ASSOCIATION AFFAIRS

Science Teaching in Elementaryand Junior High Schools

A study made by the AAAS, with the aid of a grantfrom the National Science Foundation, is reviewed by

the steering committee.

"It is not at all necessary that theaverage man should be acquaintedwith the latest theory of the universeor the newest hormone, but it is verynecessary that he should understand as

clearly as possible the purpose andmethods of science. This is the busi-ness of our schools, not simply of thecolleges but of all the schools from thekindergarten up."-GEORGE SARTON

There is urgent need for major im-provement in the science instructionoffered in elementary and junior highschools. In the hope of finding waysto effect this improvement, three con-

ferences of teachers and scientists, allsponsored by the AAAS but con-

ducted independently, recently consid-ered the following aspects of scienceinstruction: present practices andmaterials; recent efforts to create new

courses for senior high schools; andrecent experiments in teaching youngchildren.The conferences reached the follow-

ing conclusions: instruction in scienceshould be a regular part of the cur-

riculum from kindergarten throughgrade 9 (and beyond, but the confer-ences considered only these grades);a major effort to improve science in-struction in these grades should beundertaken; and this effort should in-volve improving-both course materials-and- classroom-teaching.

Conference Arrangements

In order to keep conference discus-sion -groups to a manageable size -andin order to include representatives ofdifferent parts of the country, threeregional conferences were held instead23 JUNE 1961

of one large national conference. i neconferences were held in St. Louis,Missouri, from 8 to 10 January 1961;in Berkeley, California, from 5 to 7February; and in Washington, D.C.,from 12 to 14 March. Each conferencewas arranged by a local committee,with Dean Thomas Hall of Washing-ton University chairman of the St.Louis committee, -Professor OwenChamberlain of the University of Cali-fornia chairman of the Berkeley com-

mittee, and Professor John Toll of theUniversity of Maryland chairman ofthe Washington committee.Each conference included about 50

participants, drawn from the ranks ofelementary and junior high schoolteachers, school principals, supervisorsof elementary and junior high schoolscience instruction, science educators,scientists from various disciplines, rep-

resentatives of one or more of thesenior high school course-content-im-provement programs, and psychologistsinterested in learning and learningtheory.The local committee for each con-

ference scheduled two or three ad-dresses related to science educationbut left most of the conference timefor discussion in small panels. At thefinal session of each conference thepanel reports were presented and dis-cussed by the entire conference.

- -Eachpanel--was-given a set of ques-tions prepared by the local committee.The questions varied from one con-

ference to another. Each conferenceworked without knowledge of therecommendations of any previous con-

ference. Participants in all three con-

ferences were furnished backgroundinformation concerning the currentstatus of science teaching in the ele-

mentary and junior high school gradesand the texts available for these grades.The background papers (1) were "Sci-ence for grades seven, eight, and nine,"by Abe S. Fischler, "The current statusof science education in the elementaryschools," by Jacqueline V. Mallinson;"Current activities in elementary andjunior high school science," by DorothyC. Matala; "Elementary school scienceand mathematics education in WesternEurope," by Margaret J. McKibben;and "Review of science textbooks cur-rently used in elementary schools," byAlbert Piltz.The independence of the three con-

ferences and the somewhat differentquestions that were posed to start thediscussion groups to work should beemphasized, for out of this diversitycame clear agreement upon a numberof statements and recommendations.

Points of Agreemeent

There was very substantial agree-ment upon all of the following points.

1 ) Science should be a basic partof general education for all students atthe elementary and junior high schoollevels. As a part of general education,science should constitute a regularlyscheduled part of the curriculum inall grades. The purpose is to equip allpersons for life in a scientific andtechnological society. If all of themore than 35 million pupils in elemen-tary and junior high schools can begiven good experiences in science, allwill have a good start toward scientificliteracy. Young children are naturallycurious about the universe and arecontinuously exploring their immediateenvironment. During these early yearschildren form their basic attitudes, pat-terns of thinking, and modes of be-havior. It is therefore during theseyears that particular attention mustbe given to establishing the attitudesand modes of inquiry that are associ-ated with the scientific enterprise-itsprocesses and content. Whatever theschool does, children are inevitablyexposed to -"science" and technologythrough all forms of mass communica-tion, but they can acquire understand-ing of these powerful forces only

Members of the steering committee for thestudy are Thomas S. Hall, Washington Univer-sity, chairman; Paul -E. Blackwood, U.S. Officeof Education; Margaret W. Efraemson, RudolphS. Walton Public School, Philadelphia; Philip G.Johnson, Cornell University; John R. Mayor,AAAS; Thornton Page, Wesleyan University;and Dael Wolfle, AAAS.

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through an orderly intellectual experi-ence in the study of science. Thisorderly intellectual experience is theresponsibility of the school.

2) Instruction at the elementarylevels should deal in an organized waywith science as a whole. Science in-struction should not be limited to oneof the separate disciplines, such asbiology, chemistry, or physics, butshould develop specific awareness ofnatural phenomena, good habits of ob-servation, understanding of classifica-tion, function, quantification, order,and other basic ideas used in science,drawing on all the sciences for ex-amples. Certain areas serve best toillustrate or instruct in certain aspectsof scientific reasoning, and the signifi-cance of scientific principles can bestbe made apparent when they are shownto be applicable in several fields. Al-though flexibility and variety are desir-able, it is essential to have a well-de-fined structure for science courses, sothat the load of answering extraneousquestions does not become impossiblefor the elementary teacher, and so thatthe order and connectivity of sciencecan be properly presented.

3) There must be a clear progressionin the study of science from grade tograde. Science instruction at the ele-mentary and junior high school levelsshould be planned and coordinated asa ten-year sequence, beginning withkindergarten and continuing through-grade 9. (Science should continue tobe a part of the curriculum in grade10 and beyond, but this report coversonly the kindergarten-to-grade-9 pe-riod.) Haphazard samplings, uncoordi-nated repetitions, overlap and glaringomissions should yield to systematicdevelopmental instruction in science,based on the best knowledge of scienceitself, the scientific needs of society,the maturing child, and the learningprocess. While one purpose of a plan-ned progression is to avoid boring andwasteful repetition of the purely de-scriptive treatment of such subjects asthe solar system, weather, and the clas-sification of leaves, a more importantpurpose is to introduce as early aspossible the methods and systematiccharacteristics of scientific inquiry.

4) There should be no single, na-tional curriculum in science. The con-ference participants were insistent thatno attempt be made to develop a singleprogram for use in all school systems.This judgment was based partly onphilosophical objections to central dic-

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tation of curricular planning, and partlyon recognition that alternative choicesof subject matter and order of progres-sion might be equally effective. In dif-ferent regions of the country differentillustrative materials are available. Thepace and level of instruction differfrom one school to another. So do thedetails of the curricular organizationinto which science instruction must bemade to fit. Schools will therefore wishto have some choice among well-de-signed sets of science materials. More-over, no one knows the best order andselection from among all that might betaught; alternative sets of materialshould be tried out.

5) Science teaching should stress thespirit of discovery characteristic ofscience itself. Nothing is more con-trary to the spirit of science, and noth-ing more damaging to student andteacher morale, than to present scienceas a series of factual findings to bememorized. The science curriculumwill, of course, teach concepts, theories,principles, and content areas, but thereal purposes behind their selectionmust be kept in mind, and while thestudent is learning content he shouldalso be learning methods of observa-tion, the importance of checking ob-servations, the role of measurementand the use of instruments to extendman's senses, how to interpret and becritical of data, and that as a questfor new knowledge science is constantlychanging. These purposes are notachieved if students simply memorizefindings without "discovering" them, orrecognizing how they were discovered.Discovery is possible at all levels. Thesimplest step for the child is to dis-cover phenomena and to observe re-lationships that are new to him; at ahigher level he can learn to discoverrelationships by experimentation; andat a still higher level he should learnto discover by abstract reasoning.

6) New instructional materials musmbe prepared for in-service and pre-service programs for science teachers.In addition to the instructional mate-rials to be used by the pupils, it willbe necessary to prepare a comprehen-sive set of instructional aids to beused by the teachers and by those whoprovide instruction for teachers-aclear rationale of the science program,manuals and guides to provide ideasfor various types of activities, mono-graphs for basic information and forsupplementary study, descriptions ofsuitable demonstrations and displays,

instructions for appropriate experi-ments, and films and other audio-visualaids. Sample tests and examinationsshould also be provided as a basis forproper evaluation of student progress,and as guides to the teachers in pre-paring examinations that will empha-size scientific principles and methodol-ogy instead of the memorization offacts.

7) The preparation of instructionalmaterials will require the combined ef-forts of scientists, classroom teachers,and specialists in learning and teacherpreparation. A substantial team effortwill be required to produce the high-quality materials needed for a majorimprovement in science teaching. Thishigh quality can best be assured ifscientists, classroom teachers, sciencesupervisors, college staff members whooffer science courses for teachers, psy-chologists and experts in child develop-ment, and specialists concerned withreading and other instructional aidswork closely together in the produc-tion and in the revision of materials.

8) There is great urgency to getstarted on the preparation of improvedinstructional materials for science. Eachyear of delay means that one additionalage group of children will finish schoolwithout the advantage of the kind ofexcellent science instruction that couldbe provided. We lack sufficient knowl-edge of child development and of howchildren learn science to assure produc-tion of the best possible teaching mate-rials, but improvement based on theknowledge that is available should bestarted now, while investigations or re-search go forward to lay the basis forstill better teaching materials in thefuture.

Discussion of the Curriculum

The present concern regardingscience education in the elementary andjunior high schools derives from thefeeling that future citizens must begenerally cognizant of the nature ofscience and its role in human existence.

This basic point and those statedearlier were expressed by all three con-ferences. A number of additional rec-ommendations for improving scienceinstruction and a number of specificsuggestions were made in the reportsof one or more of the discussion panelsof the three conferences. The reportsof the individual discussion groups havebeen distributed to the participants and

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will be made available to those whomay be assigned responsibility for theproposed major effort. A sampling ofthese recommendations is given in thissection.The conference participants believe

that science is an essential part of bal-anced educational development, andone panel recommended that the basiccore of the elementary school cur-riculum be science and the humanities.Modern technology is an increasingpart of common knowledge, but thestudy of science should not be sub-servient to the study of technology.More than anything else the purposeof science in general education is todevelop a more complete view of lifein a scientifically oriented world cul-ture.

Such goals are not to be accom-plished by an encyclopedic approach;appreciation of science can be devel-oped only through understanding thequalities of scientific enterprise-theprocess of science. This process is anintellectual pursuit; to the extent thatthat it deals largely with concept for-mation and validation, it is a creativeactivity. Science education at all levelsshould be based on these major aspects.The role of speculation, prediction,

and test in science implies a quantitativeas well as a qualitative approach. Thus,measurement and quantitative reason-ing should play a role in the curriculumcomparable to the observational anddescriptive aspects of science. Theparticipants felt that better coordina-tion between science and mathematicsis important, particularly in the juniorhigh school, and that a definite effortshould be made to make use of mathe-matical ideas and methods in sciencein grades 7, 8, and 9.

Several of the conference groupsprovided lists of examples of thescience content for grades up throughthe ninth. Among broad concept areaslisted in the several conference reportswere cosmology, evolution, ecology,structure and function, reproductionand development, structure of matter,energy interrelations, and changes ofstate of matter. Two of the discussionpanels proposed that in the junior highschool one year each be devoted totopics from the earth sciences, thebiological sciences, and the physicalsciences.

In junior high school science theparticipants believe that it is muchmore desirable to study a limited num-ber of topics in depth than to provide23 JUNE 1961

a sketchy introduction to a great manyideas. One group listed geometrical op-tics, electricity, mechanics, states ofmatter, structure of matter, use andcontrol of energy, and environmentand human needs (including earth,atmosphere, water resources, and bio-logical resources). Any one of theseareas was thought to deserve at leastone fourth of the time in one of thejunior high school years.

Other suggestions from variousgroups, on which there was generalagreement, and which refer to scienceprograms from kindergarten throughjunior high school, are as follows.

1) Strong blocks of knowledgeshould be developed which cut acrosstraditional science disciplines. The se-quence in which these units are usedshould be determined within a three-grade range by cooperative planningof the teachers concerned.

2) The curriculum should be flex-ible enough to provide satisfaction andenlightenment to all students and tochallenge the academically talented.

3) Teachers should employ the ex-perimental approach to science, withemphasis on inductive learning.

4) As he enters grade 10, the stu-dent should appreciate such philosoph-ical aspects of science as the distinctionbetween operational definitions andtheoretical definitions, the relationshipbetween speculation and observation,and the displacement of one theory byanother.

Improvement of Teacher Education

One study panel at each conferencewas devoted to problems of teachereducation. All agreed upon the greatneed for improvement in the scienceeducation of teachers at the elemen-tary and junior high school levels. Itis unrealistic to try to provide summerinstitutes for the nearly one millionelementary school teachers who devotesome of their time to science teaching.Hence institutes for this level of in-struction may well be limited to ele-mentary school personnel who canprovide leadership for and assistanceto other teachers.The conferences gave a considerable

amount of attention to administrativechanges that would enable schoolsystems to take greater advantage ofteachers with special interest and train-ing in science. One group recommend-ed the use of specially competent

science teachers to serve as consultantsto classroom teachers in the elemen-tary schools, in a ratio of one consult-ant to not more than 50 classroomteachers. This plan would requiresome 17,000 specialized teachers, em-ployed by single school districts orgroups of smaller adjacent districts.The situation for junior high school

teachers is of course very different.The numbers are not so large as to makeit impossible to reach individual teach-ers. Some of the institutes for second-ary school teachers are quite appropri-ate for junior high school teachers,and quite a number of the latter arealready attending these institutes. In-stitute proposals based on new ap-proaches to junior high school sciencemay well be invited and supported.The recommendations on institutes

are intended as means of meeting animmediate need and also as continuingactivities to supplement the teacheraids which may be prepared for thenew courses. The great value of sum-mer institutes for secondary schoolteachers, both as a means of strength-ening their education in science andas a way of encouraging them to usethe new course materials, is recognizedin the strong and urgent recommenda-tion that science institute programs forelementary and junior high schoolteachers be greatly strengthened andincreased. The institute programshould include the following.

1) Summer institutes and in-serviceinstitutes for elementary and juniorhigh school principals, curriculum di-rectors, science supervisors, specialscience teachers, and other teachers ofknown leadership qualities. An im-portant criterion for attendance shouldbe the potentiality of the individual asa leader in improving science pro-grams in his own school system.

2) Institutes for junior high schoolscience teachers under the regular sec-ondary school institute program, butwith special attention given to theproblems of junior high school science.

3) In-service institutes for elemen-tary or junior high school teacherswithin a school system or at a centerserving several schools or school sys-tems. Consulting scientists and consult-ing specialists in science educationshould be involved in the planning andteaching of these institute courses.

It is also urgent that college pro-grams for prospective teachers bestrengthened. These programs are like-ly to be modified when the new ma-

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terials for elementary and junior highschool instruction become available,but in the meantime, and more funda-mentally, the following steps are pro-posed.

1) College science courses shouldbe designed to give a fuller and widerspectrum of science. The courseswould probably include materialsdrawn from several science depart-ments and should teach the logical andoperational assumptions on whichscience is built. The courses need notbe specially designed for elementaryteachers; those most appropriate forliberal arts majors and other nonscien-tists might be excellent for prospectiveteachers in the elementary grades. Aworking conference to clarify patternsmay be useful.

2) Professional education experi-ences for prospective elementaryteachers should include opportunity toobserve the work of well-qualifiedteachers who like science and who likechildren. Prospective teachers shouldalso be provided opportunities to gainexperience in formulating questionsthat are meaningful to children, in de-veloping methods for using quantita-tive approaches, in using audio-visualand laboratory materials, and inadapting to science instruction ma-terials found in the surroundings ofchildren.

3) All prospective elementaryteachers should have an area of con-centration. For some, this area shouldbe science. The teachers who had con-centrated in science could then becomespecial science teachers or could assistother teachers less well acquaintedwith science.

Studies of Learning

Conference participants agreed uponthe importance of encouraging addi-tional studies of the learning process.The investigations proposed fall intotwo categories-those concerned withfundamental research in learning andthose directly concerned with the se-lection and organization of content forseience courses and with methods ofteaching science.

It is not proposed that fundamentalresearch in learning-research whichcould contribute to the improvementof teaching in all disciplines-becomea part of the proposed national course-content-improvement program for ele-mentary and junior high school sci-

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ence. The conferences and the steeringcommittee, however, recognize theneed for such research and stronglyrecommend that it receive more ade-quate support.

There are, however, problems forinvestigations that would directly sup-port the development of improved ele-mentary and junior high school sciencematerials. Work on some of theseproblems should be planned as part ofthe recommended study. Examples arethe kinds of instructional materialsthat are most effective in learning atdifferent grade levels; the most effec-tive use of textbooks, reading materi-als, laboratory equipment, films, tele-vision, and automated learning devices;development of better means of earlyidentification of scientific and technicaltalent and appropriate instructional ma-terials for talented pupils; study ofreadiness for the kinds of intellectualactivities that are required in sciencelearning and of the extent to whichsuch readiness is a function of earlierexperience; and development of bettermeans for comparing the effectivenessof new teaching materials with that ofother, more traditional ones.

Developing Course Materials

The program for the development ofscience materials for use in the ele-mentary and junior high schools andof all of the supporting materials tobe used by the teachers should be un-der the direction of a national advisoryor steering committee. The steeringcommittee should include scientists,science educators, teachers, super-visors, and learning specialists.The following steps or stages,

whether carried out at one or morecenters simultaneously or successively,were agreed upon as necessary.

1) Identification of major scientificconcepts, principles, and content areasto be covered and preparation of asequential plan for their development.

2) Collation of present researchdata related to elementary and juniorhigh school science instruction anddefinition of problems that need care-ful study.

3) Preparation of alternative blocksof material (texts, teachers manuals,tests, and so on) for the several gradesor content areas.

4) Classroom trial, feedback ofcriticism and suggestions, and revisionof the preliminary materials.

5) Preparation of sets of materialsfor general school use.As a plan of action for accomplish-

ing these goals we propose the estab-lishment of several centers for the de-velopment of course materials. Eachcenter should have its own workinggroup of scientists, teachers, and othereducational leaders and each its ownset of cooperating schools trying outthe new materials. The number of cen-ters can be better determined afterthere has been more detailed consider-ation of all of the problems involved;we tentatively, recommend that therebe three. This number seems to offera good compromise between the ad-vantages of wide choice and the re-quirements of cost and other practicalrealities. While each center shouldhave considerable autonomy to de-velop materials it considers best, theactivities of all centers would be coor-dinated by the national steering com-mittee, and all would have access tocommon supporting services-such asfacilities for the development of filmsor equipment.

Administrative coordination andmanagement of the centers for courseand materials development might fol-low either of two patterns.One possibility would be for the

foundation that provides financial sup-port to contract directly with the uni-versities or other institutions that un-dertake to develop courses and ma-terials. If this procedure is followed,the funding agency should establish anational steering committee that wouldwork closely with the centers both ininitial planning and throughout the de-velopmental program. The steeringcommittee could be established direct-ly within the funding agency orthrough a separate contract.The other and perhaps more desir-

able possibility would be for the sup-porting foundation to arrange with asingle agency or organization to ap-point the national steering committeeand to establish the course materialsdevelopment centers, either directly orthrough subcontracts with universitiesor other appropriate agencies.

Independent Studies

In recommending a massive and co-ordinated attack on the problem ofimproving science education, the studyparticipants explicitly indicated thatthey do not wish to discourage or in-

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terfere with other, independent effortsaimed at the same goal. While such in-dependent studies are unlikely to at-tain the national attention that wouldbe given to a more massive attack,they may well turn out to be more im-aginative and bolder in conception andmethod of attack. Such independentstudies should be encouraged, not dis-couraged, by the existence of a largeand coordinated effort.

An Observation

A most encouraging aspect of thethree conferences was the ease and sat-isfaction with which scientists, repre-senting all of the major scientific dis-ciplines, and educators, representingteacher education, administration, andthe classroom, were able to reachagreement about needs for improve-ment of early science education andways of bringing about that improve-ment. It was heartening to both scien-tists and educators to find such a highdegree of agreement upon the im-portance and the feasibility of thetask. The general spirit of the confer-ences was one of enthusiastic ac-ceptance of joint responsibility andconfidence that a large-scale, coordi-nated, and cooperative attack wouldproduce major improvements in sci-ence education at the elementary andjunior high school levels.

Reference

1. The background papers appear as articles bythe authors in Sc-hool Scienice acud Mathle-miiatics (Apr., Mfay, and June 1961).

Forthcoming Events

July16-21. International Conf. on Medical

Electronics, 4th, with Electrical Techniquesin Medicine and Biology, 14th annualconf., New York, N.Y. (L. E. Flory, RCALaboratories, Princeton. N.J.)

16-22. International Soc. for Clinicaland Experimental Hypnosis, Rio de Ja-neiro, Brazil. (ISCEH, 33 E. 65 St., NewYork 21)

17-22. Soil Mezhanics and FoundationEngineering, 5th intern. conf., Paris,France. (E. Caminade, Secretaire General,23 rue de Cronstadt, Paris 1 5)

18-20. Pulmonary StructuLre and Func-tion, Ciba Foundation Symp. (by invita-tion only), London, England. (CibaFoundation, 41 Portland P1., London, W.1)

18-21. Inorganic Polymers, intern.symp., Nottingh.m, England. (GeneralSecretary, Chemical Soc., BurlingtonHouse, London, WA, England)

21-22. World Power Conf. (membersonly), Moscow, U.S.S.R. (Central Office,

201-2 Grand Buildings, Trafalgar Sq.,London, W.C.2, England)

23-28. Otolaryngology, 7th intern.congr., Paris, France. (H. Guillon, Secre-tary General, 6 Avenue Mac-Mahon,Paris 17)

24-28. Nematology Symp., 6th intern.,Ghent, Belgium. (J. van den Brande, Soc.of European Nematologists, Rijksland-boushogeschool, Coupure links 23 5.Ghent)

24-29. Medical Electro-Radiological So-cieties, Latin Federation of, 5th congr.,Paris, France. (C. Proux, Secretary, 9 rueDaru, Paris 8)

24-30. Urology, 12th intern. congr.,Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. (J. Silva de Assis,Secretary, P.O. Box 1275, Belo-Horizonte,Brazil)

26. International Commission for thePrevention of Alcoholism, 7th annualmeeting, Washington, D.C. (InternationalHeadquarters, 6840 Eastern Ave., NW,Washington 12)

26-28. Detection and Assay of Hor-mones by Immuno-Clinical Means, CibaFoundation Colloqulium (by invitationonly), London, England. (Ciba Founda-tion, 41 Portland P1., London, W.1)

27-1. Macromolecular Chemistry, in-tern. symp., Montreal, Canada. (Organiz-ing Committee, P.O. Box 816, Sarnia, On-tario. Canada)

28-29. Linguistic Soc. of America,Austin, Tex. (A. A. Hill, Box 7790, Uni-versity Station. Austin 12)

30-2. Soil Conservation Soc. of Amer-ica, Lafayette, Ind. (H. W. Pritchard, 838Fifth Ave., Des Moines 14, Iowa)

30-3. International PsycholanalyticalCongr., 22nd, Edinburgh, Scotland. (MissC. de Monehaux, 53 York Terrace, Re-gents Park, London, N.W.1, England)

31-4. Biophysics, 1st intern. congr.,Stockholm, Sweden. (B. Lindstrom, Dept.of Medical Physics, Karolinska Institutet.Stockholm 60)

31-4. Differential Equations in Non-Linear Mechanics, Air Force Acad., Colo-rado Springs, Colo. (J. P. Lasalle, 7212Bellona Ave., Baltimore 12, Md.)

31-11. Physics of the Solar System andRe-entry Dynamics, conf., Blacksburg,Va. (Bureau of Public Relations, VirginiaPolytechnic Inst., Blacksburg)

31-12. Electric Power and Problems ofNuclear Power, seminar, U.N. EconomicCommission for Latin America, Mexico.D.F. (A. Dorfman, Chief, Energy andWater Resource Program, Avenue Provi-dencia 871. Santiago, Chile)

August

1-26. Functional Analysis, 8th Amer-ican Mathematical Soc. summer institute,Stanford, Calif. (P. D. Lax, AMS, 190Hope St., Providence 6, R.I.)

2-5. International Conf. of Pure andApplied Chemistry, 21st, Montreal, Can-ada. (R. Morf, Hoffmann-LaRoche, S.A.,Grenzachterstrasse 124, Basel, Switzerland)

3-5. Canadian Chemical Conf. and Ex-hibition, 44th, Montreal. (Chemical Inst.Of Canada, 48 Rideau St., Ottawa 2, Ont.)

5-9. International Rorschach Soc., 5thcongr., Fribourg-en-Brisgau, Germany. (A.Friedemann, Chemin des Pcheurs 6,Bienne, Switzerland)

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committeewith the aid of a grant from the National Science Foundation, is reviewed by the steering Science Teaching in Elementary and Junior High Schools: A study made by the AAAS,

DOI: 10.1126/science.133.3469.2019 (3469), 2019-2024.133Science 

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