Taprobanica (2010) Vol. 2. No. 2. Pages 65-108

Published date: 30th, April 2011

TAPROBANICA the Journal of Asian Biodiversity ISSN 1800-427X - Volume 02, Number 02, pp. 65-108

© 2010, Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF THASUN AMARASINGHE

[email protected]

DEPUTY EDITORS SURANJAN KARUNARATHNE NIKI AMARASINGHE [email protected] [email protected]

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

DINESH GABADAGE SANDY NURVI [email protected] [email protected] MADHAVA BOTEJUE RIZKAALNANDA [email protected] [email protected]

SECTIONAL EDITORS

UPALI AMARASINGHE [email protected] NATALIA ANANJEVA [email protected] MOHOMED BAHIR [email protected] AARON BAUER [email protected] BRUCE BEEHLER [email protected] FRANKY BOSSUYT [email protected] RAFE BROWN [email protected] INDRANEIL DAS [email protected] ANSLEM DE SILVA [email protected] REMA DEVI [email protected] SURATISSA DISSANAYAKE [email protected] ALAIN DUBOIS [email protected] ROHAN FERNANDO [email protected] COLIN GROVES [email protected] LEE HARDING [email protected]

S. HENKANATHTHEGEDARA [email protected] BRENDEN HOLLAND [email protected] KEVIN HYDE [email protected] JAYANTHA JAYEWARDENE [email protected] H. KATHRIARACHCHI [email protected] ANDRE' KOCH [email protected] SARATH KOTAGAMA [email protected] SVEN KULLANDER [email protected] ENRIQUE LA MARCA [email protected] TZI MING LEONG [email protected] ARAVIND MADHYASTHA [email protected] K. MANAMENDRA-ARACHCHI [email protected] M. MEEGASKUMBURA [email protected] JEFFREY MILLER [email protected] MOHOMED NAJIM [email protected]

ANNA NEKARIS [email protected] HANS-DIETER PHILIPPEN [email protected] SUDHEERA RANWALA [email protected] DON REYNOLDS [email protected] JODI ROWLEY [email protected] JOHN RUDGE [email protected] PRASAD SENADHEERA [email protected] B. K. SHARMA [email protected] RALF SOMMERLAD [email protected] ROBERT STUEBING [email protected] JATNA SUPRIATNA [email protected] GERNOT VOGEL [email protected] RICHARD WAHLGREN [email protected] YEHUDAH WERNER [email protected] NIKHIL WHITAKER [email protected]

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65 TAPROBANICA VOL. 02: NO. 02

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Asian Agamid lizards (Agamidae, Acrodonta, Sauria, Reptilia): Phylogenetic and taxonomic diversity

The Southeast Asian-Indonesian and Australian-New Guinean tectonic plates have both been hypothesized to be centers of origin of agamid lizards (Moody, 1980). The Asian continent housed a number of hotspots of plant and animal diversity and endemism, important for the conservation of biodiversity on a global scale. There are many threatened areas in tropical Asia in terms of destruction of tropical rain forest as an environment with a unique biota and herpetofauna in particular. New intensive studies of the Asian fauna as well as new opportunities offered by molecular methods make it clear that taxonomic diversity is underestimated, especially in South and Southeast Asia. The aim of this paper is to show the taxonomic diversity of different evolutionary lineages and the distribution of agamids by sub region in Asia. We compare several Asian territories well studied in diversity of agamids: China (Ananjeva & Wang, 2008; Zhao & Adler, 1993; Zhao et al., 1999); North Eurasia, i.e. former Soviet Union plus Mongolia (Ananjeva et al., 2006); Iran (Anderson, 1999); South Asia (Das, 1996; Das & de Silva, 2005) and different regions of South-East Asia: Vietnam (Ananjeva et al., 2007); Thailand (Taylor, 1963 with additions); Myanmar (Zug et al., 2003); and the Sunda Archipelago (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997). The study of mitochondrial DNA (Ananjeva, 2004; Macey et al., 2000) has allowed the construction of a phylogenetic tree of acrodontan squamates and their main evolutionary lineages, which are associated with the fragmentation of Gondwana into separate tectonic plates. Such interpretations are based on the integration of morphological (Moody, 1980) and molecular data (Macey et al., 2000). Six groups of agamids correspond to 6 subfamilies: (1) Uromastycinae Theobald, 1868 with the genera Uromastyx and Saara; (2) Leiolepidinae Fitzinger, 1843 with the genus Leiolepis; (3) Amphibolurinae Wagler, 1830 with all Australian and New Guinean species; (4) Hydrosaurinae Kаuр, 1828 with the genus Hydrosaurus; (5) South- and Southeast Asian Draconinae Fitzinger, 1826 with numerous Indian and Southeastern genera (mostly arboreal or semi-arboreal) and (6) Afro-West-Asian Agaminae Spix, 1825. The Asian agamid fauna has a complicated origin. For example the highest phylogenetic variety in Asia with taxa belonging to 4 subfamilies Leiolepidinae, Amphibolurinae, Agaminae and Draconinae has been recorded in China (Ananjeva & Wang, 2008); the fauna of agamid in South Asia is represented by 3 subfamilies: Agaminae, Draconinae and Uromastycinae (Das, 1996) as is that of Southeast Asia: Leiolepidinae, Amphibolurinae and Draconinae (Ananjeva et al., 2007) and Iran: Agaminae, Draconinae, Uromastycinae (Anderson, 1999). The Sunda region is presented by 2 subfamilies: Draconinae, Leiolepidinae (Manthey & Grossmann, 1997) and North Eurasian agamids are members of only the subfamily Agaminae (Ananjeva et al., 2006). The subfamily Amphibolurinae is presented in Asia by the genus Physignathus which is the sister group to Australo-New Guinean agamids. At present the genus Physignathus includes 2 species: P. cocincinus and P. lessueurii. P. cocincinus inhabits the Southeast Asian region and part of China. Some authors provide evidence for a polyphyletic origin of this genus (Macey et al., 2000; Moody 1993; Schulte et al., 2003) which represents additional support for the ancient fragmentation of lizard taxa from both sides of Wallace’s line (Schulte et al., 2003); another point of view suggests a much more recent divergence between SE Asian and Australian agamids (around 30 MYA) (Hugall & Lee, 2004; Hugall et al., 2008). Agamids of this subfamily have femoral pores and lens-like skin receptors (Ananjeva, 2004). The monotypic subfamily Leiolepidinae is known from Southeast Asia and part of China and Sulawesi in Sunda region. Study of mt-DNA (Macey et al., 2000) and morphological characters of the integument (Ananjeva et al., 2001) support the monophyly of this lineage, previously combined with Uromastyx into a

TAPROBANICA, ISSN 1800-427X. October, 2010. Vol. 02, No. 02: pp. 65-71. © Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 146, Kendalanda, Homagama, Sri Lanka.

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subfamily (family) Uromastycinae (-dae) Theobald, 1868 (Moody, 1980). These lizards have femoral pores and lens-like receptors without hairs (Ananjeva, 2004; Ananjeva et al., 2001). Among 8 species there are bisexual (L. belliana, L. guttata, L. reevesii, L. peguensis) and parthenogenetic: (L. triploida, L. guentherpetersi, L. boehmei, L.ngovantrii) (Darevsky & Kupriyanova, 1993; Grismer & Grismer, 2010) examples. The lizards of the subfamily Uromastycinae with 18 species are distributed in western Asia and Africa. One of the species, belonging to genus Saara, is the widespread S. hardwickii Gray, 1827 which inhabits Pakistan, northwestern India (Rajasthan, Gujarat) and Afghanistan (area bordering Pakistan). Another species, S. asmussi (Strauch, 1863) also penetrates South Asia in Pakistan (Baluchistan). The subfamily Draconinae contains the maximum diversity of genera and species in South and Southeast Asia (Ananjeva, 2004; Macey et al., 2000; Moody, 1980). This subfamily is the most diverse group with a high percent of endemic genera of arboreal and semiarboreal agamids (Moody, 1980). Among them there are monotypic genera or those represented by 1–3 species (Aphaniotis, Cophotis, Ptyctolaemus), as well as genera with high species diversity (Draco, Gonocephalus, Japalura). Draconine agamids exhibit very high degrees of diversification at the generic level (23 genera in South Asia and 24 genera in Southeast Asia). Phylogenetic studies conducted in recent decades have improved our knowledge about the composition and phylogeny of the subfamily. Some problems still exist relating to newly described or re-studied species in certain genera (Ananjeva & Stuart, 2001; Macey et al., 2000; Maduwage et al., 2008; Manthey & Grossmann, 1997; Schulte et al., 2002, 2004). In the course of taxonomic revisions of the genera Acanthosaura (Ananjeva et al., 2008; Kalyabina-Hauf et al., 2004; Orlov et al., 2006; Wood et al., 2009, 2010), Bronchocela (Hallermann, 2004, 2005), Calotes (Bahir & Maduwage, 2005; Hallermann, 2000; Ota & Hikida, 1991, 1996; Vindum et al., 2003; Zug et al., 2006); Draco (Inger, 1983; McGuire & Heand, 2001; Musters, 1983), Gonocephalus (Diong et al., 2000; Honda et al., 2002; Manthey & Grossmann, 1997), Japalura (Ota, 1989a,b; 1991, 2000a,b; Ota & Hikida, 1989; Ota et al., 1998), Pseudocalotes (Hallermann & Böhme, 2000; Hallermann & McGuire, 2001, Hallermann et al., 2010), Otocryptis (Bahir & Silva, 2005), Cophotis (Samarawickrama et al., 2006) and Ptyctolaemus (Ananjeva & Stuart, 2001; Manthey & Nabhitabhata, 1991; Schulte et al., 2004) descriptions of a number of new species and even genera have been made. Moody (1980) revised the family Agamidae and divided the genus Agama into the following six genera: Agama, Stellio, Trapelus, Pseudotrapelus, Brachysaura and Xenagama. The subfamily Agaminae comprises about 115 species living mainly in Africa and Palearctic Asia. In comparison with agamids of the subfamily Draconinae it is characterized by relatively low generic diversity (number of species in parentheses) – 9 genera in total: Acanthocercus Fitzinger, 1843 (about 10), Agama Daudin, 1802 (about 30), Brachysaura Blyth, 1856 (1), Bufoniceps Arnold, 1992 (1), Phrynocephalus Kaup, 1835 (40), Pseudotrapelus Fitzinger, 1843 (1), Laudakia Gray, 1845 (16), Trapelus Cuvier, 1817 (12), Xenagama Boulenger, 1895 (2). Problems of phylogenetic relations within Agaminae and position of monotypic genera are of increasing interest: DNA study revealed cryptic phylogenetic diversity (in particular non-monophyly of genus Laudakia) (Macey et al., 2000, 2006). It has been recorded (Moody, 1980) that only 5 agamid genera (Draco, Japalura, Laudakia, Calotes and Uromastyx) cross the boundaries of the six regions of endemism (i.e. Subsaharan Africa, Eurasia, India, Orient and Sunda, Wallacia and Australia and Melanesia). This can be seen when we analyze agamid lists of China, South- Southeast Asia and other Asian regions. Comparison of the lists of specified Vietnamese agamids with those of several regions of South-East Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Sunda region, China (Ananjeva & Wang, 2008; Ananjeva et al., 2007; Manthey & Grossmann, 1997; Zhao & Adler, 1993; Zhao et al., 1999; Zug et al., 2003) shows species diversity increasing from 24 (Vietnam) to 29 in Myanmar and Thailand and 48 in China. The South Asia and Sunda regions have much higher species diversity (67 and 60 sp., respectively). The methodology of phylogenetic systematics (Moody, 1980) as well as approaches and methods of molecular analysis (Ananjeva, 2004; Honda et al., 2000; Macey et al., 2000) have made a great contribution

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to the understanding of generic assignment of problematic species. However the problem of interpretation and phylogenetic evaluation of morphological characters remains and has a practical aspect with respect to the construction and use of identification keys. The problem of the evaluation of the endemism of Asian agamids is of special importance in the context of conservation. Physiographically the South Asian region includes several parts: the northern islands of the Bay of Bengal Islands, the southern islands, different parts of India, plain and mountain regions of Pakistan and the continental island of Sri Lanka (Das, 1997). This region supports 23 endemic genera (many of them are monotypic) belonging to 3 subfamilies. It has the second agamid greatest diversity region after Southeast Asia (Moody, 1980). Within this region the Sri Lankan agamid fauna with its high level of endemism is of special interest: it supports 18 species (Das & de Silva, 2005) representing 6 genera of one subfamily Draconinae; 15 of them are endemic to the island. Among the 24 species in Vietnam, 12 species (50%) are endemics. The distribution of 10 of the 12 endemics is delimited by the southern part of the Annamite Mountains. This is additional evidence for the designation of an Annam sub region with tropical mountain forests. Inger (1999) wrote that this region is one of the centres of active cryptic speciation in Asia for anurans. Only one endemic species, L. guentherpetersi, is described from Central Vietnam, one more from the Tonkin region (North Vietnam) - Japalura chapaensis. The other 10 species are known only from the Central Highland within Vietnam and adjacent regions of Laos and Cambodia (3 species Acanthosaura, 3 species Bronchocela, 1 species Draco, 1 species Leiolepis, 1 species Pseudocalotes and 1 species Pseudocophotis). In general the agamid fauna in Indochina is characterized by a high level of endemism and cryptic diversity. The data on cryptic diversity in genera such as Acanthosaura and Bronchocela confirm ideas about the diversification of the fauna of tropical forests (Moritz et al., 2000), which is illustrated by numerous examples from tropical faunas of Central Africa, Australia and South America. The agamid fauna of China includes 48 species of 4 subfamilies and 13 genera. The level of endemism is relatively high (19 species, i.e. 44%). Endemic species are referred to 4 genera: among them majority of species of genus Japalura (10 among 14) and species of the Tibetan clade of the genus Phrynocephalus (7 of 11 species) (Ananjeva & Wang, 2008). These data and any attempts to summarize and analyze the modern data on biodiversity, level of endemism and allocations of the highest priority territories are of great value for conservation strategies. Literature Cited Ananjeva, N. B., 2004. Phylogeny and Biogeography of Agamid Lizards (Agamidae, Lacertilia, Reptilia): Review of Concepts and Results of Molecular and Morphological Studies, Uspechi Sovremennoi Biologii, 124 (1): 44-57. Ananjeva, N. B. and B. Stuart, 2001. The agamid lizard Ptyctolaemus phuwuanensis Manthey and Nabhitabhata, 1991 from Thailand and Laos represents a new genus. Russian Journal of Herpetology, 8 (3): 165-170. Ananjeva, N. B. and Wang Yu., 2008. Analysis of biodiversity of the fauna of agamid lizards (Agamidae, Sauris, Reptilia) of China. Current Research in Herpetology, 8 (1): 10-29. Ananjeva, N. B., T. N. Dujsebayeva and U. Joger, 2001. Morphological study of squamate integument: more evidence for the metataxon status of Leiolepidinae . Journal of Herpetology, 35 (3): 69-74. Ananjeva, N. B., N. L. Orlov and N. Q. Truong, 2007. Agamid lizards (Agamidae, Acrodonta, Sauria, Reptlia) of Vietnam. Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin, Zoologische Reihe, Supplement 83: 13-21.

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Honda, M., H. Ota, M. S. Sengoku, Hoi-Sen Yong and T. Hikida, 2002. Molecular evaluation of phylogenetic significance in the highly divergent karyotypes of the genus Gonocephalus (Reptilia: Agamidae) from tropical Asia. Zoological Science, 19 (1): 129-133. Hugall, A. F and M. S. Lee, 2004. Molecular claims age for Austrakuab agamid lizards are unstable. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 21(11): 2102-2110. Hugall, A. F., R. Foster, M. Hutchinson and M. S. Lee, 2008. Phylogeny of Australasian agamid lizards based on nuclear and mitochondrial genes: implications for morphological evolution and biogeography. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 93: 343-358. Inger, R. F., 1983. Morphological and ecological variation in the flying lizards (genus Draco). Fieldiana: Zoology. New Series, 18: 1-37. Inger, R. F., 1999. Distribution of amphibians in Southern Asia and adjacent islands, in Patterns of Distribution of Amphibians: A Global Perspective. In: Duellman, W. E. (Ed.). Baltimore, MD: J. Hopkins Univ. Press: 445-482 Kalyabina-Hauf, S., N. Ananjeva, U. Joger, P. Lenk, R. W. Murphy, B. L. Stuart, N. L. Orlov, C. T. Ho and M. Wink, 2004. Molecular phylogeny of the genus Acanthosaura (Agamidae). Current Herpetology, 23 (1): 7-16. Macey, J. R., J. A. Schulte, A. Larson, N. Ananjeva, Y. Wang and R. Pethiyagoda, 2000. Evaluating Trans-Tethys Migration: An Example Using Acrodont Lizard Phylogenetics. Systematic Biology, 49 (2): 233-256. Macey, J. R., J. A. Schulte, J. J. Fong, I. Das and T. Papenfuss, 2006. The complete mitochondrial genome of an agamid lizards from the Afro-Asian subfamily Agaminae and the phylogenetic position of Bufoniceps and Xenagama. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 39: 881-886. Maduwage, K., M. Meegaskumbura, A. Silva and R. Pethiyagoda, 2008. Phylogenetic implications of hemipenial morphology of Sri Lankan agamid lizards. Current Science, 95 (7): 838-640. Manthey, U. and J. Nabhitabhata, 1991. An agamid lizard, Ptyctolaemus phuwuanensis Manthey & Nabhitabhata 1991 (Sauria, Agamidae) from Northeast-Thailand. Sauria (E), 1 (2): 3-6. Manthey, U. and W. Grossmann, 1997. Amphibien and Reptilien Südostasien. Münster. Natur and Tier Verlag: 512. McGuire, J. A. and K. B. Heand, 2001. Phylogenetic systematics of Southeast Asian flying lizards (Iguania: Agamidae: Draco) as inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 72: 203-229. Moody, S., 1980. Phylogenetic and historical biogeographic relationships of the genera in the family Agamidae (Reptilia, Lacertilia): Unpubl Ph. D. Diss. Univ. Michigan. Ann Arbor: 373. Moody, S., 1993. Wallace’s line and the basal clades within the agamidae (Iguania, Lacertilia) or do morphologies and molecules clash. Abstracts of the Second World Congress of Herpetology. Adelaide, Australia: 173. Moritz, C., J. L. Patton, C. J. Schneider and T. B. Smith, 2000. Diversification of rainforest faunas: an integrated molecular approach. Annual Revue Ecology Systematics, 31: 633-563. Musters, C. J. M., 1983. Taxonomy of the genus Draco L. (Agamidae, Lacertilia, Reptilia). Zoologische Verhandelingen, 199: 1-120.

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Smith, M. A., 1935. Reptilia and Amphibia. II. Sauria. The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. London: 440. Taylor, E. N., 1963. The lizards of Thailand. Kansas University Scientific Bulletin, 46 (5): 687-1077. Vindum, J. V., H. Win, T. Thin, K. S. Lwin, A. Khein and K. Tun, 2003. A new Calotes (Squamata: Agamidae) from the Indo-Burman Range of western Myanmar (Burma). Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. Series 4, 54 (1): 1-16. Wood, P. L. J., J. L. Grismer, L. L. Grismer, A. Norhayati, C. K. Onn, A. M. Bauer, 2009. Two new montane species of Acanthosaura Gray, 1831 (Squamata: Agamidae) from Peninsular Malaysia. Zootaxa, 2012: 28-46. Wood, P. L., L. L. Grismer, J. L. Grismer, T. Neang, T. Chav and J. Holden, 2010. A new cryptic species of Acanthosaura Gray, 1831 (Squamata: Agamidae) from Thailand and Cambodia. Zootaxa, 2488: 22-38. Zhao, E.-M., K. Adler, 1993. Contribution to Herpetology 10, Society for the Study of Amphibians & Reptiles: 521. Zhao, E.-M., K. Zhao and Z. Kaiya, 1999. Fauna Sinica. Reptilia. 2. Squamata. Lacertilia. Beijing: 394. Zug, G. R., A. E. Leviton, J. V. Vindum, G. O. U. Wogan and M. S. Koo, 2003. Lizards/Herpetofauna of Myanmar/California Academy of Sciences (www.calacademy.org/research/herpetology/myanmar/). Zug, G. R., H. H. K. Brown, J. A. Schulte II and J. V. Vindum, 2006. Systematics of the Garden Lizards, Calotes versicolor Group (Reptilia, Squamata, Agamidae), in Myanmar: Central Dry Zone Populations. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. Series 5, 57: 35-68. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Alain Dubois and Annemarie Ohler (MNHN), Wolfgang Böhme (ZFMB), Rainer Günther (ZMB), Jakob Hallermann (ZMH), Robert Inger, Harold Voris, and Alan Resetar (FMNH), V.F. Orlova, A. Dunaev (ZMMGU), Colin McCarthy (BMNH), Robert Murphy (ROM) and George Zug (USNM) providing us museum specimens for this study. This work was supported by MNHN professorship in 2004-2007, grants RFFI 09-04-00132а, 11-04-93981-INISа and program for support of scientific schools NSH 4212.2006.4. Natalia B. Ananjeva Sectional Editor: Taprobanica, the journal of Asian Biodiversity January 28th, 2011 Department of Herpetology Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences Universitetskaya emb. 1 199034 St. Petersburg RUSSIA

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HERPETOFAUNA OF SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA − REINVESTIGATED AFTER DECADES Sectional Editor: Aaron Bauer Submitted: 29 March 2010, Accepted: 01 January 2011

S. R. Chandramouli1 and S. R. Ganesh2

1 Department of Zoology, Division of Wildlife Biology, A.V.C College, Mannampandal, Mayiladuthurai–609 305, Tamil Nadu, India; E-mail: [email protected] 2 Chennai Snake Park, Rajbhavan post, Chennai - 600 020, Tamil Nadu, India Abstract We recorded amphibians and reptiles in two hill ranges, the Cardamom Hills and Ponmudi Hills of the southern Western Ghats, India, for a period of four months each. In all, 74 species, comprising of 28 species of amphibians belonging to 11 genera and 8 families and 46 species of reptiles, belonging to 27 genera and 9 families were recorded. Aspects deviating from literature have been discussed. A comparison of the results of the present study with that of the earlier works from the same region is also provided. Key words: Amphibians, Reptiles, Cardamom hills, Ponmudi hills, Reinvestigation, Herpetology Introduction The Western Ghats is one of the global biodiversity hotspots (Myers et al., 2000) and its herpetofauna has been investigated by several authors (Ferguson, 1895, 1904; Hutton, 1949; Hutton & David, 2009; Inger et al., 1984; Ishwar et al., 2001; Kumar et al., 2001; Malhotra & Davis, 1991; Vasudevan et al., 2001; Wall, 1919, 1920). These reports have provided details about diversity, distribution patterns and ecology of this community in these hill ranges. Since most of these works are decades old, we take the opportunity of presenting our recent investigations’ results with photographic vouchers along with basic taxonomic and ecological data.

Materials and Methods This work is based on an eight-month-long Visual Encounter survey (Campbell & Christman, 1982) in post-monsoon season of two consecutive year-transitions in two hill ranges (Map 1). Fieldwork was carried out in the Cardamom Hills, Theni and Virudunagar districts, Tamil Nadu state (Site 1; 09°25’– 09°38’N, 77°21’–77°34’E; 500–1600 m asl.) by SRG during December 2007−March 2008; in the Ponmudi Hills, Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala state (Site 2; 8o45’N, 77o08’E; 100–1090 m asl.) by SRC during December 2008–March 2009 for a duration of about four hours per day. Habitat types surveyed were moist deciduous, evergreen

TAPROBANICA, ISSN 1800-427X. October, 2010. Vol. 02, No. 02: pp. 72-85, 4 pls. © Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 146, Kendalanda, Homagama, Sri Lanka.

HERPETOFAUNA OF SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS - INDIA


and montane forests as well as coffee, cardamom, rubber and tea plantations. Elevation in meters above sea level and geographic coordinates were determined using a Garmin-72, twelve channel Global Positioning System. Animals sighted in the wild were examined, photographed in-situ and released. Measurements in millimeters were recorded using a measuring tape and vernier calipers. Scale counts and associated morphological details were noted using magnifying hand lenses. Morphological examination methods followed Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi (1996) and Dubois & Bour (2010) for amphibians and Smith (1935, 1943) for reptiles, except for ventral counts of snakes, for which we followed Dowling (1951) in the case of caenophidians Gower & Ablett (2006) for anilioid snakes. Higher taxonomic nomenclature follows Dubois (2004) for amphibians and Carroll (1988) for reptiles. Abbreviations used for metric characters are, SVL (snout to vent length), TL (total length), tL (tail length). Amphibian larvae were staged following Gosner (1960). Our photographic vouchers are deposited with the India’s Centre for Herpetology/ the Madras Crocodile Bank. Map 1: Study sites Species Accounts

Amphibia De Blainville, 1816 (Plate 1) Gymnophiona Rafinesque-Schmaltz, 1814

Ichthyophiidae Taylor, 1968

Ichthyophis beddomei Peters, 1879 Site 2: One adult (SVL 199 mm; tL 4 mm); crossing a road amidst human habitations at 107 m alt.

Anura Duméril, 1805 Bufonidae Gray, 1825

Bufo melanostictus (Schneider, 1799) Site 1: Many specimens were sighted on leaf litter, behind logs and rocks in human habitation. The largest specimen measured 211mm SVL. Juveniles, tadpoles of Gosner stages 36–39 and developing larvae were seen in temporary pools in low elevations. Bufo microtympanum (Boulenger, 1882) Site 1: Two adults (SVL 50, 55 mm) from under small (ca. 0.3 m across) rocks in a path bordering tea and cardamom plantation, on a steep hill-side at elevations 1180 and 1570 m. Bufo parietalis (Boulenger, 1882) Site 1: Several adults, (> 60 mm SVL) of which most (n=18) were near streams in montane forest and the rest were on leaf litter in a cardamom plantation, at 1187–1372 m altitude. Site 2: Two adults in evergreen forest near stream on leaf litter at 230–375 m altitude.

Microhylidae Günther, 1858

Ramanella sp. (Fig. 1) Site 1: One specimen beneath a small (30 cm across) rock in a torrential hill-stream running on barren rock-cliff edge of a hill top, heavy with mist and large patches of montane forests and tea plantations at 1500 m asl. Superficially resembles the Sri Lankan endemic R. obscura. Diagnosis: Dorsum smooth with feeble traces of granules near limb insertions; a large, dark brown dorsal patch flanked by orangish yellow, which is absent in R. montana, R. mormorata and R. triangularis; palmar and plantar tubercles distinct, pale white; webbing in 4th toe not exceeding penultimate subarticular tubercle; digits end with slightly rounded pads with no evident circummarginal groove. Comments: R. obscura is a species endemic to south western Sri Lanka (Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1996) and although Satyamurti (1967) referred a specimen originally labeled as R. obscura from south Coorg, Karnataka, India as R. montana, this specimen is not R. obscura but most likely represents an undescribed taxon (Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Madhava Meegaskumbura and Rohan Pethiyagoda, pers. comm., 2010).



Rhacophoridae Hoffman, 1932 Raorchestes akroparallagi (Biju & Bossuyt, 2009) (Fig. 2) Site 2: One adult from evergreen forest close to stream on a rock, at 720 m. Comments: Probably, this species was referred to as Philautus femoralis by Inger et al., (1984) which is now considered to be restricted to the higher hills of Sri Lanka (Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiagoda, 2005). Also, it differs from R. bobingeri described by Biju and Bossuyt (2005) from the same locality in having a smooth dorsum (vs. granular in bobingeri). However, there is a controversy between Inger et al. (1984) and Biju & Bossuyt (2005) regarding the skin texture of the specimens as the former state that “P. femoralis” (FMNH 218114) had a smooth dorsum while the latter mention it (as P. bobingeri) to be granular in texture. Raorchestes anili (Biju & Bossuyt, 2006) (Fig. 3) Site 2: Three individuals were recorded between 542-760 m elevation. All were on rocks near streams. Raorchestes beddomii (Günther, 1876) (Fig. 4) Site 1: Five specimens on walls of the forest rest house at a height of about 2 m, in the High Wavys, at 1510 m during late December. One adult on a cardamom plant, at a height of 1.2 m, during late March. Comments: A human commensally species, as all of them were seen in human habitations. Referred as Philautus pulcherrimus sensu Daniels (2005) in Ganesh et al. (2008a). Raorchestes charius (Rao, 1937) Site 1: Four individuals were recorded at an elevation of 1500 m on the ground in a cardamom plantation and montane forests, during early January and one subadult during late March, under the bark of a tree at a height of 1.2 m near a forest stream in montane forests bordering tea plantations.

Raorchestes ponmudi (Biju & Bossuyt, 2005) Site 1: Two adults of SVL 35 mm, beneath fallen logs, on a forest path in a montane forest during late December. One near a stream with dense growth of ferns (Cyathea sp.) flowing through patches of montane forests near tea plantations. Comments: Referred as Philautus variabilis sensu Daniels (2005) in Ganesh et al. (2008a).

Raorchestes cf. bobingeri (Fig. 5) Site 1: One specimen under a fallen log behind tea bushes, in a patch of tea plantation and surrounding montane forests in Eravangalar, at 1483 m asl. Diagnosis: Dorsum uniformly granular, olivaceous green; axilla, groin and parts surrounding limb insertions yellowish; canthus rostralis sharp; head broader than long; eye diameter equal to snout length; tympanum and supratympanic fold indistinct; webbing in toes extensive. This individual differs from the nominate taxa in having a greenish yellow femur (vs. reddish yellow in P. bobingeri fide Biju and Bossuyt, 2009). Comments: Referred as Philautus pulcherrimus sensu Daniels (2005) in Ganesh et al. (2008a). Raorchestes cf. travancoricus (Fig. 6) Site 1: One adult (20 mm SVL) on a grassy meadow, in human habitations bordering a watershed catchment, near tea plantations and montane forest at an elevation of 1450 m during late January. Philautus sensu lato sp. 1 (Fig. 7) Site 2: Four individuals were seen in evergreen forests, two on rocks, near stream/s and two from leaf litter at elevations between 370 and 850 m. Diagnosis: Bright creamy brown dorsally, with a faint inter–orbital streak; lateral region, thigh and shank spotted with dark brown; toes partially webbed (1/4th); head as broad as long, tibio-tarsal articulation reaches the eye, canthus rostralis sharp, tympanum much smaller than the eye, snout length 4 mm, eye diameter 3 mm. Comments: Biju et al. (2010) remarked Philautus Gistel, 1848, present in the Western Ghats to comprise of two, genetically distinct lineages, which they recognized as genera Raorchestes Biju, Shouche, Dubois, Dutta & Bossuyt, 2010 and Pseudophilautus Laurent, 1943. Since these two genera are morphologically conservative, cryptic and not allopatric, we use the older concept of Philautus [in a glorified sense] for our unidentified individuals, which definitely do not belong to other rhacophorid genera of the Western Ghats. Superficially resembles Raorchestes signatus sensu Inger et al. (1984). Raorchestes signatus s str. is a taxon restricted to the higher hills of Nilgiris (Biju & Bossuyt, 2009). Biju & Bossuyt (2009) refer Inger’s R. signatus (FMNH 218118) as R.graminirupes (fide Biju & Bossuyt, 2005). The present individuals differ from P. graminirupes described from the same locality, in possessing a smooth dorsum and an evidently longer snout (vs.

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granular dorsum and shorter snout than the eye diameter in R. graminirupes) [snout length: eye diameter ratio 1.33:1 in Philautus s. lat. sp. 1 vs. 0.77:1 in R. graminirupes] fide Biju and Bossuyt (2005). Also, it differs from P. chotta in comparatively larger size (SVL 23.5 ± 2.12 mm [n=4] vs. < 20.5 mm in P. chotta). Philautus sensu lato sp. 2 (Fig. 8) Site 2: One individual from a forest stream on rock, at 542 m. Diagnosis: Dorsum moderately pustular; canthus rostralis sharp; tympanum smaller than eye; supratympanic fold evident. Colour, dorsally deep reddish brown, temporal and labial region with dark brown; ‘inverted V’ mark on back; hindlimbs barred. Comments: This specimen was only photographed and could not be restrained for examination. Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 Site 2: One adult female, on a shrub at 1.5 m height, near its nest, which was made of leaves stuck together with foam, about 2 m above a stagnant pool at elevation of 720 m.

Micrixalidae Dubois, Ohler & Biju, 2001

Micrixalus fuscus (Boulenger, 1882) Site 1: Very common; many were recorded from large water courses (>3 m. wide) to small hill torrents, bordering plantations and three away from streams. Site 2: Many were recorded from streams from 370–1018 m altitudinal range. Intra-specific tolerance high; stenotopic and dominant in torrential settings, never syntopic with lentic-water-dwelling anurans. They called from rocks, in streams, small shrubs, mostly ferns and other vegetation, ascending up to 60 cm to gain vantage point and bred during erratic, non seasonal rains in January–March, as tadpoles of Gosner stage 36–39 were seen. Micrixalus nudis Pillai, 1978 Site 2: Five individuals were seen near streams, on rocks and leaf litter within 370–1018 m asl.

Dicroglossidae Anderson, 1871

Fejervarya keralensis (Dubois, 1980) Site 1: One specimen in montane forest, near a stream at 1450 m. Some tadpoles of Gosner stage 36, though observed could not be attributed to this species, as Micrixalus was also found together. Eight specimens from streams in mid elevation

700–1000 m. Adults occupied both lentic and lotic waters. Site 2: Four adults from forest streams within156–830 m altitude. Fejervarya limnocharis complex sensu Kuramoto et al., (2007) Site 1: Thirteen individuals were seen in moist deciduous forests at 500–700 m. Adults, juveniles, and tadpoles of Gosner stages 36–39 in pools near forest clearings and wallows used by large ungulates. Diagnosis: Dorsum pustular with numerous warts; eyes protruding, iris fawn-brown; pupil black, diamond-shaped; snout pointed, nostril oriented towards the upper aspect of snout; not close to the snout-tip; canthals mildly evident; supratympanic fold prominent; head very large and broad; trunk short, thick, hind limbs moderately long; tibio-tarsal articulation reaches nostril or snout-tip; webbing of toes up to 3/4th; digits not dilated into discs, rather convergent and slender; 4th toe longest. Colouration, dorsally dirty brown with random marblings of darker shade, a bright yellow vertebral stripe, extending from interorbital to groin, frequently present; venter smooth, white, darker near gular region and limb insertions. SVL ≤ 34 mm. Comments: “Fejervarya limnocharis” is a species-complex (Kuramoto et al., 2007).

Ranidae Rafinesque, 1814

Sylvirana aurantiaca (Boulenger, 1904) Site 2: Seven individuals were seen along stream sides at 376 m asl. Comments: Curiously this species wasn’t reported by Inger et al. (1984) from Ponmudi (Site 2) which is ca. 60 km northeast from its type locality, Trivendrum (now Thiruvanathapuram). Sylvirana temporalis (Günther, 1864) sensu Dutta (1997) Site 1: Four adults (> 60 mm SVL) from streams, in montane forests and tea plantations at 1450 m asl. during December– January. Nine adults from deciduous forests at 600–1250 m asl. during February–March. A mounted pair in amplexus perched on exposed roots of nearby plants along a stagnant water body at 900 m asl. was seen during mid day; sympatric with Hydrophylax malabarica. Site 2: Five adult frogs were recorded from rocks near streams and leaf litter in mid-elevation evergreen forests, within 565–910 m asl.

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Hydrophylax malabaricus (Tschudi, 1838) Site 1: Two specimens in a stream on eastern slopes at 1300 m asl during early January. Nine adults, most (n=7) from evergreen forests, interspersed with rocky cliffs and vast grassland, at 1300 m asl during late January. Associated with large, deep waters, often sympatric with Sylvirana temporalis sensu Dutta (1997).

Petropedetidae Noble, 1931

Indirana beddomei (Günther, 1875) Site 1: Several individuals; mostly near streams, on rocks, leaf litter, under logs, stones and on bare ground, in moist deciduous forests, evergreen rain forests, montane forests, cardamom and coffee plantations. Eurytopic with a wide elevation range of 500–1500 m. Males called and bred in small streams in evergreen forests at February–March, during rains. Site 2: Several adults were sighted on leaf litter away from streams in forest patches. Altitudinal distribution was extensive, with the majority between 370–650 m asl. Indirana brachytarsus (Günther, 1875) Site 2: Seven adults were seen along stream sides and on leaf litter from altitudes 360–670 m. Indirana semipalmata (Boulenger, 1882) Site 1: Eleven specimens from streams near tea plantations, and in lower altitudes of 800–1000 m during February–March, often sympatric with I. beddomei and I. leptodactylus in streamside forests and riparian vegetation, but less numerous or absent in altered habitats. Indirana leptodactyla (Boulenger, 1882) Site 1: Many specimens; mostly seen near streams and sometimes in non riparian habitats. Often sympatric with I. beddomei and once these two species bred in a same shallow pool during erratic rains (i.e. February–March) far from south-west monsoon. Foamy nest masses, together with I. leptodactylus and I. beddomei adults were observed at 700–900 m asl. Indirana cf. diplosticta Site 1: Three specimens in stream-sides, on rocks, bare cliff-faces and in clumps of mountain grass, during late January. Diagnosis: Superficially similar to I. diplostictus, but larger (> 45 mm SVL) and much darker, almost grayish black. Colouration grayish red above; skin with longitudinal folds; tympanum diameter half

that of the eye; supratympanic ridge evident; canthus rostralis sharp; limbs barred; digits with dilated discs; circummarginal grooves mildly evident; webbing in pes 3/4th. Comments: Though I. diplostictus was previously recorded from these hills (Daniels, 2005) our specimens did not completely match with I. diplostictus.

Nyctibatrachidae Blommers-Schlösser, 1993

Nyctibatrachus major Boulenger, 1882 Site 1: One adult from a stream near tea plantations, at 1500 m during late March. Four adults from stream sides and riparian tracts at 800–1000 m. During late February an egg mass with 24 embryos visible inside the eggs spread 51 mm across was seen deposited on a rock 6 cm high overseeing an intermittent stream, with an adult nearby. Site 2: Eleven adults were seen near streams in evergreen forests, never away from water bodies, at an altitudinal range of 350–800 m; even close to human habitations, near waterways flowing past roads.

Reptilia Laurenti, 1768 Squamata Oppel, 1811

Sauria Gunther, 1984 (Plate 2)

Gekkonidae Gray, 1825

Cnemaspis beddomei (Theobald, 1876) Site 1: Nine specimens, with most (n=7) from human settlements often resting on open bare walls during night and a few (n=2) from natural forest habitat, in rock cut cave formations, tree buttresses and under fallen logs in forest floor. Sympatric with C. nairi. Comments: Misidentified as Cnemaspis indica in Ganesh et al. (2008a). Cnemaspis nairi Inger, Marx & Koshy, 1984 Site 1: Many specimens, most (n=16) from human settlements, a few (n=5) from forests, mainly in higher elevation forests > 1200 m including a gravid female with two developing ova, seen under a fallen log in a riverine forest tract of Sithathu kavu at 1200 m. Several eggs were seen in cave formations, along with adults of this species in the vicinity, the largest such cluster composed of 24 eggs, of which 14 had already hatched, during late January. Comments: This species was not recorded in Site 2, its type locality

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Cnemaspis ornata (Beddome, 1870) Site 1: Nineteen individuals, often from lower elevation forests in rock formations and caves in the foothills of Ayyanar koil, two from mid elevation (800–1000 m) including a gravid female, with two developing ova, under a stone, in a riverine tract. Site 2: One adult female from a rock crevice in a tea estate at 670 m asl. Cnemaspis sp. (Fig. 9) Site 1: One specimen, a gravid female, with two developing eggs inside, from cardamom plantations during late December. Site 2: One adult male measuring 30 mm SVL, tL 38 mm, from deciduous forest at 1000 m elevation. Diagnosis: Dorsum somewhat smooth; conical spine-like tubercles present on flanks and tail, supralabials 8, head length twice the breadth; 4th toe subdigitals 6. Overall habitus and lepidosis resembled C. mysoriensis-nilagirica complex but with smooth venter (vs. keeled) and a black gular region (vs. yellowish with black reticulations). Hemidactylus anamallensis (Günther, 1875) (Fig. 10) Site 1: Twenty one adults (SVL 55–76 mm) sympatric with Cnemaspis nairi and C. beddomei on walls, window panes and ceilings of an estate bungalow in Kottai malai at 1200 m asl. Hemidactylus maculatus (Duméril & Bibron, 1836) sensu Smith (1935) Site 1: Eleven specimens, two from a root tangle of a large tree buttress, near the foothills of Ayyanar koil (500 m asl); in mid hills of Kottai malai (630 m asl), on a rock formation and the rest (n=6) from walls of a forest rest room in Mudaliar ootru (1300 m asl) at a height of above 1.8 m. from ground. Hemidactylus parvimaculatus Deraniyagala, 1953 Site 2: One gravid specimen bearing 2 eggs, from a cottage in Merchiston Estate at 670 m. Sympatric with Gehyra mutilata. Comments: Bauer et al. (2010) reported genetic divergence in H. brookii and further raised the subspecies parvimaculatus to full species. It is a chiefly Sri Lankan clade that is also distributed in the Maldives and Kerala, southwestern India. Hemidactylus frenatus Duméril & Bibron, 1836 Site 2: Two adult females from secondary vegetation near plantations on a shrub and rocks at 830 m.

Gehyra mutilata (Wiegmann, 1834) (fig. 11) Site 2: Nine specimens, including two juveniles and a gravid female (SVL 63 mm) bearing two eggs were recorded from houses and other constructions in Merchiston Estate, at 675 m asl. Comments: This species, though relatively common in this hill range, was not reported by Inger et al. (1984). Smith (1935) states that “the only authentic record for this species from the Indian peninsula is a specimen from Cochin, in the Indian Museum” while Das (2002) gives its distribution in southern India as Kerala. The present record from Ponmudi provides a precise distribution locality for this species in Kerala, where it is relatively common.

Agamidae Gray, 1827

Draco dussumieri Duméril & Bibron, 1837 Site 1: Eighteen specimens, most (n=14) from moist deciduous and disturbed gallery forests, in areas with large, mature trees in plenty, perched at heights between 1 and 8 m, in Ayyanar koil at 500 m asl. during late January. Four on drier, sparsely vegetated, rocky eastern slopes of Mudaliar ootru at 800 m. Site 2: Two adults, a male and a female were sighted on tree trunk at a height of about 2.1 m above the ground at 470 m. Otocryptis beddomii Boulenger, 1885 Site 2: Several individuals were sighted on leaf litter, ground vegetation and shrubs. Comments: Distributed widely from 110 – 1018 m asl., as opposed to ≤ 650 m asl fide Inger et al. (1984) see Chandramouli (2009a). Calotes calotes (Linnaeus, 1758) Site 1: Seven adult males, 3 unsexed subadults and juveniles from moist deciduous forests with poor canopy cover perched at heights 1–2.5 m; in Ayyanar koil (500–800 m), Periya kavu (700–900 m) and in the mid hills of Kottai malai (< 700 m). Site 2: Two adult females and four subadults were recorded from deciduous forests and tea plantations, on shrubs and on the ground at elevations between 110 and 836 m. Calotes elliotti Günther, 1864 Site 1: Twenty eight specimens from higher altitudes at 1300–1600 m asl. in montane forests (n=9), tea (n=8) and cardamom (n=11) plantations, often in areas with no or poor canopy cover, with often quite low perching heights, up to < 0.3 m., but most (n=11) perched at 1−1.8 m height; several seen sleeping on barbed wires, lamp posts and window

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panes. Eurytopic, human commensal in high altitude zones. Site 2: Five individuals were recorded from elevation from 376 to 800 m. Three adults were on shrubs perched at 1.3–1.8 m height and two juveniles were seen on the ground among leaf litter. Comments: Inger et al. (1984) considered C. elliotti to be synonymous with C. rouxii and referred their animals as C. rouxii, although the specific status of C. elliotti has been accepted universally (e.g., Smith, 1935; Das, 2002). We did not see any C. rouxii sensu stricto in Sites 1 and 2. Calotes grandisquamis Günther, 1875 (Fig. 12) Site 1: Ten adults from tea and cardamom plantations of High Wavys (n=6) at 1450 m asl., one seen sleeping on Lantana camara bush at 1.2 m height and a road–kill on a path bordering tea plantations. A pair in a cardamom plantation, male perched at a height of 1.2 m and female at 2 m in Periya kavu (n=2) and Kottai malai (n=2) plantations. In Kottai malai (1180 m asl) a female scratched the ground to make a hole–nest that was a hemispherical depression measuring 43 mm diameter and 40 mm depth, in the middle of a foot-path at 15.20 hrs. Site 2: A single adult female measuring SVL 124 mm, tL 311 mm was seen in a rubber plantation at 107 m, amidst human habitation. This specimen was an aberrant morph, in having a bright green dorsum with white transverse bars. Comments: Not reported by Inger et al. (1984) from Site 2. The aberrant specimen from Site 2 was discussed at length by Chandramouli (2009b). Psammophilus dorsalis (Gray, 1831) Site 1: Six specimens; adult male (n=1), females (n=3) and unsexed subadults (n=2) from rocky open bare patches in hill slopes, irrespective of altitude but mostly at 500–1300 m. Site 2: Twelve adults were sighted on rocks at hill tops from altitudes varying between 700–1090 m. Comments: Inger et al. (1984) reported P. blandfordanus from this region (Site 2), which was not encountered in this study.

Scincidae Gray, 1825

Eutropis carinata (Schneider, 1799) Site 1: Twenty eight specimens, most (n=13) in stone revetments bordering tea plantations, human settlements, cardamom plantations, montane forests, open clearings, shoal-grasslands of High Wavys at 1400–1600 m asl.

Site 2: Seven specimens were sighted among grassy thickets at higher altitudes (>900 m) and among human habitation and plantations in lower altitudes. Eutropis clivicola (Inger, Shaffer, Koshy & Bakde, 1984) (Fig. 13a,b) Site 2: Three individuals were recorded from a rubber plantation at 107 m. Dorsum bronze brown with three black longitudinal stripes, the dorsolateral ones from postocular region and the mid-dorsal stripe from the neck, behind the nuchals till the tail, venter pale white. Lateral region dark, with numerous white spots. Comments: The third specimen reported here forms the record length (SVL 63 mm; Tail 41 mm) for this species (vs. SVL 55 mm in paratypes FMNH 216580 and 81) fide Inger et al., (1984); 30 scales round the mid–body vs. 28 reported by Inger et al. (1984) and Thomas and Easa (1997). Thus, the present record reports revised scale counts and longest length record for this species, with the lower altitudinal distribution range being extended from 260, 250 and 148 m (Inger et al., 1984; Thomas and Easa, 1997) to 107 m. Eutropis macularia (Duméril & Bibron, 1839) Site 1: Abundant, averaging 3−6 individuals a day, in low to mid hills at 500–1000 m, on leaf litter, ground vegetation, bare soil, rocks and fallen logs. Site 2: Very common; many were sighted on leaf litter at varying altitudes between 107–670 m. More terrestrial; they were usually seen on leaf litter, along the roadsides and rarely in human habitations. Almost half of our specimens had a scarlet red throat. Eutropis cf. beddomei (Fig. 14) Site 1: One specimen from near a wood-heap in cardamom plantation, High Wavys, at 1450 m. Diagnosis: Midbody scalerows 30; 4th toe subdigitals 15; supranasals touching one another; loreal + presuboculars 4; postnasal absent; supraciliaries 5; only 2nd supraocular contacting frontal; auricular lobules feeble; scales between circumorbitals and tympanum 7; dorsum with five stripes, more prominent anteriorly. Agreeing with E. beddomei, but varied in having higher degree of scale-carination, especially in lateral and temporal regions. Kaestlea laterimaculata (Boulenger, 1887) Site 1: Twelve specimens (2 adults and 10 juveniles), from high altitudes of 1450–1600 m, in tea and cardamom plantations, montane forests, open clearings and shola-grassland habitats.

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Kaestlea travancorica (Beddome, 1870) Site 1: Five specimens (1 adult and 4 juveniles) from riverine forests of Sithathu kavu, at 1200 m and in montane forests, clearings and shola-grasslands of High Wavys at 1450 m. Ristella guentheri Boulenger, 1887 (fig. 15) Site 1: Seven adults, most (n=4) in dense montane forests, contiguous or fragmented, but always inside tree cover, in wet humus laden places like leaf litter or forest floor, under fallen logs, stones, rocks, tree buttress spaces and never in open places without canopy cover at 1450−1650 m. Highly stenotopic. Site 2: An adult and a juvenile, from leaf litter in evergreen forest at altitudes of 680-935 m. Comments: Specimens from Site 1 were misidentified as Ristella travancorica in Ganesh et al. (2008a). Sphenomorphus dussumieri (Duméril & Bibron, 1839) Site 2: Very common at elevations from 107–540 m; regularly seen on leaf litter and on rocks, especially near streams, where Eutropis spp. rarely occurred.

Varanidae Gray, 1827

Varanus bengalensis (Daudin, 1802) Site 1: Three adults (>600 mm SVL). One was foraging in a rocky substratum of a river bed, in Ayyanar koil at 500 m during late January, another individual in human habitations, in Periya kavu, at 800 m during late February, the next individual was in a valley of riverine forest tract of Sithathu kavu, at 1250 m.

Serpentes Linnaeus, 1758 (Plate 3 & 4) Uropeltidae Müller, 1832

Uropeltis arcticeps madurensis (Beddome, 1878) sensu Whitaker & Captain (2004) Site 1: Four specimens; from montane forests, cardamom and tea plantations (n=1, each) and one from human settlements in High Wavys at 1300–1600 m during December–January. An adult (200 mm SVL) under a rock (0.7 m across) in a streamside forest tract in Sithathu kavu, at 1250 m during January was observed to share the same log along with a Ristella guentheri as refuge. One, clearly identifiable, road-killed individual was sighted on a road across coffee plantations. Comments: Smith (1943) synonymised Silybura madurensis Beddome, 1878 and Silybura arcticeps Günther, 1875 but yet recognized them as two

“varieties”, based on their non-overlapping ventral counts; U. a. arcticeps from Tinnevelly having 127-128 ventrals and U. a. madurensis from Travancore having 146-157. Their subspecific status has been maintained (see Whitaker & Captain 2004). Uropeltis cf. dindigalensis (Fig. 16) Site 1: Four adults, two dead and two live, one of which was observed to feed on an earthworm, on a foot path, in a cardamom plantation in a sun-lit patch, at broad day light of a noon, during late December. One live adult under a large fallen tree trunk, within a patch of montane forest, in Eravangalar Estate, High Wavys at 1550 m. Dead ones were on a tarred road, passing through tea plantations and montane forests. Another dead one was sighted in the same estate, allegedly killed by a domestic fowl. Diagnosis: Superficially similar to U. dindigalensis but caudal disc, more like that of Group III of Smith (1943). Rostral fully dividing nasal scales and nearly equal to its distance from frontal; dorsum yellowish brown; laterally darker; venter dark purplish brown with distinct alternate yellow spots. Comments: This species also resembles U. liura (David Gower pers. comm.). However the present individual with its rostral dividing nasal scale and touching the medial suture between prefrontals is in strong contrast to U. liura. But several U. liura specimens often have such a posteriorly elongated rostral shield (David Gower pers. comm.). Since, the condition of rostral and nasal scales are given as taxonomically important diagnostic characters by Smith (1943), we refer our individuals as Uropeltis cf. dindigalensis and not Uropeltis cf. liura.

Pythonidae Fitzinger, 1826

Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) Site 1: One adult (>2100 mm TL), basking on a large rock near a river course, during forenoon in Sithathu kavu, a riverine tract at 1250 m, during late January.

Colubridae Oppel, 1811

Coelognathus helena monticollaris (Schulz, 1992) Site 1: One adult (SVL 590 mm; TL 720 mm) crossing a forest path, on a steep rocky hill slope with clumps of mountain grass and bare rocks and ferns; from Mudaliar ootru, an evergreen forest, at 1200 m during late January. . Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) Site 1: Four adults, including a dead one in tea plantations of High Wavys, during early January, as

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well as in lower elevation (500–800 m) forests of Ayyanar koil in moist deciduous and evergreen forests during early February. Site 2: Three adults were recorded from both forests and also along road sides at 380–500 m. Oligodon venustus (Jerdon, 1853) (Fig. 17a,b,c) Site 1: One adult (SVL 353 mm, TL 410 mm), moving through mountain grasses and ferns, near a disturbed bush patch of Lantana camara in shola grasslands of High Wavys at 1540 m during late March. Oligodon travancoricus Beddome, 1877 (Fig. 18a,b,c) Site 1: Four adults (two males and females each) from Periya kavu and Kottai malai Estates at 800–1200 m in evergreen forests, cardamom plantations and nearby human habitation. Comments: These specimens have been discussed elaborately in Ganesh et al. (2009). Although the specific distinction of this species has been considered doubtful (Wall, 1914), subsequent workers regarded it to be distinct from its closely allied sympatric congener O. venustus (Jerdon, 1853) (e.g., Smith, 1943; Molur & Walker, 1998; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker, 1978; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Wall (1914) provided a comparison between O. travancoricus and O. venustus, in which, he mentioned the following differences; frontal shield shorter than parietals in O. travancoricus (vs. as long as the parietals in O. venustus), three infralabials touch the anterior chin shields (vs. four in contact with chin shields in O. venustus). Apart from these differences in scalation, they differ in colouration; i.e., dorsum barred in O. travancoricus (vs. medially united paired spots in O. venustus). Additionally Smith (1943) remarks, subcaudals with alternate black and white markings in O. travancoricus (vs. predominantly yellowish in venustus) and 6th supralabial, which is completely in contact with labial border in O. travancoricus (vs. often excluded from the labial border in O. venustus) (see Figs. 18 & 19). In addition, we observed another difference; viz., the posterior edge of the parietals are obtusely pointed in O. travancoricus, forming a groove in between vs. flat and truncate in O. venustus. Elsewhere, such minute variations in head scalation have been considered as vital characters of diagnostic importance to distinguish cryptic/ sibling species (Boulenger, 1894; Gower & Winkler, 2007). Therefore, we accord with Smith (1943) and consider the taxa O. travancoricus and O. venustus to be specifically distinct.

Oligodon affinis Günther, 1862 (Fig. 19) Site 2: One adult from evergreen forest on leaf litter, at 430 m. Lycodon travancoricus (Beddome, 1870) (Fig. 20) Site 1: Six adults, from High Wavys at 1450 m, during early January, a pair from inside an estate cottage; an exceptionally brightly marked specimen from under a stone near tea plantation in Eravangalar at 1550 m; from under a dead–wood in Ayyanar koil at 500 m, during early February; in coffee plantations of Periya kavu, at 800 m. Site 2: Two adults and one juvenile from 836, 675 and 110 m. Adults were found among human habitation in tea plantations and the juvenile was seen crossing a road at night. Comments: Whitaker & Captain (2004) state “subcaudals paired or some (rarely all) entire”, which is supported by our observation (see fig.). Dendrelaphis grandoculis (Boulenger, 1890) (Fig. 21) Site 2: Two adults on shrubs at a height of about 1.7–2.1 m from the ground, at 1018 m. Comments: Inger et al. (1984) did not report this species from Site 2 (Ponmudi), but it has been recorded from Kannikatti (700 m asl.), an adjacent forest patch in Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu, (fide Whitaker & Captain, 2004) which is contiguous with Ponmudi. Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) (fig. 22) Site 1: One adult from a streamside in Eravangalar, amidst tea estates at 1550 m. Site 2: One adult from a stream near human habitation at 107 m. Comments: Our specimens had 73 and 87 subcaudals and thus are female X. piscator sensu Vogel & David, (2006). Amphiesma beddomei (Günther, 1864) Site 1: Two specimens, an adult (> 700 mm SVL) from cardamom plantations in High Wavys at 1400 m during early January and a juvenile in a small open stream in tea plantation at 1450 m during late March. Site 2: Eight adults from evergreen forest on leaf litter, at elevations between 376 – 1018 m. Comments: An adult measuring 380 mm SVL, 495 mm TL, had 52 subcaudals (vs. 62 – 82 fide Smith, 1943 and Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839) Site 1: One subadult, with characteristic nuchal mark, from under a small rock (c.a. 0.3 m across) in

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a tea and silver oak plantation in High Wavys at 1550 m on a rainy day, in late December. Xylophis captaini Gower & Winkler, 2007 Site 2: One roadkill, adult, near a rubber plantation at 107 m. Boiga ceylonensis (Günther, 1858) Site 1: One adult female coiled inside the bark of a tree trunk, overhanging a hill–stream, at a height of 1.2 m from ground during late March, near a tea plantation and montane forests of Eravangalar at 1450 m. Philautus spp. (n=4) were seen inside the same bark crevice. Boiga nuchalis (Günther, 1875) (fig. 23) Site 2: One adult from shrubs along roadside, at 670 m. Ahaetulla dispar (Günther, 1864) (fig. 24) Site 1: Four specimens (three adults and one subadult), two from tea and one each from cardamom plantation and montane forest at a height of 1–1.2 m from ground and once on a forest path, on bare ground at 1450−1650 m. Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) sensu Whitaker & Captain (2004) (Fig. 25) Site 1: Two adults in lower and mid elevations of Ayyanar Koil and Sithathukavu at 600−1000 m. One specimen had a ventral pattern with two thin white stripes running along the entire body length. Site 2: Three individuals from shrubs and tea bushes in 260–700 m. Comments: Colouration of our individuals accord with Whitaker & Captain (2004), except that ventrals sometimes had two pale white parallel stripes, apart from ventrolateral stripes. Ventral pattern is highly variable in A. nasuta and has largely contributed to many of its ‘varieties’ and synonyms (Smith, 1943). We believe that these synonyms need to be carefully reevaluated, as the form called ‘nasuta’ from the Western Ghats is invariably smaller (< 1200 mm), having a shorter rostrum and much brighter dorsal colour than those from the plains.

Elapidae Boie, 1827

Calliophis nigrescens Günther, 1862 Site 1: Two specimens, both presumably adults (SVL 567–601 mm, TL 648–689 mm), from under a small log in moist deciduous forest of Ayyanar koil at 600 m, during February and another one from

under, ground vegetation in cardamom plantations in Periya kavu at 850 m. Comments: Both snakes apparently belong to Smith’s (1943) ‘Variety II’. Although similar in scalation, these varieties Smith (1943) recognized are parapatric in distribution.

Viperidae Oppel, 1811

Hypnale hypnale (Merrem, 1820) Site 1: Thirteen specimens from leaf litter (2), rocks (2), fallen logs (5) and buttresses (2) in moist deciduous forests of Ayyanar koil (500 m) and coffee plantations of Periya kavu (820 m). Site 2: An adult from leaflitter in evergreen forest at 750 m. Comments: Our observation at 750 and 820 m (vs. < 600 m in Whitaker & Captain, 2004), forms one of the highest elevation records for this species in India, barring the record of Kumar et al. (2001) from Andipparai at ca. 1100 m, wherein they mentioned Hypnale hypnale to be syntopic with Trimeresurus malabaricus and T. macrolepis. Trimeresurus macrolepis Beddome, 1862 (Fig. 26) Site 1: Sixteen specimens, from montane forests (7), tea (2), coffee (2), cardamom plantations (5) in High Wavys and Eravagalar estates between 1450−1650 m. Comments: Two adult females were 950–960 mm long, thus forming the record length for this species (see Ganesh et al., 2008b). Trimeresurus malabaricus (Jerdon, 1854) (Fig. 27) Site 1: Twenty specimens, of several colour morphs from Mudaliar ootru, Ayyanar koil, Periya kavu and Kottai malai Estates between 600−1200 m on fallen log (2), rock (11), branch (5), tree base (1) and leaf litter (1). Site 2: Seventeen individuals from evergreen forests and tea plantations at elevations between 376–1018 m on overhanging branches close to streams (8), tea bushes (2), shrub, at a height of about 2 m (1), on the ground among leaf litter (1), on the buttress root of a tree (1), accumulated clump of twigs (2) and on rocks along streams (2). Comments: Although Inger et al., (1984) recorded specimens from a hight as low as 110 m (Site 2), we did not observe any below 376 m, despite our field surveys in lower elevations. Acknowledgements This work was carried out during our M.Sc. dissertation project. We thank the State Forest

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Departments of Kerala and Tamil Nadu for permission; Wildlife Association of Rajapalayam for funding our survey in Tamil Nadu and the estate administrators for providing food and accommodation. We thank S. Asokan and K. Tenmozhi, the project supervisors and other faculty members of the Zoology department of our college for their guidance. For providing access to their libraries, we thank the staff of Agumbe Rainforest Research Station, Chennai Snake Park and Madras Crocodile Bank. We are grateful to herpetologists Ashok Captain, Biju Sathyabama Das, David Gower, Gernot Vogel, Gerry Martin, K.V. Gururaja, P. Kannan, Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Madhava Meegaskumbura, Rohan Pethiyagoda, Romulus Whitaker and Ulrich Manthey for their suggestions, comments, references and guidance. We thank Harold Voris, Alan Resetar and Sarah Rieboldt (Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago) for kindly providing photographs of the paratype of Eutropis clivicola. Literature Cited Bauer, A. M., T. R. Jackmann, E. Greenbaum, A. de Silva, V. B. Giri and I. Das, 2010. Molecular evidence for taxonomic status of Hemidactylus brookii group taxa (Reptilia: Gekkonidae). Herpetological Journal, 20: 129-138. Boulenger, G. A., 1894. Description of a new snake found in Travancore by Mr. S. Dighton. Pirmad. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 8: 521. Biju, S. D. and F. Bossuyt, 2005. Two new Philautus (Anura: Ranidae: Rhacophorinae) from Ponmudi Hill in the Western Ghats of India. Copeia, 2005: 29-37. Biju, S. D. and F. Bossuyt, 2009. Systematics and phylogeny of Philautus Gistel, 1848 (Anura, Rhacophoridae) in the Western Ghats of India, with description of 12 new species. Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Society, 115: 374-444. Biju, S. D. Y. Shouche, A. Dubois, S. K. Dutta and F. Bossuyt, 2010. A ground-dwelling rhacophorid frog from the highest mountain peak of the Western Ghats of India. Current Science, 98 (8): 1119-1125. Carroll, R. L., 1988. Vertebrate paleontology and evolution. W.H. Freeman & company, New York: 698. Campbell, H. W. and S. P. Christman, 1982. Field techniques for herpetofaunal community analysis. In: Herpetological communities. Wildlife research report 13. U.S. Department of the interior and Fish and Wildlife service. Washington D.C.: 193-200.

Chandramouli, S. R., 2009a. Status and microhabitat preference of Otocryptis beddomii Boulenger, 1885 (Reptilia: Agamidae) in Ponmudi Hills, Western Ghats, Kerala, India. Taprobanica, 1 (2): 107-110. Chandramouli, S. R., 2009b. An aberrant specimen of Calotes grandisquamis Günther, 1875 (Reptilia: Agamidae) with comments on its altitudinal distribution. Taprobanica, 1 (2): 111-114. Daniels, R. J. R., 2005. Amphibians of Peninsular India. Univ. Press, Hyderabad, India: 268. Das, I., 2002. A Photographic guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of India. New Holland Publishers, U.K: 144. Dowling, H. G., 1951. A proposed standard system of counting ventrals in snakes. British Journal of Herpetology, 1: 97-99. Dubois, A., 2004. The higher nomenclature of recent amphibians. Alytes, 22 (1–2): 1-14. Dubois, A. and R. Bour, 2010. The nomenclatural status of the nomina of amphibians and reptiles created by Garsault (1764), with a parsimonious solution to an old nomenclatural problem regarding the genus Bufo (Amphibia, Anura), comments on the taxonomy of this genus, and comments on some nomina created by Laurenti (1768). Zootaxa, 2447: 1-52. Dutta, S. K., 1997. The Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka; Checklist and Bibliography. Odyssey Publishing House, Orissa, India: 342. Dutta, S. K. and K. Manamendra-Arachchi., 1996. The Amphibian Fauna of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka: 230. Ferguson, S. H., 1895. List of snakes taken in Travancore from 1888 to 1895. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 10: 68-77. Ferguson, S. H., 1904. A list of Travancore batrachians. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 15: 499-509. Ganesh, S. R., S. Asokan and P. Kannan, 2008a. A preliminary survey of amphibians and reptiles in Cardamom Hills, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu. Cobra, 2 (2):1-9. Ganesh, S. R., S. Asokan and P. Kannan, 2008b. Record length of large-scaled pit viper (Trimeresurus macrolepis) Beddome, 1862; with notes on its conservational significance. Cobra, 2 (3):17-22. Ganesh, S. R., S. Asokan and P. Kannan, 2009. Record of Oligodon travancoricus Beddome, 1877

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(Serpentes: Colubridae) from Grizzled Squirrel Sanctuary, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India. The Herpetological Bulletin, 109: 25-28. Gosner, L. K., 1960. A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification. Herpetologica, 16 (3):183–190. Gower, D. J. and J. D. Ablett, 2006. Counting ventral scales in anilioid snakes. Herpetological Journal, 16: 259-263. Gower, D. J. and J. D. Winkler, 2007. Taxonomy of the Indian snake Xylophis Beddome (Serpentes: Caenophidia), with description of a new species. Hamadryad, 31 (2): 315-329. Hutton, A. F., 1949. Notes on the snakes and mammals of the High Wavy Mountains, Madura district, South India. Part I Snakes. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 48 (3): 454-460. Hutton, A. F. and P. David, “2008” 2009. Notes on a collection of snakes from south India, with emphasis on the snake fauna of Meghamalai Hills (High Wavy Mountains). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Scoiety, 105 (3): 299-316. Inger, R. F., H. B. Shaffer, M. Koshy and R. Bakde, 1984. A report on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from the Ponmudi, Kerala, South India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 81 (2): 406–427 & 551-570. Ishwar, N. M., R. Chellam and A. Kumar, 2001. Distribution of forest floor reptiles in the rainforest of Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, South India. Current Science, 80 (3): 413-418. Kumar, A., R. Chellam, B. Choudary, D. Mudappa, K. Vasudevan, N. M. Ishwar and B. R. Noon, 2001. Impact of rainforest fragmentation on small mammals and herpetofauna in the Western Ghats, South India. Report of Wildlife Institute of India, Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: 28. Kuramoto, M., S. H. Joshy, A. Kurabayashi and M. Sumida, 2007. The Genus Fejervarya (Anura: Ranidae) in Central Western Ghats, India, with descriptions of four new cryptic species. Current Herpetology, 26 (2): 81-105. Malhotra, A. and K. Davis, 1991. A report on the herpetological survey of the Srivilliputhur Reserve Forests, Tamil Nadu. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 88 (2): 157-166. Manamendra-Arachchi, K. and R. Pethiagoda, 2005. The Sri Lankan shrub-frogs of the genus Philautus

Gistel, 1848 (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae), with description of 27 new species. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement No. 12: 163-303. Molur, S. and S. Walker. (Eds). 1998. Reptiles of India Report summary, CAMP workshop. Zoos' Print, 13 (7): 226. Myers, N., R. A. Mittermeier, C. G. Mittermeier, G. A. B. da Fonseca and J. Kent, 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403: 853-858. Satyamurti, S. T., 1967. The South Indian Amphibia in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Director of Stationary & Printing, Madras: 90. Sharma, R. C., 2003. Handbook – Indian Snakes. Director– Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata: 292. Smith, M. A., 1935. Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Vol – II Sauria. Taylor & Francis, London: 440. Smith, M. A., 1943. Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Vol – III Serpentes. Taylor & Francis, London: 583. Thomas, J. and P. Easa, 1997. Reptile fauna of Peechi–Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary. Cobra, 29: 14-18. Vasudevan, K., A. Kumar and R. Chellam, 2001. Structure and composition of rainforest floor amphibian communities in Kalakkad–Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. Current Science, 80 (3): 406-412. Vogel, G. and P. David, 2006. On the taxonomy of the Xenochrophis piscator complex (Serpentes, Natricidae). Proceedings of the 13th congress of the Societas Europea Herpetologica: 241-246. Wall, F., 1914. Are the snakes Oligodon travancoricus (Beddome) and Oligodon venustus (Jerdon) entitled to specific distinction? Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 23: 169-170. Wall, F., 1919. Notes on a collection of snakes made in the Nilgiri Hills and the adjacent Wynaad. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 26: 552-584. Wall, F., 1920. Notes on a collection of snakes from Shenbaganur, Palni Hills. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 29: 388-398. Whitaker, R., 1978. Common Indian snakes – a field guide. MacMillan Press, New Delhi: 154. Whitaker, R. and A. Captain. 2004. Snakes of India – The field guide. Draco Books, Chengelpet, South India: 481.

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Appendix 1: Presence-absence matrix of sightings of species reported earlier and present in the same site: + = presence; - = absence; ++ = presence after subsequent treatment; -- = absence after subsequent treatment; * = only Serpentes were sampled; N.A = not applicable.

Species Site 1 Hutton (1949)*

Malhotra & Davis (1991) Site 2 Inger et al.

(1984) Ichthyophis beddomei Peters, 1879 - N.A - + + Gegeneophis carnosus (Beddome, 1870) - N.A - - + Bufo melanostictus (Schneider, 1799) + N.A + - + B. microtympanum (Boulenger, 1882) + N.A - - - B. parietalis (Boulenger, 1882) + N.A - + + B. beddomei (Günther, 1876) - N.A - - + Pedostibes tuberculosus Günther, 1876 - N.A - - + Ramanella triangularis (Günther, 1876) - N.A + - + Ramanella sp. + N.A - - - Raorchestes anili (Biju & Bossuyt, 2006) - N.A - + ++ R. akroparallagi (Biju & Bossuyt, 2009) - N.A - + ++ R. beddomei (Günther, 1876) + N.A - - - R. cf. bobingeri + N.A - - ++ R. charius (Rao, 1937) + N.A - - -- R. ponmudi (Biju & Bossuyt, 2005) + N.A - - - R. signatus (Boulenger, 1882) - N.A - - + R. cf. travancoricus + N.A - - - Pseudophilautus variabilis (Günther, 1859) - N.A - - -- P. temporalis (Günther, 1864) - N.A - - -- P. femoralis(Günther, 1864) - N.A - - -- Philautus s. lat. sp. 1 - N.A - + - Philautus s. lat. sp. 2 - N.A - + - Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 - N.A - + + Micrixalus fuscus (Boulenger, 1882) + N.A + + + M. nudis Pillai, 1978 - N.A - + + Fejervarya keralensis (Dubois, 1980) + N.A - + + F. cf. limnocharis + N.A - - - Sylvirana aurantiaca (Boulenger, 1904) - N.A - + + S. temporalis (Günther, 1864) + N.A + + + Hydrophylax malabarica (Tschudi, 1838) + N.A - - - Indirana beddomei (Günther, 1876) + N.A + + + I. brachytarsus (Günther, 1876) - N.A - + + I. semipalmatus (Boulenger, 1882) + N.A - - + I. diplosticta (Günther, 1876) - N.A - - + I. cf. diplostictus + N.A - - - I. leptodactylus(Boulenger, 1882) + N.A - - - Nyctibatrachus major Boulenger, 1882 + N.A + + + N. beddomei (Boulenger, 1882) - N.A + - + N. aliciae Inger, Shaffer, Koshy & Bakde, 1984 - N.A - - + Nyctibatrachus sp. A - N.A - - + Nyctibatrachus sp. B - N.A - - + Cnemaspis ornata (Beddome, 1870) + N.A - + + C. beddomei (Theobald, 1876) + N.A - - - C. nairi Inger, Marx & Koshy, 1984 + N.A - - + C. tropidogaster (Boulenger, 1885) - N.A - - -- C. littoralis (Jerdon, 1853) - N.A - - + C. kandiana (Boulenger, 1885) - N.A -- - - Cnemaspis sp. + N.A - + - Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel, 1836 + N.A - + + H. parvimaculatus Deraniyagala, 1953 - N.A - ++ - H. anamallensis (Günther, 1875) + N.A + - - H. maculatus (Dumèril & Bibron, 1836) + N.A + - - Gehyra mutilata (Weigman, 1835) - N.A - + - Otocryptis beddomii Boulenger, 1885 - N.A - + + Calotes calotes (Linnaeus, 1758) + N.A - + - C. versicolor (Daudin, 1802) - N.A + - + C. elliotii Günther, 1864 + N.A - + ++ C. grandisquamis Günther, 1875 + N.A + + - Draco dussumieri Dumèril & Bibron, 1837 + N.A + + +

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Psammophilus dorsalis(Gray, 1831) + N.A + + - P. blanfordanus(Stoliczka, 1871) - N.A + - + Eutropis macularia (Blyth, 1853) + N.A + + + E. carinata (Schneider, 1801) + N.A + + + E. clivicola (Inger, Shaffer, Koshy & Bakde, 1984) - N.A - + + E. cf. beddomei + N.A - - - Kaestlea laterimaculata (Boulenger, 1887) + N.A - - - K. travancorica (Beddome, 1870) + N.A + - - Ristella guentheri Boulenger, 1887 + N.A - + - R. beddomei Boulenger, 1887 - N.A - - + R travancorica (Beddome, 1870) - N.A - - + Sphenomorphus dussumieri (Dumèril & Bibron, 1839) - N.A - + + Varanus bengalensis (Daudin, 1802) + N.A + - - Typhlops beddomi Boulenger, 1890 - - - - + Ramphotyphlops braminus(Daudin, 1803) - - - - + Melanophidium punctatum Beddome, 1871 - + - - - Melanophidium sp. - + - - - Plectrusrus perroteti (Dumèril, Bibron & Dumèril 1854) - + - - - Uropeltis ceylanica Cuvier, 1829 - - + - + U. woodmasoni (Theobald, 1876) - + - - - U. elliotti (Gray, 1858) - + - - - U. pulneyensis (Beddome, 1863) - + - - - Uropeltis arcticeps madurensis (Beddome, 1878) + + - - - U. cf. dindigalensis + - - - - Rhinophis sanguineus Beddome, 1863 - + - - - R. travancoricus Boulenger, 1892 - + - - - Pythomn molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) + + - - - Coelognathus helena monticollaris Schultz, 1992 + + + - + Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) + + - + - Argyrogena fasciolatus (Shaw, 1802) - + - - - Oligodon affinis Günther, 1862 - - - + + O. travancoricus Beddome, 1887 + + - - - O. venustus (Jerdon, 1853) + + + - - O. brevicaudus Günther, 1862 - + - - - O. taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853) - + - - - Lycodon travancoricus (Beddome, 1870) + + - + + L. striatus (Shaw, 1802) - + - - - Dryocalamus nympha (Daudin, 1803) - + - - - Dendrelaphis grandoculis (Boulenger, 1890) - - + + - D. bifrenalis (Boulenger, 1890) - - -- - - Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) + ++ - + + Amphiesma beddomei (Günther, 1864) + - + + + A. stolata (Linnaeus, 1758) - + - - - Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839) + + + - - Atritium schistosum (Daudin, 1803) - + - - - Xylophis captaini Gower & Winkler, 2007 - - - + ++ Boiga ceylonensis (Günther, 1858) + + - - + B. nuchalis (Günther,1875) - - - + + B. dightoni (Boulenger, 1894) - - - - + Ahaetulla dispar (Günther, 1864) + + - - - A. perroteti (Dumèril, Bibron & Dumèril 1854) - + - - - A. nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) + - + + + A. pulverulentua (Dumèril, Bibron & Dumèril 1854) - + - - - Calliophis nigrescens Günther, 1862 + + - - - Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758) - + - - - Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1839) - + - - - Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) - + - - - Hypnale hypnale (Merrem, 1820) + - - + + Trimeresurus macrolepis Beddome, 1862 + + + - - T. malabaricus (Jerdon, 1854) + + + + + T. gramineus (Shaw, 1802) - + - - - Tropidolaemus huttoni (Smith, 1949) - + - - -

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KARUNARATHNA & AMARASINGHE, 2010


REPTILE DIVERSITY OF A FRAGMENTED LOWLAND RAIN FOREST PATCH IN KUKULUGALA, RATNAPURA DISTRICT, SRI LANKA Sectional Editor: John Rudge Submitted: 20 April 2010, Accepted: 13 February 2011

D. M. S. Suranjan Karunarathna1 and A. A. Thasun Amarasinghe2 1 Nature Exploration & Education Team, B-1 / G-6, De Soysapura, Morauwa 10400, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected] 2 Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 146, Kendalanda, Homagama, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected] Abstract A four month survey was undertaken to document the diversity and abundance of reptiles in the Kukulugala forest (KF) in the Ratnapura District, Sri Lanka. A total of 708 individuals belonging to 41 genera (~50%) and 13 families (~55%) were recorded. KF had high species diversity with 58 species, representing about ~28% of the total diversity of known reptiles of Sri Lanka. Of the recorded species, 11 (~19%) were threatened and 24 (~44%) are endemic to Sri Lanka. Endemic relict genera including Aspidura, Balanophis, Cercaspis, Lyriocephalus, Ceratophora, Lankascincus and Nessia were also recorded during the survey. Availability of varied microhabitats may be responsible for the observed high species diversity. Anthropogenic activities, particularly illegal logging and man-made forest fires, is threatening these habitats leading to reduction in reptile population and diversity. Keywords: Conservation, endemic, reptiles, threatened, wet-zone, Ratnapura, Sri Lanka Introduction Sri Lanka, despite its small area of 65,610 km2, has an estimated population of 18.7 million people (IUCN SL, 2005). It is among the biologically richest countries in South Asia and is considered as a global biodiversity hotspot along with the Western-Ghats (Bossuyt et al., 2004; Gunatilleke et al., 1995; Gunawardene et al., 2007; Meegaskumbura et al., 2002). Its natural forest

areas still constitute a little over 12% of the total land area (Tan, 2005) and favorable environmental factors such as high rainfall, humidity, and high density of undergrowth found in these areas support a rich diversity of herpetofauna (Karunarathna et al., 2008). However, the natural forests in the island are rapidly diminishing as a result of the expansion of settlements and agricultural land, leading to

TAPROBANICA, ISSN 1800-427X. October, 2010. Vol. 02, No. 02: pp. 86-94, 1 pl. © Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 146, Kendalanda, Homagama, Sri Lanka.

REPTILE DIVERSITY IN KUKULUGALA RAIN FOREST


adverse impacts on the rich biodiversity (Bambaradeniya et al., 2003; Giri & Chaturvedi, 2001). The loss of natural forests and other causes over the past 100 years, has led to the extinction of nineteen species of the frog genus Pseudophilautus, and one species each from the genera Adenomus and Nannophrys (Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005; Meegaskumbura et al., 2007). According to the IUCN SL & MENR (2007) 16 species of reptiles in Sri Lanka (including 12 endemics) are critically endangered, 23 (including 16 endemics) are endangered, 17 (including 9 endemics) are vulnerable, 25 (including 15 endemics) are near threatened and 47 (including 37 endemics) are data deficient. Based on published sources, a total of 208 species of reptiles are recorded from Sri Lanka and 118 (56.7 %) are known to be endemic to the island (De Silva, 2006; Maduwage et al., 2009; Manamendra-Arachchi et al., 2007; Wickramasinghe & Munindradasa, 2007; Wickramasinghe et al., 2007). The Wet Zone forests of Sri Lanka harbor more than 60% of the indigenous herpetofauna of Sri Lanka (Bambaradeniya, 2006; De Silva, 1996). Furthermore, a high percentage of endemism can be seen in the southwest lowland forests where almost 90% of the endemic vertebrates are concentrated (Bambaradeniya et al., 2003; IUCN SL & MENR, 2007; Senanayake et al., 1977; Wijesinghe & Dayawansa, 2002). Previous studies have focused on the avian, butterfly and fish diversity of Kukulugala Forest, one of the fragmented forest patches in lowland Wet Zone Sri Lanka (Jayaneththi & Maduranga, 2004; Sirimanna, 2005). This study reports some preliminary data on herpetological diversity and the threats posed to the reptiles of Kukulugala. Its aim is to enhance the current knowledge of the biodiversity and conservation implications in this unique forest habitat. Study Area The Kukulugala Forest (KF) is situated within the Western boundary of Ratnapura District in Sabaragamuwa Province (Map 1); it is located 15 km away from Bulatsinhala town. The study area is located between 6° 38’ 30.52” – 6° 40’ 51.00” N and 80° 15’ 07.39” – 80° 17’ 35.25” E. The forest ecosystem, which also forms an important part of the forest cover of the Dumbara-Manana village (Sirimanna, 2005), covers an area of more than 600 acres within the Ayagama secretariat division and can be categorized as a lowland evergreen rain

forest (Gunatilleke & Gunatilleke, 1990). This lowland wet forest consists of dominant tree species such as Dipterocarpus sp., Mesua sp., Doona sp., Schumacheria castaneifolia, Artocarpus nobilis, Calophyllum inophyllum, Mangifera zeylanica, Humboldtia laurifolia, Oncosperma fasciculatum, Canarium zeylanicum and Shorea sp. (Karunarathna & Amarasinghe, 2007). The general forest floor is covered with cascading large boulders and leaf litter. Kukulugala Mountain, also known as “Horanae Kanda” (Horana = traditional bugle, Kanda = mountain) in Sinhala language, is situated at an elevation of 705m a.s.l. The area supports a rich network of waterways which includes two waterfalls called “Ritigas Ella” and “Miyunu Ella” (Ella = fall). Among the number of small streams which start from this mountain, “Thaberum ela” and “Era-Handapana ela” (Ela = stream) are the major tributaries that flow throughout the year (Jayaneththi & Maduranga, 2004; Karunarathna et al., 2004). The average annual rainfall is around 3849 mm, with most rainfall occurring from December to May. The weather gradually becomes dry from July to October when the highest temperatures are recorded. The mean annual temperature in the KF is 28.7 °C with a maximum of 32 °C and a minimum of 24.3 °C. The study area is accessible via the Horana – Bulathsinhala road or via the Rathnapura – Panadura road (Jayaneththi & Maduranga, 2004). Map 1: Study Area, Kukulugala Forest



Materials and Methods The present study was carried out during the period of November 2001 to February 2002. Fieldwork was conducted for a total of 20 days (9 hrs / day) over the 4 month study period. Each field visit comprised of four night and two day surveys per week (two field visits per month x 3 habitat). General area surveys were carried out in three elevation types (below <200m, between 200m – 400m and >400m) and were sampled using 100 X 2 m transects (Table 1). Approximately an hour was spent at each of the 72 randomly selected transects that were located within the several habitat types found in the area. Surveys were conducted by both day and night. Flashlights were used at night. The surveys were conducted by visual encounter survey (VES). All habitats such as water bodies, rock crevices, logs, trees, decaying vegetation and bushes up to 5 m, were thoroughly searched for the presence of reptiles and amphibians. All collected specimens were examined carefully and recorded before being released back into the same habitat. Specimens were examined using a 10× Triplet® hand lens and all species and color morphs were photographed alive using a digital camera (Sony DHC H9). The species were identified using keys and guides provided by Deraniyagala (1953, 1955), Das & De Silva (2005), De Silva (1980), De Silva (1990), Greer (1991), and Wickramasinghe & Somaweera (2003). Afterwards the same species were verified using keys and guides provided by Bahir & Maduwage (2005), Bahir & Silva (2005), Bauer et al. (2010), Maduwage et al. (2009), Manamendra-Arachchi et al. (2007), Rooijen & Vogel (2008), Vidal et al. (2009), Vogel & David (2006) and Wickramasinghe & Munindradasa (2007). Abundance was assessed according to the total number of individuals of each species recorded throughout the study period. Results During the present survey a total of 58 (27.8%) species of reptiles, representing 33 (57%) species of the Sri Lankan serpentoid reptiles and 25 (43%) of the Sri Lankan species of tetrapod reptiles were recorded from the main ecosystems of the KF (Table 2). They belong to 13 (54.1%) families, 41 (50.6%) genera and include 24 (41.3%) endemic species (13 - serpentoid reptiles and 11 - tetrapod reptiles). The endemic relict genera; Aspidura (1 sp.), Balanophis (1 sp.), Cercaspis (1 sp.), Nessia (1 sp.), Lyriocephalus (1 sp.), Ceratophora (1 sp.) and Lankascincus (2 sp.) were found in KF. Out of the 58 species recorded in KF, 11 (18.9%) were

Threatened species, 4 (6.8%) were Endangered species and 7 (12.1%) were Vulnerable species according to IUCN SL & MENR (2007). The reptile fauna of the KF is composed of 2 tortoise, 23 lizards and 33 snake species. The relationships of these species are diverse. Some, such as Geckoella triedrus, Aspidura guentheri, Balanophis ceylonensis, Oligodon calamarius, Lankascincus gansi and Otocryptis wiegmanni occur in the same habitat at the same elevation. Different families recorded a different number of species as follows (proportional representation); Bataguridae (1 sp.) 1.7%, Trionychidae (1 sp.) 1.7%, Agamidae (6 sp.) 10.3%, Gekkonidae (9 sp.) 15.5%, Varanidae (2 sp.) 3.4%, Pythonidae (1 sp.) 1.7%, Typhlopidae (1 sp.) 1.7%, Cylindrophidae (1 sp.) 1.7%, Elapidae (2 sp.) 3.4%, Viperidae (4 sp.) 6.9%, Scincidae (6 sp.) 10.3%, Colubridae (18 sp.) 31.0% and Natricidae (6 sp.) 10.3%. Discussion According to the present survey the most abundant families were Colubridae (167 individuals, 23.6%) and Gekkonidae (140) 19.8%, while other families Cylindrophidae (10) 1.4%, Trionychidae (11) 1.6%, Bataguridae (13) 1.8%, Pythonidae (13) 1.8% and Varanidae (20) 2.8% were the least abundant. The lower diversity of the upper forest habitats (>400 m) may be due to the open canopy resulting in the exposure of the forest floor to high temperature and winds, resulting in increased disturbance, desiccation and predation. Melanochelys trijuga, Lissemys punctata, Varanus salvator, Atretium schistosum, Xenochrophis asperrimus and Xenochrophis cf. piscator species were not recorded in the upper part of the forest area. This may be due to the lack of large water bodies. Chrysopelea ornata and Liopeltis calamaria snake species were recorded only once during the study period. Hemiphyllodactylus typus and Lepidodactylus lugubris are parthenogenetic geckos that are restricted to large boulders and crevices of old houses in the KF. Cnemaspis molligodai, C. silvula and Hemidactylus depressus are distributed moderately both inside the forest and in the houses of the human inhabitants. Geckoella triedrus was only observed under large logs on the forest floor. The second most recorded species, Hemidactylus parvimaculatus, was found occupying every conceivable niche (terrestrial and arboreal) within the KF. Several gecko eggs were observed in rock crevices in the middle area of the forest. The villagers in the study area have an aversion to

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geckos, whether through superstition or squeamishness. Melanochelys trijuga and Lissemys punctata are generally active during the rainy season and found in the vicinity of temporary water bodies. Calotes liolepis and Lyriocephalus scutatus are diurnal, arboreal lizards commonly found in undisturbed closed canopy forest. The litter dwelling Ceratophora aspera is easily camouflaged by the dark brown leaf litter in very shaded areas and is generally found in couples but during this survey only a single specimen was recorded. Otocryptis wiegmanni was generally found in shady places near streams, where some egg clutches were also recorded. They generally dig holes in the sandy soil into which they lay 3 – 6 eggs at a time. During some night surveys groups of Cercaspis carinatus were observed digging the soil and feeding on the eggs of Otocryptis wiegmanni. This indicates that Cercaspis carinatus are social feeders. This behavior was also observed during a previous survey at Beraliya Mukalana forest (Karunarathna et al., 2008). Shortcomings of the study Most of the species were recorded after a shower of rain, particularly in the well-shaded canopy covered areas. Several species were also recorded within the well-wooded home gardens that were dominated by native plant species. As most of the sampling was conducted during the day time, the data collection was biased towards lizards. Had we spent equal time at these sites at night the snake species recorded would probably have been higher. Even diurnal snakes are most easily found at night while sleeping in vegetation where their camouflage is less effective in torch light. Threats and Recommendations It is evident that the KF provides suitable habitat, particularly for reptiles. Habitat loss and deterioration remain the dominant threat to KF reptile populations at the present time. Some areas of the KF are being felled to clear land for tea and rubber plantations. This poses a major threat not only for reptiles but also for the other flora and fauna of the area and its surrounds. In addition, the villagers kill snakes that have been incorrectly identified. This preliminary survey indicates that the KF has a high reptilian diversity. However, this study was conducted over a short period of time and therefore, it is recommended that further surveys are conducted over longer periods to truly assess the reptilian diversity in the area.

Based on IUCN SL & MENR (2007) criteria 4 (~7%) Endangered and 7 (~12%) Vulnerable species have been recorded in this study. This is a critical finding of KF. The slash and burn technique of shift cultivation involves intermittent clearing of a forest patch for agricultural practices, which destroys the habitat of several endemic and relict reptile genera (Gunatilleke et al., 1995). This and other human activities involving cutting of trees inside the forest will contribute to the decline of tree-dwelling reptiles, particularly those belonging to the genera Boiga, Calotes, Cnemaspis, Hemiphyllodactylus and Lyriocephalus that already show irregular distribution due to their habitat specificity. It is recommended that awareness programs on managing the forest and its resources are conducted for the local communities that will in turn contribute to the protection of these species. An advantage of using members of the local communities in future monitoring is that it will help to raise awareness of the value of species and habitats. If this awareness can be integrated into conservation and management efforts, then the likelihood of its success will be higher than otherwise might be the case. Measures should also be taken to declare the KF as a Forest Reserve under the Forest Department due to its high diversity of endemic and threatened species. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Sujan Maduranga (North Dhakota University), Asha De Vos (IUCN) for reviewing the manuscript and Jayantha Wattevidanage (OUSL) for guidance. We also like to thank Mendis Wickramasinghe (HFS) and Naalin Perera, (IUCN) for giving us literature and more comments. Finally we thank Thalagala Dhamma Gaveshi Thera, Ramyanath Sirimanna, Anushka Kumarasinghe, Tiran Abeywardena, Panduka Silva, late Sirikumara, Niranjan Karunarathna and Bandula Jayaneththi (YZA) for the helps during the field work in KF area in different ways. Literature Cited Ashton, M., C. V. S Gunatileke, N. De Zoysa, M. D. Dassanayake, N. Gunatileke and S. Wijesundara, 1997. A field guide to the common trees and shrubs of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo: 432. Bahir, M. M. and K. P. Maduwage, 2005. Calotes desilvai, a new species of agamid lizard from Morningside Forest, Sri Lanka. In: Yeo, D. C. J., P. K.

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de Silva, A., 2006. Current status of the Reptiles of Sri Lanka. In: Bambaradeniya, C. N. B. (Ed.). Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. IUCN Sri Lanka: 134-163. de Silva, P. H. D. H., 1980. Snakes Fauna of Sri Lanka, with special reference to skull, dentition and venom in snakes. The National Museums of Sri Lanka: 472. Giri, V. and N. Chaturvedi, 2001. Preliminary survey of the Herpetofauna in the Western Ghats region of Maharashtra. Tigerpaper, 8 (2): 1-7. Greer, A. E., 1991. Lankascincus, a new genus of Scincid lizards from Sri Lanka with descriptions of three new species. Journal of Herpetology, 25 (1): 59-64. Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N., P. B. Karunaratne and C. V. S. Gunatilleke, 1995. Status of natural habitats in relation to the Herpetofauna of Sri Lanka. Lyriocephalus, 2 (1&2): 71-80. Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N. and C. V. S. Gunatilleke, 1990. Distribution of Floristic Richness and its Conservation in Sri Lanka. Conservation Biology, 4 (1): 21-31. Gunawardene, N. R., A. E. D. Daniels, I. A. U. N. Gunatilleke, C. V. S. Gunatilleke, P. V. Karunakaran, K. G. Nayak, S. Prasad, P. Puyravaud, B. R. Ramesh, K. A. Subramanian and G. Vasanthy, 2007. A brief overview of the Western Ghats–Sri Lanka biodiversity Hotspot. Current Science, 93 (11): 1567-1572. IUCN SL, 2000. The 1999 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. Colombo, IUCN Sri Lanka: 113. IUCN SL, 2005. Marine turtle conservation strategy and action plan for Sri Lanka. Department of Wildlife Conservation and IUCN Sri Lanka: 79. IUCN SL & MENR, 2007. The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka: 148. Jayaneththi, H. B. and H. G. S. Maduranga, 2004. A preliminary study on the diversity of Ichthyofauna of Kukulugala proposed forest reserve, Ratnapura district. Sri Lanka Naturalist, 6 (1&2): 17-23. Karunarathna, D. M. S. S. and A. A. T. Amarasinghe, 2007. A study of the Reptilian faunal diversity in Kukulugala isolated hill forest, Ratnapura District in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the 12th International

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Forestry and Environment Symposium, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka: 24-25. Karunarathna, D. M. S. S., U. T. I. Abeywardena, A. A. T. Amarasinghe, D. G. R. Sirimanna and M. D. C. Asela, 2008. Amphibian faunal diversity of Beraliya Mukalana Proposed Forest Reserve. Tigerpaper, 35 (2): 12-16. Karunarathna, D. M. S. S., D. H. P. U. Silva, H. T. A. P. Peiris, M. D. C. Asela, U. T. I. Abeywardena, A. A. D. A. Udayakumara, D. G. R. Sirimanna and W. C. C. Soysa, 2004. Two new sightings of Liopeltis calamaria (Reptilia: Colubridae) from Sri Lanka. Loris, 23 (5&6): 23-26. Maduwage, K., A. Silva, K. Manamendra-Arachchi and R. Pethiyagoda, 2009. A taxonomic revision of the South Asian hump-nosed pit vipers (Squamata: Viperidae: Hypnale). Zootaxa, 2232: 1–28. Manamendra-Arachchi, K. and R. Pethiyagoda, 2005. The Sri Lankan shrub-frogs of the genus Philautus Gistel, 1848 (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae) with description of 27 new species. In: Yeo, D. C. J., P. K. L. Ng, and R. Pehiyagoda (Eds.). Contribution to Biodiversity Exploration and Research in Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement 12: pp. 163-303. Manamendra-Arachchi, K., S. Batuwita and R. Pethiyagoda, 2007. A taxonomic revision of the Sri Lanka Day-geckos (Reptilia: Gekkonidae: Cnemaspis), with description of new species from Sri Lanka and Southern India. Zeylanica, 7 (1): 9-122. Meegaskumbura, M., F. Bossuyt, R. Pethiyagoda, K. Manamendra-Arachchi, M. M. Bahir, M. C. Milinkovitch and C. J. Schneider, 2002. Sri Lanka: an amphibian hotspot. Science, 298: 379. Meegaskumbura, M., K. Manamendra-Arachchi, C. J. Schneider and R. Pethiyagoda, 2007. New species amongst Sri Lanka’s extinct shrub frogs (Amphibia: Rhacophoridae: Philautus). Zootaxa, 1397: 1-15. Senanayake, F. R., M. Soule and J. W. Senner, 1977. Habitat values and endemicity in the vanishing rainforest of Sri Lanka. Nature, 265: 351-354. Senaratna, L. M., 2001. A Check List of the Flowering Plants of Sri Lanka, National Science Foundation, Sri Lanka: 342. Sirimanna, D. G. R., 2005. An Avifaunal study of the Kukulugala proposed forest reserve, Ratnapura District, Sri Lanka. Loris, 24 (1&2): 29-32.

Tan, B. C., 2005. New species records of Sri Lanka Mosses. In: Yeo, D. C. J., P. K. L. Ng, and R. Pethiyagoda (Eds.). Contribution to Biodiversity Exploration and Research in Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement 12: 5-8. Van Rooijen, J. and G, Vogel, 2008. An investigation into the taxonomy of Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803): revalidation of Dipsas schokari (Kuhl, 1820) (Serpentes, Colubridae). Contributions to Zoology, 77 (1): 33-43. Vidal, N., J. C. Rage, A. Couloux and S. B. Hedges, 2009. Snakes (Serpentes). In: Hedges, S.B. and S. Kum (Eds.). The Timetree of Life. Oxford University Press. 390-397. Vogel, G. and P. David, 2006. On the taxonomy of the Xenochrophis piscator complex (Serpentes, Natricidae). In: Vences, M., J. Köhler, T. Ziegler and W. Böhme (Eds.). Herpetologia Bonnensis II, Proceedings of the 13th Congress of the Societas Europaea Herpetologica, 13: 241-246. Wickramasinghe, L. J. M. and R. K. Somaweera, 2003. Distribution and Current Status of the Endemic Geckos of Sri Lanka. Gekko 3 (1): 2-13. Wickramasinghe L. J. M. and D. A. I. Munindradasa, 2007. Review of the genus Cnemaspis Strauch, 1887 (Sauria: Gekkonidae) in Sri Lanka, with the description of five new species. Zootaxa, 1490: 1-63. Wickramasinghe L. J. M., R. K. Rodrigo, N. Dayawansa and U. L. D. Jayantha, 2007. Two new species of Lankascincus (Squamata: Scincidae) from Sripada Sanctuary (Peak Wilderness), in Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 1612: 1-24. Wijesinghe, M. R. and P. N. Dayawansa, 2002. The amphibian fauna at two altitudes in the Sinharaja rainforest, Sri Lanka. Herpetological Journal, 12: 175-178.

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Table 1: Description of the habitat types in three study areas of KF in Ratnapura District, Sri Lanka [Based on the Ashton et al. (1997); Gunatilleke & Gunatilleke (1990) and Senaratna (2001)].

Study Area Description of Habitat

Lower area of KF (below 200m)

Mixed cropping with woody and non woody plants like Mangifera indika, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Dipterocarpus sp., Chaetocarpus sp., Myristica sp. and Cinnamomun sp. trees growing up to 25 m, shade is about 60%, and leaf litter content is high and moderatelywet. Among the most abundant understorey tree species are Garcinia spp and Gyrinopsspp. In the lowland forest area of KF are perennial flowing water bodies, 1m to 10m wide.Home garden also included rarely.

Middle area of KF (between 200m–400m)

Plants such as Dipterocarpus sp., Chaetocarpus sp., Mesua sp., Myristica sp., Shorea sp. and Calophyllum sp. trees very dominant, growing up to 40 m, shade is about 80%, and leaflitter content is very high and wet. Flowing water bodies, 1m to 4m wide, visibility high,and turbidity low. Large rock boulder areas with seasonally moist cascade habitats

Upper area of KF (above 400m)

Plants such as Strobilanthes sp. are very dominant. Rock boulders and grassy areas with seasonally moist cascade habitats. Shade is 30% with small trees. Bushes and trees 1m to5m tall are randomly distributed on open soil. Bamboo species along with those ofEriocaulon sp. and Osbeckia sp. are also common in the open grasslands near rocky outcrops. Leaf litter content is very low and dry, flowing water bodies, 1m or 2 m wide

Table 2: Checklist of the reptile fauna recorded from KF. (Abbreviation: TR – threatened / † endemic genus / * endemic species / VR – very rare / R – rare / UC – uncommon / C – common / VC – very common) species. (Source: IUCN, 2000; IUCN & MENR, 2007).

Family and Scientific Name

Common Name

Status IUCN (2000)

Status IUCN & MENR

(2007)

Total Individualswith %

Species Abundance

Tortoises and Turtles

Bataguridae Melanochelys trijuga Black Turtle TR 13 (1.83) C Trionychidae

Lissemys punctata Flapshell Turtle TR VU 11 (1.55) C Lizards

Agamidae Calotes calotes Green Garden Lizard 24 (3.38) VC Calotes liolepis Whistling Lizard * TR VU 3 (0.42) R Calotes versicolor Common Garden Lizard 31 (4.37) VC Ceratophora aspera Rough Horn Lizard *† TR EN 3 (0.42) R Lyriocephalus scutatus Hump Snout Lizard *† TR 5 (0.70) R Otocryptis wiegmanni Sri Lankan kangaroo Lizard * TR 13 (1.83) C

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Gekkonidae

Cnemaspis molligodai Molligoda’s Day Gecko * 18 (2.54) VC Cnemaspis silvula Lowland Day Gecko* EN 29 (4.09) VC Geckoella triedrus Spotted Bowfinger gecko * TR 2 (0.28) VR Gehyra mutilata Four-Claw Gecko 11 (1.55) C Hemidactylus parvimaculatus Spotted House Gecko 38 (5.36) VC Hemidactylus depressus Kandyan Gecko * TR 10 (1.41) UC Hemidactylus frenatus Common House Gecko 22 (3.10) VC Hemiphyllodactylus typus Slender Gecko EN 3 (0.42) R Lepidodactylus lugubris Scaly Finger Gecko EN 7 (0.98) UC Scincidae

Lankascincus fallax Common Lanka Skink *† 56 (7.90) VC Lankascincus gansi Gans's Lanka Skink *† TR 6 (0.84) UC Lygosoma punctatus Dotted Skink 16 (2.25) VC Eutropis carinata Common Skink 18 (2.54) VC Eutropis macularia Bronzegreen Little Skink 10 (1.41) UC Nessia burtonii Threetoe Snake Skink *† TR 3 (0.42) R Varanidae

Varanus bengalensis Land Monitor 12 (1.69) C Varanus salvator Water Monitor 8 (1.12) UC Snakes

Pythonidae Python molurus Indian Python TR 13 (1.83) C Typhlopidae

Ramphotyphlops braminus Common Blind Snake 24 (3.38) VC Cylindrophidae

Cylindrophis maculatus Sri Lanka Pipe Snake * TR 10 (1.41) UC Colubridae

Ahaetulla nasuta Green Vine Snake 16 (2.25) VC Ahaetulla pulverulenta Brown Vine Snake 2 (0.28) VR Boiga ceylonensis Sri Lanka Cat Snake 6 (0.84) UC Boiga forsteni Forsten’s Cat Snake 4 (0.56) R Cercaspis carinatus The Sri Lanka Wolf Snake *† TR VU 11 (1.55) C Chrysopelea ornata Ornate Flying Snake TR 1 (0.14) VR Coelognathus helena Trinket Snake 19 (2.68) VC Dendrelaphis bifrenalis Boulenger’s Bronze Back * 7 (0.98) UC Dendrelaphis caudolineolatus Gunther’s Bronze Back VU 4 (0.56) R Dendrelaphis schokari Common Bronze Back 15 (2.11) C Liopeltis calamaria Gunther's Reed Snake VU 1 (0.14) VR Lycodon aulicus Common Wolf Snake 13 (1.83) C

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Lycodon osmanhilli Flowery Wolf Snake * TR 9 (1.27) UC Oligodon arnensis Common Kukri Snake 11 (1.55) C Oligodon calamarius Templeton’s Kukri Snake * TR VU 5 (0.70) R Oligodon sublineatus Dumerul’s Kuki Snake * TR 5 (0.70) R Ptyas mucosa Common Rat Snake 28 (3.95) VC Sibynophis subpunctatus Jerdon’s Polyodent 10 (1.41) UC Natricidae

Amphiesma stolatum Buff Striped Keelback 13 (1.83) C Aspidura guentheri Ferguson’s Roughside *† TR 4 (0.56) R Atretium schistosum Olive Keelback Watersnake 14 (1.97) C Balanophis ceylonensis Sri Lanka Keelback *† TR VU 3 (0.42) R Xenochrophis asperrimus Sri Lanka checkered Keelback * TR 16 (2.25) VC Xenochrophis cf. piscator Checkered Keelback * 12 (1.69) C Elapidae

Bungarus ceylonicus Sri Lankan Krait * TR 3 (0.42) R Naja naja Common Cobra 22 (3.10) VC Viperidae

Hypnale hypnale Merrem’s Hump Nosed Viper 11 (1.55) C Hypnale zara Lowland Hump Nosed Viper * 5 (0.70) UC Trimeresurus trigonocephalus Green Pit Viper * TR 7 (0.98) UC Daboia russelli Russell’s Viper 12 (1.69) C

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TWO NEW MELIOLACEAE MEMBERS FROM KERALA, INDIA Sectional Editor: Kevin Hyde Submitted: 14 February 2011, Accepted: 22 April 2011

V.B. Hosagoudar* and A. Sabeena Tropical Botanic Garden & Research Institute, Palode - 695 562, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India * E-mail: [email protected] Abstract This paper gives an account of two new species, namely, Asteridiella sebastianiae and Meliola gluticola, infecting leaves of Sebastiania chamaelea and Gluta travancorica. Both these fungal species are new and are described, illustrated and compared with most similar taxa. Key words: New species, fungi, Asteridiella, Meliola, Sebastiania chamaelea, Gluta travancorica Introduction During a survey of the foliicolous fungi of Garden plants in Kerala State, Sebastiania chamaelea and Gluta travancorica were found infected with black mildew fungi. Critical examination of these fungi revealed that both are hitherto undescribed species of the genera Asteridiella and Meliola. Part of the collections has been deposited in Herbarium Cryptogamae Indiae Orientalis (HCIO), New Delhi as isotypes. Taxonomy 1. Asteridiella sebastianiae Hosagoudar, Sabeena et

Jacob-Thomas, sp. nov. (Fig. 1) Coloniae amphigenae, tenues, ad 2 mm diam., confluentes. Hyphae subrectae, flexuosae vel anfractuae, opposite vel unilateralis acuteque vel laxe ramosae, cellulae 20-50 x 6-9 µm. Appressoria

alternata vel unilateralis, antrorsa, subantrorsa vel retrorsa, recta to curvula, 18-29 µm longa; cellulae basilares cylindraceae vel cuneatae, 4-9 µm longae; cellulae apicales ovatae, globosae, integrae, angularis, 13-20 x 9-13 µm. Phialides appressoriis intermixtae, alternatae vel oppositae, ampulliformes, 15-24 x 6-9 µm. Perithecia globosa, dispersa, ad 172 µm in diam.; cellulae peritheciales conoideae, ad 26 µm longae; ascosporae oblongae, ellipsoideae vel cylindraceae, 4-septatae, constrictus ad septatae, 31-37 x 9-13 µm. Colonies amphigenous, thin, up to 2 mm in diameter, confluent. Hyphae substraight, flexuous to crooked, branching opposite to unilateral at acute to wide angles, cells 20-50 x 6-9 µm. Appressoria alternate to unilateral, antrorse, subantrorse to

TAPROBANICA, ISSN 1800-427X. October, 2010. Vol. 02, No. 02: pp. 95-96, 1 pl. © Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 146, Kendalanda, Homagama, Sri Lanka.

TWO NEW MELIOLACEAE MEMBERS FROM KERALA, INDIA


retrorse, straight to curved, 18-29 µm long; stalk cells cylindrical to cuneate, 4-9 µm long; head cells ovate, globose, entire, angular, 13-20 x 9-13 µm. Phialides mixed with appressoria, alternate to opposite, ampulliform, 15-24 x 6-9 µm. Perithecia globose, scattered, up to 172 µm in diameter; perithecial cells conoid, up to 26 µm long; ascospores oblong, ellipsoidal to cylindrical, 4-septate, constricted at the septa, 31-37 x 9-13 µm. Material examined: type On leaves of Sebastiania chamaelea (L.) Mull. (Euphorbiaceae); Cat. no. HCIO 48046; Loc. Tropical Botanic Garden & Research Institute (TBGRI) Campus, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India; Coll. A. Sabeena et al.; Date. 14-V-2007. Isotype, Cat. no. TBGT 2829 Asteridiella sebastianiae can be compared with Asteridiella phyllanthi (Deight.) Hansford, A. erythrococcae Hansford, A. hansfordii (Stev.) Hansford var. densa (Hansford & Deight.) Hansford, A. macarangicola Hosagoudar and A. wayanadensis Hosagoudar et al. (Biju et al., 2005; Hansford, 1961; Hosagoudar, 1996 & 2008; Hosagoudar & Agarwal, 2008) having the beeli formula 3101. 3220. However, it differs from A. phyllanthii, A. hansfordii var. densa, A. macarangicola and A. combeensis in having distinctly narrow ascospores (9-13 µm against 16-18 µm). It differs from A. erythrococcae in having entire head cells of the appressoria in contrast to angulose to sublobate. Asteridiella sebastianiae also differs from A. wayanadensis in having longer, antrorse to retrorse appressoria. This is the first report of meliolaceous fungi on this host genus.

2. Meliola gluticola V. B. Hosagoudar and A. Sabeena sp. nov. (Fig. 2)

Coloniae amphigenae, plerumque hypophyllae, tenues, ad 4 mm diam., confluentes. Hyphae rectae vel subrectae, opposite acuteque vel laxe ramosae, cellulae 13-20 x 6-9 µm. Appressoria alternata, dense posita, antrorsa vel subantrorsa, 15-20 µm longa; cellulae basilares cylindraceae vel cuneatae, 2-6 µm longae; cellulae apicales ovatae, integrae, 13-15 x 6-9 µm. Phialides appressoriis intermixtae, alternatae vel oppositae, ampulliformes, 15-22 x 6-9 µm. Setae myceliales simplices, rectae, ad apicem acutae vel obtusae, ad 330 µm longae. Perithecia dispersa, ad 110 µm diam.; ascosporae cylindraceae, 4-septatae, constrictus ad septatae, 39-44 x 15-17 µm.

Colonies amphigenous, mostly hypophyllous, thin, upto 4 mm in diameter, confluent. Hyphae, straight to substraight, branching opposite at acute to wide angles, cells 13-20 x 6-9 µm. Appressoria alternate, closely arranged on the hyphae antrorse to subantrorse, 15-20 µm long; stalk cells cylindrical to cuneate, 2-6 µm long; head cells ovate, entire, 13-15 x 6-9 µm. Phialides mixed with appressoria, alternate to opposite, ampulliform, 15-22 x 6-9 µm. Mycelial setae simple, straight, acute to obtuse at the tip, up to 330 µm long. Perithecia scattered, up to 110 µm in diameter; ascospores cylindrical, 4-septate, constricted at the septa, 39-44 x 15-17µm. Material examined: type On leaves of Gluta travancorica L. (Anacardiaceae); Cat. no. HCIO 48337; Loc. TBGRI Campus, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India; Coll. A. Sabeena et al.; Date. 10-X-2007. Isotype, Cat. no. TBGT 3058 Gluta travancorica L. is an endemic plant and Meliola glutae is known to infect this plant (Hosagoudar, 1996 & 1998; Hosagoudar & Agarwal, 2008; Hosagoudar et al., 1997). However, differs from it in having regularly antrorse to subantrorse appressoria with ovate to oblong and entire head cells. The colonies of both these species were mixed together but can be easily distinguished based on the above characters. Acknowledgement We thank the Director (TBGRI) for providing facilities. Literature Cited Biju, C. K., V. B. Hosagoudar and T. K. Abraham, 2005. Meliolaceae of Kerala, India – XV. Nova Hedwigia, 80: 465-502. Hansford, C. G., 1961. The Meliolineae. A Monograph. Sydowia Beih. 2: 806. Hosagoudar, V. B., 1996. Meliolales of India. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta: 363. Hosagoudar, V. B., 2008. Meliolales of India. Vol. II. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta: 390. Hosagoudar, V. B. and D. K. Agarwal, 2008. Taxonomic studies of Meliolales. Identification Manual. International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun: 263. Hosagoudar, V. B., T. K. Abraham and P. Pushpangadan, 1997. The Meliolineae - A Supplement. Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India: 201.


SOCIAL BEHAVIOURS OF CAPTIVE Hylobates moloch (PRIMATES: HYLOBATIDAE) IN THE JAVAN GIBBON RESCUE AND REHABILITATION CENTER, GEDE-PANGRANGO NATIONAL PARK, INDONESIA Sectional Editor: Colin Groves Submitted: 14 February 2011, Accepted: 08 March 2011

Niki K. Amarasinghe1,2 and A. A. Thasun Amarasinghe1,3 1 Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 146, Kendalanda, Homagama, Sri Lanka E-mails: 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected] Abstract Hylobates moloch, Silvery Gibbon occure on the Java island (in the western half of Java), Indonesia. This study presents preliminary data on social behaviours for Silvery Gibbon in captivity. All the individuals had an average active period from 6:30 hr to 16:00 hr (total 9.5 hours). Resting behaviour had the highest percentage (57.05% ± 0.45), followed by movement (21.99% ± 0.14), feeding ( 15.73% ± 0.34), courtship (5.16% ± 0.03), calling (2.35% ± 0.02), social behaviours (1.6% ± 0.09), agonistic behaviours (0.37 % ± 0.01), and copulation (0.05% ± 0.01). Gibbons showed two peaks of feeding, from 06:35 to 07:30 and from 14:35 to 15:30. Gibbons in the JGC made two types of calls: male solo and female solo calls. Males had a lower time budget for calling behaviour than females. All the gibbons showed four types of locomotor behaviours: brachiating, climbing, jumping (including ricocheting) and bipedal. The most frequent locomotor behaviour was brachiation type. All individuals in the study groups showed autogrooming. Courtship included approach, follow, and contact behavior. The copulation position was dorso-ventral. Stages of copulation consisted of intromission, pelvis thrusting, ejaculation, and dismounting except mounting. Keywords: Silvery gibbon, feeding, calling, locomotor, resting, affiliative Introduction The family Hylobatidae in Indonesia consists of 7 species (Geissmann, 1995; Geissmann et al., 2000; Groves, 2001, 2005): the White Handed Gibbon (Hylobates lar), Black Handed Gibbon (Hylobates

agilis) and Siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus) in Sumatra; the Kelawat Gibbon (Hylobates muelleri) and White bearded Gibbon (Hylobates albibarbis) in Kalimantan; the so-called "Dwarf Siamang" or


SOCIAL BEHAVIOURS OF CAPTIVE Hylobates moloch


Kloss Gibbon (Hylobates klossii) in the Mentawai Islands; and the Silvery Gibbon (Hylobates moloch) in the western half of Java. Of the latter, most of the remaining populations are in the province of West Java (Asquith et al., 1995; Groves, 2001; Kappeler, 1984), but a few populations remain in the Central Java (Nijman, 1995, 2004). Adult Silvery Gibbons have a grayish body, and the eyebrows and the region around the mouth are white (Burton, 1995; Groves, 2001). They are sexually monomorphic in pelage, cranial, dental and skeletal characters, except that males have darker hair in the genital area (Burton, 1995; Napier & Napier, 1985). Gibbons of most or all species are thought to reach sexual maturity at about 6 to 8 years of age (Geissmann, 1991). The adults live as solitary individuals or in pairs, and mated pairs defend territories. In this monogamous mating system, in which an adult male is paired with one adult female (Reichard, 1995), the pair bond has been supposed to be life-long, ending with one partner’s death, although in studies of H.lar, H.agilis and S.syndactylus the situation has proved to be much more complex (Palombit, 1994). They are mostly arboreal, living generally at a height of 20 - 25m (Nijman, 2001). As specialised frugivores, they eat more fruits (61%) than shoots and young leaves (38%), and flower buds (1%), and they consume some types of insects such as termites (Kappeler, 1981; McConkey & Chivers, 2007). Within and among groups they communicate through a series of long calls (songs). The song types produced by mated gibbons differ among the species (Geissmann, 1995, 2002). Silvery Gibbon females and males sing different solo songs, but not duet songs as do some other hylobatids (Geissmann & Nijman, 2006). They also have various species-specific threat calls and group calls. The Silvery Gibbon is Critically Endangered (IUCN, 2010; Supriatna et al., 2010). Habitat loss and fragmentation, habitat degradation, hunting (food, medicine, and sport), and illegal trade (pets, medicine) are the top four threats (Geissmann, 2003; Supriatna, 2006; Supriatna et al., 2010). Because of this, vigorous rescue and rehabilitation programs are needed. Only a handful of researchers have made comprehensive studies on the behavioural ecology of wild Silvery Gibbons, and their behaviour in captivity has not been investigated.

Materials and Methods Study area: The Javan Gibbon Centre (JGC) is situated at 6o 46’ 28.8” S and 106o 50’ 24.0” E, approximately 56 km away from Bogor and 150 km from Jakarta in Bodogol Resort, Section II of Bogor Conservation Area, Mt. Gede Pangrango National Park, at a mean elevation of 750 m above sea level in the highland wet zone of Java. Its area is approximately 2.5 ha. The JGC receives 500 mm mean annual rainfall, with a mean annual temperature ranging from approximately 18 oC to 32 oC; it includes several habitat types that can be categorized as man-made small grasslands, scrublands, several small ponds, home gardens and large shady trees (i.e. Agathis damaraa, Calliandra callothyrsus). Study group: Twelve one-male/one-female separate pairs (PA-L) of Silvery Gibbons were studied at the JGC (see Table 1). Each couple resided in a triangular prism-shaped 7x7x7x9 m naturalistic outdoor enclosure during the whole day. The enclosure includes a place to rest for each individual, two food containers, a drink container, saplings on the bottom of the cage, and exercise facilities such as bamboo, rope and old tires for swinging. At the beginning of the study, they were twelve adult males (MA-L) and twelve adult females (FA-L); accordingly, data for twenty four individuals were entered into the analysis. Individual identifications were based on the thickness of the eyebrows, the eye rings and the white muzzle, as well as the brightness of the colour in the depigmented skin area on the belly. One female (FM) was placed with ML to replace FL by the JGC, at the end of the study the group had thirteen females. Afterwards FL lived alone. Also in PK there was an infant (I) with FK, which was born before the study. JGC has six stages of rehabilitation of the gibbons from receiving the individual to post-release in the forest: (1) quarantine, (2) socialization, (3) pairing, (4) soft release, (5) release, (6) monitoring. We studied behavior of gibbons in the pairing stage. All the males were between 6 and 12 years old and the females 5-18 year old. In four pairs, both were the same age, in five pairs the male was younger than female, and in three the male was the elder. Mean weight of individual males was 5-6 kg and females 5.2-5.3 kg. Data collection and analysis: The pairs were observed during all-day sessions from 5:00 hr to 17:00 hr from 10 July to 01 September 2009 (on each of the 54 calendar days). The total recording time was 1596 (133 hours/each pair) hours, and 3

AMARASINGHE & AMARASINGHE, 2010


observers participated in data collection. All behaviours were assessed via direct observation 4-8 m away from animals. Within the pair, focal animal observation time was identical per individual. Additional behaviours were noted whenever they were observed (ad libitum sampling method). All feeding, agonistic, locomotor, contact, self-directed and solitary behaviours and vocalization were included in the analysis. We determined the overall rates of each behaviour (N per individual observation hour). We calculated the percentage of each observed behaviour, and we here present the

time budget in the form of bar charts along with descriptive analysis. Results All the individuals had an average active period from 6:30 hr to 16:00 hr (total 9.5 hours). Resting behaviour had the highest percentage (57.05% ± 0.45), followed by movement (21.99% ± 0.14), feeding ( 15.73% ± 0.34), courtship (5.16% ± 0.03), calling (2.35% ± 0.02), social behaviours (1.6% ± 0.09), agonistic behaviours (0.37 % ± 0.01), and copulation (0.05% ± 0.01).

Table 1: Gibbons housed at the JGC with time budget for each pair

Pair No.

Male age (Yr.)

Female age (Yr.) Allogrooming Copulation Aggressive

behavior Affiliative behavior

Pairing time (months)

PA MA =11 FA =11 1.12 0 0.44 4.245 26 PB MB =9 FB =9 2.57 0 0.18 10.85 17 PC MC =10 FC =10 1.45 0.2 0 13.855 17 PD MD =9 FD =18 0.88 0.12 0 7.34 17 PE ME =10 FE =10 0.16 0.27 0.785 1.18 13 PF MF =9 FF =10 1.76 0 0 2.875 10 PG MG =7 FG =5 0 0 0.115 1.79 3 PH MH =8 FH =9 0.13 0 0 0.435 3 PI MI =7 FI =9 0.17 0 2.51 11.205 3 PJ MJ =6 FJ =7 2.96 0 0.035 4.805 1 PK

MK =12 FK =8 0 0 0.375 2.57 3

PL FL =9 0 0 0.03 1.41 0 Feeding behaviour: At 7:30 hr, 10:00 hr, 13:00 hr and at 15:30 hr, JGC staff feed the animals. At 7:30 and 13:00 they provide a mixture of fruits (mango, banana, papaw, pineapple, tamarind, apple, etc.), at 10:00 a mixture of vegetables, and at 15:30 peanuts. Gibbons did not respond equally to these feeding types, and showed two peaks of feeding, from 06:35 to 07:30 and from 14:35 to 15:30. Among these various foods their favorite is mango. There was a massive competition among the group to take foods. Five of the pairs did not feed at the time of receiving their last meal, but would eat it next day. All individuals consumed fruits faster than vegetables. At 7:30 hr, the gibbons would start to search for food in the cage. MG most often went to the floor of the cage to seek food, and both members of the pair PG spent more than 5% of the time seeking food in the bottom strata of the cage. The other pairs always used middle strata of the cage when seeking food. Each individual maintained ownership of certain food containers and ate only from his/her own container without moving far after the staff filled

the containers. When they ate, they were quiet, making no noise. Pairs PA to PH showed food sharing cooperative behavior while eating, while the other four pairs exhibited agonistic behaviours toward their partners. The mean percentage of time males and females spent on each activity was approximately the same. Calling behaviour: Calling started at 5:30 and reached a peak at 8:35 to 09:30. Again at 12:35 they started to call, and reaching a peak at 15:35 to 16:30. When they were calling they used the top strata of the cage. Gibbons in the JGC made two types of calls: male solo and female solo calls. All the females made solo calls apart from FH, accounting for PH’s had low time budget of calling behaviour. PJ also showed a low time budget of calling behaviour. During the study, threat call behaviour was not observed even though several stimuli, such as Javan hawk-eagle (Spizaetus bartelsi) and leopard (Panthera pardus) in wild, triggered calls or defensive movements among other primate species at the JGC, such as long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis). FC and FE



often initiated solo calls together and continuously. Males had a lower time budget for calling behaviour than females. Locomotor and resting behaviour: All the gibbons showed four types of locomotor behaviours: brachiating, climbing, jumping (including ricocheting) and bipedal. The most frequent locomotor behaviour was brachiation type. FA, FC, FE, FF, FG, FK and FL would brachiate while reaching the peak of their solo calls, whereas five other females including FL tended to be quiet. Resting behaviour reached a peak at 10:35 to 11:30, and increased again at 13:30 and then continued until the afternoon siesta and then woke up again later. The high percentage of time allocated to resting was apparently caused by the high availability of food; they tended to wait until feeding instead of searching for food themselves. The gibbons would always select a place high up in the cage to sleep, and PB, PC and PE were always together in their shelter during sleep. While resting, a sitting position was most common. In pair PL, the time budget did not show any significant difference after FL was replaced with FM (Fig. 1), but the new pair PM allocated less time to resting behavior compared to the previous PL, and vice versa for locomotor behaviour, evidently exhibiting some territorial behaviours towards each other. Fig. 1: Frequency changes after replacing FL with FM Affiliative behaviour: (see Figs. 2 & 3) from 05:30 until 13:35, reached a peak at 10:35 to 11:30, we would observe affiliative and play. All individuals in the study groups showed autogrooming. Play behaviour encountered during the research period included both object play and locomotor play. Object play included the use of branches, fruit, and stones. Locomotor play involved a jump in place and/or swinging. Only FB, ME, MF, FF, FG, FI and FL

exhibited play behaviour. Sexual behaviour was observed after 05:30 and reached peaks at 10:35 to 11:30 and again at 13:35 to 14:30; these were mainly courtship and copulation. Males and females showed the same time budget for affiliative behaviours while females act as perpetrators and males receivers. Courtship included approach, follow, and contact behaviour in PB, PC, PD, PF, PJ and PL. Contact behaviour was generally took the form of an individual resting together or each individual performing autogrooming. A common social behaviour consisted of the pair kissing each other's body, starting from the head and continuing dorsally. Allogrooming occurred in all pairs except PG, PK and PL. Females more often initiated allogrooming, and males received grooming and returned the favour. Grooming was not seen in pair PK, even in MK. Only three of twelve pairs copulated: PC (0.2%), PD (0.4%), and PE (0.3%). Fig. 2: frequency in affiliative & aggressive behavours Fig. 3: Time budget in allo-grooming and copulation The copulation position was dorso-ventral. PD and PI often copulated from 09:00 to 11:00, while PC did so from 14:00 to 15:00. Some copulation stages occurred without the usual preceding locking of the male to the female body (i.e., without mounting). Stages of copulation consisted of intromission, pelvis thrusting, ejaculation, and dismounting except mounting. Females showed genitals to attract males to come closer. FE kissed the body and

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then ME showed intromission and pelvic thrusting. Pelvic thrusting was observed by naked eyes, so, it was difficult to confirm ejaculation had happen. However hairs around female genital were wet and male was licking the vagina to clean. End of the study we observed FC and FE was pregnant. Discussion The total active period of 9.5 hours per day is consistent with other reports (e.g., Leighton 1986) that the active period for Hylobatidae in the wild is 8 to 10 hours. In JGC, pairs were kept in cages of 7x7x7x9 m, whereas in the wild Silvery Gibbons have an average home range of 17 ha (Supriatna, 2006). Since Kappeler (1981) recorded sleeping trees concentrated in a small portion of the home range and few in the periphery, we believe the cage conditions may directly affect the daily activity patterns. Also, inhabiting an artificially limited space results in decreasing the time budget of movement behaviours (Ravasi, 2004). In this study, locomotor behaviour increased from 05:30 until around 08:35 to 09:30, with a second peak at 13:35 to 14:30. This pattern overlaps with the locomotor pattern in the wild as described by Ravasi (2004). Since females play a wider role in guarding the home range by calling, female Silvery Gibbons allocate more time to calling than the males (Geissmann et al., 2005); this was also shown in this study. Long-distance sound transmission by forest-dwelling animals increases with height above the ground, intensity (loudness), and calling at dawn or dusk (Marten et al., 1977). This explains, at least in part, why primate groups, including female Silvery Gibbons, give loud morning calls around dawn, before they leave the sleeping tree (Kappeler, 1984). Nijman (2001) mentioned that Silvery Javan Gibbon females will reduce the frequency of calling while they are taking care of infants, a probable explanation for the very low time budget allocated to calling by FK, the only female with an infant. The peak time of feeding behaviour in JGC was obviously closely associated with feeding time by the staff, but the feeding peak found in this study overlaps with that of wild populations described by Iskandar (2007), who reported that even wild populations feed throughout the day. In the study, five pairs retained sweet potatoes until next morning –a rare observation of food cacheing in gibbons– possibly, we speculate, in anticipation of the high energy requirements in the morning to start the daily activities. As in the wild population

(Farida & Harun, 2000; Kappeler, 1981), this group also consumed more fruits than any other food type. The time budget of feeding at JGC was lower than that of gibbons in the wild (Kleiman et al., 1996). Although wild gibbon populations do not seek food in the lower forest strata (Cheyne, 2004), one pair in this group utilized the bottom strata of the cage more than 5% of the time. We surmise from this that the gibbons perceived the non-risk of predation and adopted freer movements accordingly. This may also be the reason for not responding to predators’ calls, because wild Silvery Gibbons emit loud screams mixed with bursts of agitated movement in the presence of leopards (Kappeler, 1981). Reichard (1998) suggested that communal sleeping in one tree and/or a variable sleeping pattern perhaps reflects variation in predation pressure from pythons in different gibbon habitats, but, although this captive population was not subject to predation, they also slept communally. This suggests that communal sleeping has more of a social than an anti-predator basis. All the gibbons used the middle strata when they ate; this was related to the location of the food container for each individual provided by JGC, yet, interestingly, even when the food container was absent, they used the middle strata for feeding. Although JGC provides similar food for each individual gibbon, adjusted for the number in each cage and their weights, many individuals were interested in their partners’ food. We see this food sharing as an indicator of pair bonding (cf. Koontz & Roush, 1996). Also, strongly bonded pairs showed less aggression during feeding, as also observed by Cheyne (2004). During the study period, neither gender dominated any of the behaviours (Fig. 4). This is consistent with sexually monomorphic primates not showing any tendency towards dominance by one particular gender (Jolly, 1972). Males and females therefore have equal opportunities to initiate affiliative behaviours. The reason for the lack of affiliative behaviours by FJ to MJ may have been that she was still caring for her infant. According to Becker et al. (1992), when lactation, follicular maturation and ovarian steroid production are inhibited and there is no or a low concentration of ovarian steroids, females do not exhibit sexual behaviours. MJ, however, also did not show any affiliative behaviours, possibly because the females who were in lactation had inhibited estrous cycles and this also affected their receptivity to males (Becker et al., 1992).

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Fig. 4: Frequency changes in behaviours with the gender According to data from JGC, PA and PB have been paired for more than one year, but during the study period we did not observe any copulation behavior (Fig. 1), and it may be that the female did not come into estrus. Copulation occurs when a female is characterised by attractiveness, proceptivity, and receptivity and stages of copulation consist of mounting, intromission, pelvis thrusting, ejaculation, and dismounting (Estep & Dewsbury, 1996). However the same publication mentioned silvery gibbon is a group of primates that do not perform mounting during copulation and we also did not observe any mounting stage. Courtship behaviour shows attractiveness and proceptivity in pairs that can initiate copulation when the female is receptive (Estep & Dewsbury, 1996), and PA and PB did perform courtship behaviour with a percentage of 8.49% and 10.85% respectively. We believe that a pairing period of less than one year may not be sufficient to create a strong bond between sexual partners, resulting in a low percentage of courtship of 0.43 to 1.79 %. Fig. 5: Frequency changes in behaviours with the time period

Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Professor Colin Groves for reviewing the manuscript and Lee Harding for providing valuable comments to improve the manuscript. The first author would like to express her gratitude to Noviar Andayani (UI) and Luthfiralda Sjahfirdi (UI) for supervision during the period that this work was undertaken for the bachelors degree program. We also express our sincere thanks to Anton Ario (JGC) and the staff Iip, Mulya, Chaerul, Sasmita, Irfan and Sufian who helped during the observations. Finally Mayang Sari, Yasman, Dadang Kusmana, Mufti Patria, Ellyzar Adil, Mega Atria and Jarot Arisona Pambudi are acknowledged for helping in diverse ways to enrich this work. Literature Cited Asquith, N. M., Martarinza and R. M. Sinaga, 1995. The Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch): status and conservation recommendations. Tropical biodiversity, 3: 1-14. Becker, J. B., S. M. Breedlove and D. Crews, 1992. Behavioral endocrinology. The MIT Press, Cambridge: 574. Burton, F., 1995. The multimedia guide to the non-human primates. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Ontario: vi + 298. Cheyne, S. M., 2004. Assesing rehabilitation and reintroduction of captive-raised gibbons in Indonesia. PhD Thesis. University of Cambridge, Cambridge: 231. Estep, D. Q. and D. A. Dewsbury, 1996. Mammalian reproductive behavior. In: Kleiman, D. G., M. E. Allen, K. V. Thompson and S. Lumpkin (Eds.). Wild mammals in captivity: Principles and techniques. University of Chicago Press, London: 379-389. Farida, W. R. and Harun, 2000. The diversity of plants as food resources for the javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch), grizzled langur (Presbytis comata) and silver langur (Trachypithecus auratus) in Gunung Halimun National Park. Journal of primatology, 3 (2): 55-61. Geissmann, T., 1991. Reassessment of age of sexual maturity in gibbons (Hylobates spp.). American Journal of Primatology, 23: 11-22. Geissmann, T., 1995. Gibbon systematics and species identification. International zoology News, 42: 467–501. Geissmann, T., 2002. Duet-splitting and the evolution of gibbon songs. Biology review, 77: 57-76.

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Geissmann, T., 2003. Symposium on Gibbon Diversity and Conservation: Concluding resolution. Asian Primates, 8 (3&4): 28-29. Geissmann, T. and V. Nijman, 2006. Calling in Wild Silvery Gibbons (Hylobates moloch) in Java (Indonesia): Behavior, Phylogeny, and Conservation. American Journal of Primatology, 68: 1-19 Geissmann, T., N. X. Dang, N. Lormée, F. Momberg, 2000. Vietnam primate conservation status review 2000—Part 1: Gibbons, Fauna and Flora International, Indochina Programme, Hanoi: Geissmann, T., S. Bohler-eyring and A. Heuck, 2005. The male song of the javan silvery gibbon (Hylobates moloch). Contributions to Zoology, 74: 1-25. Groves, C, 2001. Primate Taxonomy. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C.: 350. Groves, C. 2005. Mammal Species of the World, 3rd edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Iskandar, S., 2007. Perilaku dan penggunaan habitat kelompok Owa Jawa di hutan Rasamala Taman Nasional Gunung Gede-Pangrango. Skripsi Sarjana Biologi. Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam. Universitas Indonesia. Depok: 81. IUCN, 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 2010.4. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 01 January 2011. Jolly, A., 1972. The evolution of primate behavior, 2nd ed. Macmillan publishing company, Newyork: 526. Kappeler, M., 1981. The silvery gibbon (Hylobates lar moloch): Ecology and behavior. Disertation. Zoological Institute of Basel University, Switzerland: 69. Kappeler, M., 1984. Vocal bouts and territorial maintenance in the moloch gibbon. In: Preuschoft, H., D. J. Chivers, W. Y. Brockelman and N. Creel (Eds.). The lesser apes: evolutionary and behavioural biology. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press: 376-389. Kleiman, D. G., M. E. Allen, K. V. Thompson and S. Lumpkin, 1996. Wild mammals in captivity: Principles and technique. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago: 639. Koontz, F. W. and R. S. Roush, 1996. Communication and social behavior. In: Kleiman, D. G., M. E. Allen, K. V. Thompson and S. Lumpkin (Eds.). Wild mammals in captivity: Principles and techniques. University of Chicago Press, London: 334-343.

Leighton, D. N., 1986. Gibbons: territoriality and monogamy. In: Smuts, B. B., D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker (Eds.). Primate societies. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago: 135-145. McConkey, K. R. and D. J. Chivers, 2007. Influence of gibbon ranging patterns on seed dispersal distance and deposition site in a Bornean forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 23 (3): 269-275. Marten, K., D. Quine and P. Marler, 1977. Sound transmission and its significance for animal vocalization. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology, 2: 291-302. Napier, J. R. and P. H. Napier, 1985. The natural history of the primates. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Nijman, V., 1995. Remarks on the occurrence of gibbons in central Java. Primate Conservation, 16: 66-67. Nijman, V., 2001. Forest and primate conservation and ecology of the endemic primates of Java and Borneo. The Troponbos Kalimantan Series 5. Wageningen, Tropenbos: 232. Nijman, V., 2004. Conservation of the Javan gibbon Hylobates moloch: population estimates, local extinctions, and conservation priorities. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 52: 271-280. Palombit, R., 1994. Dynamic pair bonds in Hylobatids: implications regarding monogamous social system. Behavior, 128: 65-101. Ravasi, D., 2004. Phuket’s forest sings again. The Gibbon Rehabilitation Project, Phuket: 97+ii. Reichard, U., 1995. Extra-pair copulations in monogamous gibbon (Hylobates Lar). Ethology, 100: 99-112. Reichard, U., 1998. Sleeping Sites, Sleeping Places, and Presleep Behavior of Gibbons (Hylobates lar). American Journal of Primatology, 46: 35-62. Supriatna, J., 2006. Conservation programs for the endangered javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch). Primate Conservation Journal, 21: 155-162. Supriatna, J., A. Mootnick and N. Andayani, 2010. Javan Gibbon (Hylobates moloch): population and conservation. In: Gursky-Doyen, S. and J. Supriatna (Eds.). Indonesian Primates, developments in primatology: progress and prospects. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago: 57-72.

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Hemidactylus parvimaculatus Deraniyagala, 1953 (Reptilia: Gekkonidae) feeds on Ramanella variegata (Stoliczka, 1872) (Amphibia: Microhylidae) in Sri Lanka

The gecko genus Hemidactylus comprises seven species/sub-species in Sri Lanka (Bauer et al., 2010; Deraniyagala, 1953; Somaweera & Somaweera, 2009) and is thus the second largest gecko genus of the island. Here we record first observation of amphibian predation by H. parvimaculatus in an anthropogenic habitat in Sri Lanka. The observations were made in a human habitation at Puttalam (alt: 10 m, 8° 01’ 05.06” N, 79° 50’ 23.76” E) approximately 1 km away from Puttalam City in Puttalam District in Northwestern Province of Sri Lanka. Observations were made by naked eye, about 2 m away from the gecko from 18:40 hr to 19:00 hr. No disturbances were made to the animal during the time of observation. All measurements were taken to the nearest 0.1 mm using dial calipers. A fully grown mature male Hemidactylus parvimaculatus (SVL 55.6 mm, TL 68.2 mm) was observed on 28th April 2009 at about 18:40 hr. The entire day had been rainy. The gecko was lying on a wall, 180 cm above the ground level. At this time three Ramanella variegata microhylid frogs were also observed about 40 cm away from it. The gecko moved slowly towards the frogs and suddenly jumped forward and caught a frog’s head by its mouth at about 18:52 hr. However the other frogs did not show any reaction to this and remained adherent to the wall. Then the gecko dashed the prey twice on the wall and repeated this action thrice. It then swallowed the prey at about 18:58 hr. After two minutes the gecko moved away. The estimated prey size (SVL of the frog) of this gecko was 16 mm. Hence, the gecko (SVL 55.6 mm) can easily prey on this species. Some geckoes regurgitate prey when it is too large to swallow or if they feel uncomfortable after ingestion. However in this situation this gecko took the prey easily and

exhibited apparent experience with this prey type. Polypedatus maculatus, Hemidactylus frenatus are also sympatric in this microhabitat. In other predatory observations of geckos we did not observe such dashing behaviours to kill their prey. Sometimes geckos may use such additional methods to kill large prey, especially vertebrates, which, if not killed properly might make ingestion difficult or uncomfortable. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Mr. Saman Navaratne (IUCN – Sri Lanka) for the help during the observation. Literature Cited Bauer, A. M., T. R. Jackmann, E. Greenbaum, A. de Silva, V. B. Giri and I. Das. 2010. Molecular evidence for taxonomic status of Hemidactylus brookii group taxa (Reptilia: Gekkonidae). Herpetological Journal, 20: 129-138. Somaweera, R. and N. Somaweera. 2009. Lizards of Sri Lanka: A colour guide with field keys. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, Germany: 303. Deraniyagala, P. E. P., 1953. A Colored Atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon, Tetrapod Reptilia. Vol-2. National Museums of Sri Lanka, Colombo: 101.

Submitted: 07 October 2010, Accepted: 22 January 2010 Sectional Editor: Aaron Bauer

D. M. S. Suranjan Karunarathna1

A. A. Thasun Amarasinghe2

1 Nature Exploration & Education Team, B-1 / G-6, Soysapura, Moratuwa 10400, Sri Lanka

E-mail: [email protected]

Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 146, Kendalanda, Homagama, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected]

TAPROBANICA, ISSN 1800-427X. October, 2010. Vol. 02, No. 02: pp. 104. © Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 146, Kendalanda, Homagama, Sri Lanka.


Utilization of food plant species and abundance of hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus) in Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, India Utilization of food plant species and abundance of hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus) were studied between January 2009 and August 2010 in Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh (78° 55’ to 79° 35' E and 21° 8' to 22° N), India. This nature reserve is in the southern lower reaches of the Satpura Hill Range, on the southern border of Madhya Pradesh and covers an area of 758 km². According to Champion and Seth (1968) Pench Tiger Reserve is under both tropical dry and moist deciduous forest systems. Floristically, Pench is very rich and composed with 189 tree species, 138 shrubs, 452 herbs, 102 climbers, 10 epiphytes and parasites and 119 grasses and bamboos (Dungariyal, 2008). The year is broadly grouped into four major seasons: summer (March to June), monsoon (July to August), post monsoon (September to October) and winter (November to February). Temperature varies annually from 2 °C in winter to 49 °C in summer. The average rainfall is almost 1400 mm (Biswas and Sankar, 2002). Hanuman langur is listed as the least concern species in IUCN red list categories, CITES Appendix I and Schedule II in Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (India). We studied the utilization of different food plant species by hanuman langurs opportunistically in the study area. Overall, different plant parts of 50 plant species (Table 1) were utilized by hanuman langurs during the study period. Distance sampling by line transect method (Burnham et al., 1980; Buckland et al., 1993) was used to estimate approximate densities of Hanuman langurs in the intensive study area (410 km²). We walked a total of 44 line transects in both summer and winter (total effort 752.8 km/season). Each transect was walked early in the morning (Schaller,

1967; Jhala et al., 2008) and radial distance (using a laser range finder) and sighting angles (using a SUNTO compass) were recorded in each detection. DISTANCE version 5.0 was used to analyze the data. The results from line transects showed that densities of adult hanuman langurs were 73.8/km2 (SE ± 6.4) during winter and 91.2/km2 (SE ± 9.2) in summer (Table 2). Densities were multiplied by the study area (410 km2) to obtain populations of hanuman langur in winter 30347 (SE ± 2637) and in summer 37532 (SE ± 3790). Average troop size was 7.1 in winter and 8.7 in summer. On comparison with other studies of Indian sub-continent it is evident that Pench harbours a very high density of hanuman langur (Table 3).A combination of factors is responsible for their high abundance in Pench Tiger Reserve. First, they were found to be less preferred by large carnivore species found in the study area as compared to their availability (Biswas and Sankar, 2002). Second, the study area is dominated by fairly open canopy, mixed forest with considerable shrub cover interspersed with small open grassy patches. The relationship (Newton, 1989) between troop of hanuman langur and axis deer (Axis axis) may be one of the major reasons in such type of habitat for their less predation as the axis deer population is also high in Pench Tiger Reserve (Biswas and Sankar, 2002). Although, the study area is mostly tropical dry deciduous forest (Champion and Seth, 1968), not all plant species loose their leaves at the same time. Many plant species are in their deciduous phase in some parts of the study area while others remain in leaf. The langurs debarked some selectively soft-bark species such as Schleichera oleosa, Terminalia arjuna, Mitragyna parvifolia, Terminalia tomentosa, Lanea coromandelica, Boswellia serrata and Anogeissus latifolia. We have opportunistically found that sometimes hanuman langurs sitting on ground were very fond of the dry seeds of the Ougeinia dalbergioides tree. We also found, strangely, that hanuman langurs utilized not whole plants, but some portion such as the leaf apex of Butea


UTILIZATION OF FOOD PLANT SPECIES & ABUNDANCE OF HANUMAN LANGURS


monosperma, mid vein of the leaf of Terminalia tomentosa, fruit apex of Madhuca longifolia, and fruit apex of Syzygium cumini in summer. We observed langurs taking fresh bark of trees mostly during summer as ‘famine food’ to overcome food scarcity. Therefore, regular availabilities of resources in the study area and their hardy and highly adaptive nature (Raemakers, 1980; Marsh, 1981; Isbell, 1983; Bennett, 1986; Newton, 1992) may have enabled them to recruit though out the year in Pench. Acknowledgments We are extremely grateful to Madhya Pradesh Forest Department for granting permission for the research work “Ecology of Tiger” project. We also thank National Tiger Conservation Authority, India, Director and Dean, Wildlife Institute of India. Kuladeep Roy of Mysore University, Dr. Pankaj Sahane of WII and our field assistants Gurhanlal and Brijlal are also acknowledged for their support. Literature Cited Bagchi, S., S. P. Goyal, and K. Sankar, 2003. Prey abundance and prey selection by tigers (Panthera tigris) in a semi arid, dry deciduous forest in western India. Journal of Zoology, 260: 285-290. Bennett, E. L., 1986. Environmental correlates of ranging behaviour in the banded langur (Presbytis entellus). Folia Primatologica, 47: 26-38. Biswas, S. and K. Sankar, 2002. Prey abundance and food habit of tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) in Pench National Park, Madhya Pradesh, India. Journal of Zoology, 256: 411-422. Buckland, S. T., D. R. Anderson, K. P. Burnham and J. L. Laake, 1993. Distance Sampling; Estimating Abundance of Biological Populations. New York, Chapman and Hall: 446. Burnham, K. P., D. R. Anderson and J. L. Laake, 1980. Estimation of density from line transect sampling of biological populations. Wildlife Monograph, 72: 1-202.Champion, H. G. and S. K. Seth, 1968. A revised survey of the forest types of India. Manager of Publications, Govt.of India Press, New Delhi: 404. Dungariyal, N. S., 2008. Management Plan of Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh. Govt. of Madhya Pradesh Press: 233.

Edgaonkar, E., 2008. Ecology of The Leopard Panthera pardus in Bori Widllife Sanctuary and Satpura National Park, India. Phd Thesis. University of Florida: 135. Isbell, L. A., 1983. Daily ranging behaviour of red colobus (Colobus badius tephrosceles) in Kibale forest, Uganda. Folia Primatologica., 41: 34-48. Jathanna, D., 2001. Density, Biomass and Habitat Occupancy of Ungulates in Bhadra Tiger Reserve, Karnataka. Masters Dissertation. Saurashtra University, Rajkot. India: 71. Jhala, Y. V., R. Gopal and Q. Qureshi, 2008. Status of tigers, co-predators and prey in India. National Tiger Conservation Authority, Govt. of India, New Delhi and Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun, TR 08/001: 164. Johnsingh, A.J.T., 1983. Large mammalian prey-predator in Bandipur. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 80: 1-57. Marsh, C., 1981. Diet choice among red colobus (Colobus badius rufomitratus) on the Tana River, Kenya. Folia Primatologica, 35: 147-178. Newton, P. N., 1989. Associations between langur monkeys (Presbytis entellus) and chital deer (Axis axis): Chance encounters or a Mutualism? Ethology, 83 (2): 89-120. Newton P. N., 1992. Feeding and ranging patterns of forest Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus). Interanational Journal of Primatology, 13: 245-282. Raemakers, J. J., 1980. Causes of variation between months in the distance travelled daily by gibbons. Folia Primatologica, 34: 46-60. Ramesh, T., V. Snehalatha, K. Sankar and Q. Qureshi, 2009. Food habits and prey selection of tiger and leopard in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Scientific Transactions of Environment and Technovation, 2: 170-181. Schaller, G. B., 1967. The deer and the tiger. University of Chicago Press, Chicago: 370.

MAJUMDER ET AL., 2010


Table 1: Overall utilization of food plant species by hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus) in Pench Tiger Reserve, between January 2009 and August 2010 (for plant type, T=tree; C= climbers; G=grass; S=shrub and for season, S=summer; W=winter)

no Plant Species Family Plant type Season Plant parts utilized 1 Terminalia arjuna Combretaceae T S Young leaves and bark 2 Syzygium cumini Myrtaceae T S Young leaves and young flower 3 Bahunia vahlii Leguminosae C S Young flower 4 Diospyros melanoxylon Ebenaceae T S & W Ripe fruit and young leaves 5 Buchnania lanjan Anacardiaceae T S Young leaves, ripe and un ripe fruit 6 Ficus infectoria Moraceae T S & W Young leaves 7 Schleichera oleosa Sapindaceae T S & W Young leaves, ripe fruit and bark 8 Lanea coromandelica Anacardiaceae T S & W Young leaves, ripe fruit and latex 9 Ficus bengalensis Moraceae T S Young leaves and ripe fruit 10 Ougeinia dalbergioides Leguminosae T S Young leaves, flower, latex and dry seed 11 Lantana camara Verbenaceae S S & W Young leaves and young flower 12 Soymida febrifuga Meliaceae T S Young leaves 13 Albizzia procera Leguminosae T S Bark

14 Madhuca longifolia Sapotaceae T S & W Flower, young leaves, apex of un ripe fruit and bark

15 Butea monosperma Leguminosae T S & W Flower and young leaves 16 Mangefera indica Anacardiaceae T S Young leaves, flower and ripe fruit 17 Semecarpus anacardium Anacardiaceae T S Ripe fruit 18 Ficus glomerata Moraceae T S & W Young leaves 19 Lagerstroemia purviflora Lythraceae T S & W Young leaves 20 Acacia catechu Leguminosae T W Young leaves 21 Cynodon dactylon Poaceae G W Node and inter node, young leaves 22 Tamarindus indica Leguminosae T S Young leaves 23 Miliusa velutina Annonaceae T S Fruit, young leaves 24 Zizyphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae T S Ripe fruit 25 Dalbergia paniculata Leguminosae T S Young leaves 26 Mitragyna parvifolia Rubiaceae T S & W Young leaves and bark 27 Bombax ceiba Bombacaceae T S & W Flower 28 Ficus religiosa Moraceae T S Young leaves 29 Aegle marmelos Rutaceae T S Ripe fruit 30 Zizyphus xylopyra Rhmanaceae T W Young leaves and ripe fruit 31 Bauhinia racemosa Leguminosae T W Young leaves 32 Cleistanthus collinus Phyllanthaceae T S & W Young leaves 33 Terminalia tomentosa Combretaceae T S & W Young leaves 34 Cordia myxa Boraginaceae T S Ripe fruit 35 Stereospermum chelonoides Bignoniaceae T S Young leaves 36 Casia fistula Leguminosae T S & W Flower and ripe fruit 37 Gardenia latifolia Rubiaceae T S Flower, fruit and mature leaves 38 Ixora parviflora Rubiaceae T W Young leaves 39 Heteropogon contortus Poaceae G S & W Node and inter node 40 Anogeissus latifolia Combretaceae T S & W Young leaves and bark 41 Chloroxylon swietenia Rutaceae T W Young leaves 42 Pterocarpus marsupium Leguminosae T S & W Young leaves 43 Alangium lamarckii Alangiaceae T S Bark 44 Boswellia serrata Burseraceae T S & W Young leaves 45 Sterculia urens Sterculiaceae T S Latex 46 Adina cordifolia Rubiaceae T S & W Young leaves and ripe fruit 47 Datura metel Solanaceae S S Young leaves 48 Chloris virgata Poaceae G W Node and inter node 49 Hardwickia binnata Leguminosae T S & W Young leaves and bark 50 Emblica officinalis Euphorbiaceae T S & W Young leaves, ripe and unripe fruit

UTILIZATION OF FOOD PLANT SPECIES & ABUNDANCE OF HANUMAN LANGURS


Table 2: Seasonal variation of densities, populations and troop sizes of hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus) in Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh (January 2009 and August 2010)

Seasons Observations D±SE Population± SE Troop size % 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50

Winter 610 73.8±6.4 30347 ± 2637 78.2 18.6 3 0.2 0 Summer 795 91.2±9.2 37532 ± 3790 69.6 23.8 4.9 1.3 0.5

D: Individual density, SE: Standard Error Table 3: Densities of hanuman langurs compared with different study areas in the Indian sub-continent.

Location Forest type Density/km²

Bandipur1 Tropical dry deciduous 7.5

Pench2 Tropical dry and moist deciduous 77.2

Bhadra3 Tropical moist deciduous 22.6

Ranthambore4 Tropical thorn and dry deciduous 21.7

Bori-Satpura5 Tropical dry and moist deciduous 28.3

Mudumalai6 Tropical dry thorn, moist, dry deciduous and semi evergreen 25.9

Present study* Tropical dry and moist deciduous 82.5 1 – Johnsingh, 1983; 2 – Biswas and Sankar 2002; 3 – Jathanna, 2001; 4 – Bagchi et al., 2003 ; 5 – Edgaonkar, 2008; 6

Ramesh et al., 2009; * - Present study (Over all density).

Submitted: 06 March 2011, Accepted: 22 April 2011 Sectional Editor: Lee Harding

Aniruddha Majumder¹,² , Abinash Parida¹, K. Sankar1 and Qamar Qureshi1

1 Wildlife Institute of India, P.O, Box 18, DehraDun, 248001,Uttarakhand, India 2 Email: [email protected]

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Taprobanica (2010) Vol. 2. No. 2. Pages 65-108