics).

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• Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes.

• Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes.

• Students apply knowledge of language structure, language conventions (e.g., spelling and punctuation), media techniques, figurative language, and genre to create, critique, and discuss print and non-print texts.

• Students participate as knowledgeable, reflective, creative, and critical members of a variety of literacy communities.

• Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information).

(http://www.readwritethink.org/lessons/lesson_view.asp?id=793)

Assistive Technology

“(Assistive technology) refers to technology that helps a person with special needs learn or perform a task that they could not otherwise do.” (Peterson and Hittie, 2003) Essentially, these devices assist those who need support with verbal communication, mobility, written communication and/or hearing or interpretation of sounds. While most people believe that assistive technology is strictly for the benefit of special needs students, it is important to note that technology in general may also be helpful to non-disabled individuals. There are four categories of assistive technology that Peterson and Hittie (2003) list:

1. Low-tech- These solutions describe simple manual adaptations that require little cost or sophistication. Some examples include a rubber pad on a desk to help secure materials more easily, large pencils or foam blankets for pens for easier grasp and communication boards that have pictures or simple words that a student may use to communicate wants and needs.

2. High-tech- These items are more costly and sophisticated and include computer with scanners and systems that run on talking software, electronic alternative communication devices that allow students to use eye gaze or head bands to focus on words or pictures which, in turn, repeats in digital speech and electric wheelchairs that are guided by a joystick or a ‘puff and sip’ mechanism.

3. Software- These are programs that perform the work for an individual, such as word processors, spreadsheets, databases and statistical analysis programs. Guidebooks and manuals, as well as individuals who can be of assistance are also considered types of software.

4. Hardware- This is the physical structure of the computer: the monitor, disk drives and central processing unit.

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While most people think of assistive technology as electronic devices, there are other options that are considered as such. The Family Guide to Assistive Technology provides a list that of common assistive technology applications:

• Positioning- In relation to the student’s sitting position, the use of padding, structured chairs, straps, supports or restraints are an option. Also, the student may use a side lying frame, walker, crawling assist, floor sitter, chair insert, wheelchair, straps, tray, standing aid, bean bag chair or sand bag in order to position himself or herself appropriately with the classroom.

• Access- Students may need an assistive device to manipulate computers or environmental controls. These items may include switches, alternative devices, mice, trackballs, touch windows, speech recognition software and head pointers. Ramps, door openers, Braille directions and location and position of payphones and elevators also fit into this category.

• Environmental Control- These devices help individuals use equipment independently in their environment. For example, remote control switches to turn items on and off, robotic arms to reach for things and location and orientation devices for those who are visually impaired.

• Augmentative Communication- These tools allow students to interact with others. They include symbol systems, communication boards and wallets, programmable switches, electronic communication devices, speech synthesizers, recorded speech devices, communication enhancement software and voiced word processing.

• Assistive Listening- Students who have hearing or auditory processing difficulties can benefit from these devices: hearing aids, personal FM units, sound field FM systems, Phonic Ear, TDDs or closed caption TV.

• Visual Aids- Students with vision deficits can use devices such as screen readers, screen enlargers, large-typed books, taped books, Braillers, light boxes, magnifiers, high contrast materials, thermoform graphics, synthesizers and scanners.

• Mobility- Self-propelled walkers, manual or powered wheelchairs and powered recreational vehicles, such as bikes or scooters, assist individuals in getting around.

• Social Interaction and Recreation- The use of certain assistive technological devices can allow students with disabilities to interact and have fun with peers. These items include drawing software, computer games, computer simulations, painting with a head or mouth wand, interactive laser disks and adapted puzzles. Specific adaptations to games can also be made, such as modifying the rules to dodge ball or permitting students to assist the special needs child in a game of T-ball.

• Computer-based Instruction- These devices make it possible for the students to participate independently in curriculum-based assignments. The software that they use can mirror the general education curriculum, yet offer an alternative method of responding to exercises and learning activities. Also,

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the software acts as a tool to provide written expression, spelling, calculation, reading, basic reasoning and higher level thinking.

• Self-care- Robotics, electric feeders, adapted utensils, specially designed toilet seats and aids for tooth brushing, washing, dressing and grooming allow the student to benefit from self-care activities.

*It is important to note that students requiring assistive technological devices should have them listed in their IEP (Individualized Educational Program). By law, the students are entitled to obtain and utilize any equipment that will help them succeed and better their education without the parents or guardians having to pay the cost. Adaptive Technology and Services Peterson and Hittie (2003) graciously provide a list of useful organizations that can be of assistance to educators and parents. They are as follows:

• Alliance for Technology Access- This center is federally-funded which allows the state to provide specialists that can help select the best type of assistive technology for each individual.

• Closing the Gap- This source provides both online and hard copy versions of hardware and software, as well as useful teacher information. (www.closingthegap.com/)

• Center for Applied Special Technology- This site is beneficial for teachers that need to learn to use technology. (www.cast.org/)

Kelker and Holt (2000) provide a list of possible newsletters.

• Education Grants Alert; Alexandria, VA • Education Technology News; Silver Spring, MD • Financing Assistive Technology; New York NY • Special Education Report; Alexandria, VA • Technology and Learning; Dayton, OH

Online Resources

• National Assistive Technology Research Institute- http://natri.uky.edu/resmenu.html

• Abledata- http://www.abledata.com/ • Assistive Tech Resources- http://www.assistivetech.net/

Preventing Misbehavior It is nearly impossible to prevent all negative behaviors in the classroom. Evertson, Emmer and Worsham (2003) explain two notions that may help in how teachers handle such acts. Research indicates that teachers who possess these qualities may be able to diffuse the situation without interrupting instruction time.

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• Withitness- The level of ability a teacher has to correct inappropriate behavior before it escalates or broadens in number of students, in addition to targeting the correct student who initiated the act.

• Overlapping- How a teacher is able to handle two or more simultaneous incidents.

Every classroom in every school must deal with behavioral issues at some point in time. Educators have the responsibility of handling them properly in order to maintain a positive and safe learning environment, as well as a sense of community. It is essential to keep in mind the short-term and long-term effects of behavior management. While teachers struggle to maintain order, it is also vital to understand why misbehaviors are occurring.

Identifying Types of Behavior Challenges

• Underachieving- Frequent incomplete or lost assignments • Isolating- Withdrawn or rejected actions • Distracting- Self-stimulating behaviors, such as pencil tapping or hair pulling • Disruptive- Actively disrupting the flow of classroom instruction or routine by

throwing tantrums, destroying property or even physically fighting • Dangerous- Bullying, violence, scratching, threatening others

(Peterson and Hittie, 2003) It is imperative to deal with misbehavior promptly. If a student is not participating in an activity, avoiding assignments or breaking a classroom/school rule or procedure, the behavior must be dealt with immediately without overreacting. In Classroom Management For Elementary Teachers, four methods to manage behavioral issues are listed:

• Make eye contact with or move closer to the student. Use a signal, such as a finger to the lips or a head shake, to prompt the appropriate behavior. Monitor until the student complies.

• If the student is not following a procedure correctly, a simple reminder of the correct procedure may be effective. You can either state the correct procedure or ask the student whether he or she remembers it.

• When the student is off-task- that is, not working on an assignment- redirect his or her attention to the task: “Sammy, you should be writing now,” or “Cynthia, the assignment is to complete all of the problems on the page.” Check the student’s progress shortly thereafter to make sure he or she is continuing to work.

• Ask or tell the student to stop the inappropriate behavior. Then monitor until it stops and the student begins constructive activity.

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*Sometimes concentrating on one specific student for minor misbehavior may not be the best solution. If so, make a note of it and speak with the student one-on-one when time permits or address the classroom as a whole. Meeting the Needs of Students with Behavioral Issues Positive behavior support can help teachers recognize misbehavior as a sign of a need not being met. Peterson and Hittie (2003) describe five needs of human beings. They are survival, love, power, fun and freedom. Here are examples of how teachers can help students communicate their needs in the classroom:

• Survival- Keep food and drinks available in the classroom for those who may not have eaten breakfast and be aware of how students respond to situations emotionally

• Love- Create a time and a place for socialization, give students classroom responsibilities, offer praise and positive reinforcement and utilize cooperative learning groups and peer buddies

• Power- Reduce a student’s efforts to achieve power by intentionally giving them more power. For instance, let the student help design a lesson plan, offer the student several choices to make amends (tutoring, volunteering) and create classroom jobs

• Fun- Incorporate the multiple intelligences into lessons, play cooperative games, use humor and share experiences

• Freedom- Offer choices such as allowing students to read a book of choice or sit where they wish

What is Positive Behavioral Support? Positive behavioral support is an approach that teaches students to act appropriately within a social or educational context rather than the adult eliminating inappropriate behavior via punishment. It urges staff to realize that all behavior, whether positive or negative, is in some way meeting a need of the individual engaging in it. This does not mean teachers should condone problematic behavior, but that they need to recognize the crisis, address it with the student and offer support. What follows is a chart taken from Peterson and Hittie (2003) comparing traditional behavior management and positive behavioral support:

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Adapted from Hitzing (1994) More Useful Strategies for Handling Mild to Serious Behavior Problems

• Identify and define the behavior • Use observation and recording systems, such as seating charts or timed intervals • Determine the context of the behavior- ABC Analysis • Graph the recorded data • Implement effective and consistent classroom management strategies- positive

classroom atmosphere, project a caring attitude, teach sincerity, use praise and validate the student’s feelings

• Use more formal management systems- student contracts, token systems and promote self-monitoring and self-instruction strategies

(Mastropieri and Scruggs, 2004)

Problem-solving and peer mediation are wonderful intervention tools that can help students take responsibility for their actions. If a student does not respond to nonverbal and verbal cues, have the student fill out a problem-solving plan. This positive model allows the student to acknowledge the behavior, explain why the behavior was displayed, what the consequence was and how the student can be more responsible regarding this issue in the future. Peer mediation creates an environment conducive to conflict resolution, but the teachers must first:

• Teach students to work together through the use of cooperative learning activities.

Traditional Behavior Management vs. Positive Behavioral Support Traditional Behavior Management Positive Behavioral Support

Problem Behavior is causing us or others trouble, so we want to eliminate it.

Behavior, which is learned, is communicating something important.

Assessment Specify the problem behavior and determine

frequency, strength, duration

Conduct “functional analysis’ to determine reasons for the behavior.

Goal Eliminate problem behavior

Help students learn better ways of communicating needs.

Intervention Reduce reinforcement of behavior (“extinguish” by ignoring) or punish when target behavior

occurs.

Develop a sense of safety and trust between teacher and student. Make the class fun and interesting so

there is a ‘pay off’ for positive participation. Provide support from another person; reduce frustration in the

setting. Teach alternative ways to communicate. Teach how to tolerate school conditions.

Success The behavior is eliminated and people in power view the situation

as better.

The person’s problem is solved from his or her point of view.

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• Allow students to practice dealing with controversy by using academic themes such as debates over common happenings.

• Teach students negotiation and mediation skills such as communication strategies that are specific and honest, viewing situations through others’ perspectives, and creating win/win scenarios for the problem issues.

*Helping students practice these techniques several times in role play before attempting them in real-life situations is critical to the success of the strategy. Provide ways for students to get feedback from adults and peers as they begin to apply their skills. Severe Behavior Plan It is vital that all students are helped to understand that violence is not a solution to any problem and is never tolerated. Modeling preventative measures with students, such as problem-solving techniques and instruction on how to verbally convey anger instead of physically, can be useful methods. Involving the parents/guardians and school staff, including counselors, psychologists, social workers, the principal and experienced teachers, can provide guidance and assistance in these situations. In the event of a severe, aggressive behavior problem, teachers can follow these three steps to maintain a safe and orderly classroom environment:

• Attempt to stop the occurrence, if it can be done without endangering the teacher or students.

• Protect the victim and other students. • Send a student for help to a nearby classroom or the office.

(Kauchak and Eggen, 2003)

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Pyramid of Inclusive Teaching

Enhance Academic Learning

for all students

Build Community

and deal positively with behavioral challenges

Design the Classroom and School For student’s with differing physical and

sensory abilities

Partner with parents and community Plan for teaching students with diverse abilities

Collaborate to support student learning

Envision inclusive schools and communities where all are welcome and all belong

Lead Change To Make Inclusive Schools Real

It is imperative that teachers lead the way towards creating atmospheres that support inclusive education for all students. The pyramid above provides a visual of the path that must be taken in order to facilitate change within our schools. The task of changing a school from within is not a simple one. On the contrary, it is extremely difficult to do. According to Peterson and Hittie (2003), Michael Fullan has described eight key lessons for assisting in the creation of a renewed school culture. 1. Change cannot be mandated – there must be a shift in beliefs, skills, and behaviors of the individuals that are involved. People are reluctant when they are forced to do things.

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2. Change is not linear – inclusive education is a process that we arrive at only after many steps are taken. Reevaluation will occur on an ongoing basis. 3. Problems really are our friends – in solving problems, we come up with creative solutions. Everyone learns best from mistakes and problems. 4. Action and visioning must occur together – rather than creating an elaborate plan initially, taking immediate action helps to foster a shared vision. This vision enables everyone to see the positive outcomes. 5. Balance individual and collaborative efforts – welcome the input of those that are opposed to or have questions concerning strategies that will be used. This input can assist in creating a better all around system. 6. Top-Down and Bottom-Up strategies must both work together – and administrators and board members must work effectively with parents, teachers, and students. It is the responsibility of ends to facilitate change. We all must challenge one another. 7. Efforts to build better schools must be connected to issues in our community and society – the good of the individual should be directly related to the good of the group or community. 8. Every person must be a change agent – everyone must play a positive role, or successful renewal will not occur. There are many approaches to facilitating change in our schools. They include the following: One Student at a Time: Parent Requests – The most common way in which change is evoked. Parents request or demand that their child be placed in general education classes Forced Change: Legislation and Class Action Suits – Although LRE clauses are included in IDEA federal monitoring of this is too lenient. However, parents and school districts have filed many suits that have forced districts to look more seriously at their policies. Teacher-Initiated Inclusion – Team and Co-Teaching efforts have been initiated by many regular and special educators all over. An expansion of this within a school can assist in creating an inclusive setting Building-Based Systemic Change – The change is initiated somewhere within (either a teacher or the principle) and then a planning committee is created to collect information, obtain input, and develop a plan of motion. District-wide Systemic Change – This effort may begin with one school and reach out to all of those within a district. This effort must include teachers, parents, and administrators.

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Building a Movement for Quality Inclusive Teaching Stage 1 – Divided no more – Individual make a decision to unite and make change possible rather than placing blame on external forces Stage 2 – Communities of Congruence – Groups of people concerned about the same issues come together to offer mutual support and develop a shared vision Stage 3 – Going Public – A groups private concerns are made into public issues Stage 4 – Alternative Rewards – Those involved may experience connection, fellowship, and the support of others. They feel rewarded by seeing their efforts pay off somehow. Beginning in the Classroom There are some sensible things that teachers can do to ease the transition into inclusive education beginning with their own classrooms. First, educators can develop a philosophy of inclusion and what it looks like in their classroom. This philosophy can then be used to explain inclusive education to parents, teachers and administrators. An individuals philosophy will continually be come more and more clear and impact many coworkers. Also, teachers can implement methods of teaching all students of differing ability simultaneously. (See section on Inclusive Academic Instruction Strategies) A very simple step that can be taken by regular education teachers is to accept and invite special needs students into their classrooms. Likewise, special educators in self-contained settings can find time to include their students in activities with their normally developing peers. Schoolwide Movement toward Inclusion Welcoming all Together – All students, including those with severe disabilities learn well in diverse settings. Welcoming such students into the school and classroom can provide a very potent model for change. Instruction for All – Use multi-level, multi-ability, and differentiated instructional methods. Finding ‘Lost’ Students – Seek out center-based programs for students with moderate to severe disabilities and inform their parents of the opportunities that exist with inclusive education. Structuring In-Class Support – Rather than relying on ‘pull-out’ programs to provide special services to students in needs, seek out new ways to provide these services to students while they remain in the regular education setting. Special education teachers can be placed in the regular education classrooms. Building-Based Support – Have support teams that meets on a regular basis and is available to answer questions and assist with concerns.

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Community and Positive Behavioral Supports – Develop and stick to a system that assists in creating a community setting by dealing with behavioral problems proactively.

(Peterson and Hittie, 2003)

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Sources Cited

Friend, Marilyn and William D. Bursick. Including Students With Special Needs: A Practical Guide for Classroom Teachers. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2002.

Evertson, Carolyn M., Edmund T. Emmer and Murray E. Worsham. Classroom

Management For Elementary Teachers. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2003. Kelker, Katharin A. and Roger Holt. Family Guide to Assistive Technology.

Massachutes: Brookline Books, 2000. Mastropieri, Margo A. and Thomas E. Scruggs. The Inclusive Classroom: Strategies for

Effective Instruction. Ohio: Pearson Education, Inc., 2004. Peterson, J. Michael and Mishael Marie Hittie. Inclusive Teaching: Creating Effective

Schools For All Learners. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2003. Schaps, Eric. “Creating a School Community.” Educational Leadership 60.6 (2003): 31-

3. Wayne County RESA: Assistive Technology Guidelines. Wong, Harry K. and Rosemary T. Wong. The First Days Of School: How To Be An

Effective Teacher. Mountain View, California: Harry K. Wong Publications, 2004.

Internet Sites

Kids Together, Inc. http://www.uni.edu/coe/inclusion/index.html

Classroom Organization

http://teacher.scholastic.com/professional/futureteachers/classroom_organization.htm and www.prodev.learningnetwork.com Teacher Vision http://www.teachervision.com Multilevel Lesson Plans http://www.myscschools.com

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Multiage Educators http://www.multiage-education.com A to Z Teacher Stuff http://www.atozteacherstuff.com/Lesson_Plans/Cooperative_Learning National Geographic http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/lessons/01/gk2/friends.html Read~ Write~ Think http://www.readwritethink.org/lessons/lesson_view.asp?id=793