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TEACHING

METHODS

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PREFACE

Initial in the one module of the project, which is allotted to me,

“TEACHING METHODS” is covered in this project report.

The report contains very nice and well arranged topics related to the

subject “TEACHING METHODS”. The main contents of this project

describes that ‘what are the types of teaching ’ and many other topics which

is countable in the “TEACHING METHODS”.

The project report also contains a description of ancient age, middle

age and modern age education technique.

Overall this report may work like a guide for the subject

“TEACHING METHODS”.

Name of the student

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Perseverance, inspiration and motivation have always played a key role in

the success of any venture. Working on this project was a challenge and

made us a bit filtery in the beginning.

At this level of understanding, it is often difficult to understand a wide

spectrum of knowledge without proper guidance and advice .hence, we take

this opportunity to express our heart felt gratitude to MR. XXXXXXXXX,

for his round o’clock enthusiastic support and commentaries which made

this project successful, we are thankful to him for making impossible look

easy for us.

We also extend our sincere gratitude to MR. XXXXXXXXXXX, for

his inspiration, encouragement and for the impetus obtained throughout the

course of our project.

Finally, we would to like to thanks XXXXXXXXXXX and all of

XXXXXXXXXXXXX department, for their motivation and encouragement

throughout our endeavor.

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TABLE OF INDEX

1. Introduction

2. Diversity In Teaching In The Classroom

a. Questioning

b. Explaining

c. Demonstrating

d. Collaborating

e. Learning By Teaching (German:Ldl)

3. Teaching Methods

a. Pedagogy And Andragogy

b. Simple And Complex Skills

c. Whole Practice

d. Part Instruction

e. Whole - Part - Whole Instruction

f. Shaping

g. Chaining

h. An Eastern European Approach

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i. Types Of Practice

4. Common Teaching Methods

a. Lecture

b. Lecture With Discussion

c. Panel Of Experts

d. Brainstorming

e. Videotapes

f. Class Discussion

g. Small Group Discussion

h. Case Studies

i. Role Playing

j. Report-Back Sessions

k. Worksheets/Surveys

l. Index Card Exercise

m. Guest Speaker

n. Values Clarification Exercise

5. Ancient Education

6. Medieval Education

7. 20th Century

8. Bibliography

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INTRODUCTION

Teaching methods are best articulated by answering the questions, "What is

the purpose of education?" and "What are the best ways of achieving these

purposes?". For much of prehistory, educational methods were largely

informal, and consisted of children imitating or modelling their behavior on

that of their elders, learning through observation and play. In this sense the

children are the students, and the elder is the teacher. A teacher creates the

course materials to be taught and then enforces it. Pedagogy is usually the

different way a teacher can teach. It is the art or science of being a teacher,

generally referring to strategies of instruction or style of instruction.

Resources that help teachers teach better are typically a lesson plan, or

practical skill involving learning and thinking skills. A curriculum is often

set by the Government with precise standards. These standards can change

frequently, depending on what the Government states.

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Diversity in Teaching in the Classroom

For effective teaching to take place a good method must be adopted by a

teacher. A teacher has many options when choosing a style to teach by. The

teacher may write lesson plans of their own, borrow plans from other

teachers, or search online or within books for lesson plans. When deciding

what teaching method to use, a teacher will need to consider students'

background knowledge, environment, and learning goals. Teachers know

that students learn in different ways but almost all children will respond well

to praise. Students have different ways of absorbing information and of

demonstrating their knowledge. Teachers often use techniques which cater

to multiple learning styles to help students retain information and strengthen

understanding. A variety of strategies and methods are used to ensure that all

students have equal opportunities to learn. A lesson plan may be carried out

in several ways: Questioning, explaining, modeling, collaborating,

and demonstrating.

Questioning

A teaching method that includes questioning is similar to testing. A teacher

may ask a series of questions to collect information of what students have

learned and what needs to be taught. Testing is another method of

questioning. A teacher tests the student on what was previously taught in

order to identify if a student has learned the material. Standardized testing is

in about every Middle School and High School. (i.e. Ohio Graduation Test

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(OGT), Proficiency Test, College entrance Tests (ACT and SAT)).Before

that we have to teach how to make questioner. If the question perfect then

this method will effective.

Explaining

Another teaching method is explanation. This form is similar to lecturing.

Lecturing is teaching, giving a speech, by giving a discourse on a specific

subject that is open to the public, usually given in the classroom. This can

also be associated with demonstrating and modeling. A teacher may use

experimentation to demonstrate in a science class. A demonstration is the

circumstance of proving conclusively, as by reasoning or showing evidence.

Modeling is used as a visual aid to learning. Students can visualize an object

or problem, then use reasoning and hypothesizing to determine an answer.

Demonstrating

Demonstrations are done to provide an opportunity in learning new

exploration and visual learning tasks from a different perspective.

Demonstrations can be exercised in several ways.

Collaborating

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Students' working in groups is another way a teacher can enforce a lesson

plan. Collaborating allows students to talk among each other and listen to all

view points of discussion or assignment. It helps students think in an

unbiased way. When this lesson plan is carried out, the teacher may be

trying to assess the lesson of working as a team, leadership skills, or

presenting with roles.

Learning by teaching (German:LdL)

Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany, developed

by Jean-Pol Martin. The students take the teacher's role and teach their

peers.

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Teaching Methods

As a coach, you will be required to facilitate the learning of new technical

skills by your athletes. To achieve this you will need to develop your

knowledge of the learning process and the various teaching methods.

Pedagogy and Andragogy

Pedagogy and Andragogy are used to describe the art and science of

teaching. Teachers who take on a facilitating role by directing the students in

the leaning process (e.g. adult and further education) are considered to be

andragogy (student centred) and teachers who lecture to their students (e.g.

child education in schools) are considered to be pedagogy (teacher centred).

Simple and Complex Skills

Simple and complex are terms used to describe a skill. Simple skills are ones

that an athlete finds easy to perform whereas complex skills are ones that the

athlete finds more difficult. Remember, what is a simple skill to one athlete

may be complex to another so as a coach you need to determine how each

athlete perceives the skill.

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Whole Practice

Ideally, a skill should be taught as a whole as the athlete can appreciate the

complete movement and execution of a skill. The whole method of

instruction can sometimes mean the athlete having to handle complex

movements e.g. the whole high jump technique.

Part Instruction

When a skill is complex or there is considered an element of danger for the

athlete then it is more appropriate to breakdown the complex movement into

its constituent parts. The parts can then be taught and then linked together to

develop the final skill. When part instruction is used it is important that the

athlete is demonstrated the whole skill so that they can appreciate the

product and understand how the set of parts will develop the skill.

Whole - Part - Whole Instruction

Initially the athlete attempts the whole skill and the coach monitors to

identify those parts of the skill that the athlete is not executing correctly. Part

instruction can then be used to address the limitations and then the athlete

can repeat the whole skill with the coach monitoring for any further

limitations.

No one method is suitable to all occasions, but studies have shown that:

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simple skills (and perhaps simple is relative to each individual) benefit

from the whole method

skills of intermediate difficulty benefit from the part method

closed skills are often taught with part instruction

difficult skills are best dealt with by oscillating between part and

whole

Shaping

Shaping is suitable for complex actions with simultaneous elements

e.g. hurdling. Hurdling is frequently seen as a complex skill by beginners

because of the event rules and their concern about hitting the hurdles. A

possible sequence to shape the hurdling skill over a number of training

sessions is as follows:

athlete to run over 5 to 10 cones adjusted to allow the athlete to take 3

rhymatic strides between each cone - develop running rhythm

between the hurdles

replace the cones with low obstacles, e.g. six inch high hurdles or

lower, that offer no resistance if hit

use hurdles set at the lowest height with no toppling weight

gradually adjust the hurdle height and spacing to competition

requirements for the athlete's age group

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Chaining

Breaking an action down into parts is refereed to as chaining and is only

suitable for complex actions with sequential parts e.g. triple jump. A

possible sequence to chain the hop, step and jump phases of triple jump is as

follows:

demonstrate the whole action

demonstrate the hop phase and let them practice

demonstrate the hop and step phases and let them practice

demonstrate the hop, step and jump phases and let them practice

An Eastern European Approach

Consideration must be given to the approach adopted by the former Eastern

Bloc countries to technique training. The aim is to identify the most

fundamental version of a technique, one that is basic and essential to more

advanced techniques. Example for the shot - basic model would be the stand

and throw, more advanced would be the step and throw and finally followed

by the rotation method.

This fundamental component is taught first and established as the basis for

all further progressions. Deriving from the fundamental component are

exercises that directly reinforce the required movement patterns.

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Types of Practice

There are four types of practice:

Variable - the skill is practiced in the range of situations that could be

experienced -Open skills are best practiced in this way

Fixed - a specific movement is practiced repeatedly, known as a drill

- Closed skills are best practiced in this way

Massed - a skill is practiced without a break until the skill is

developed. Suitable when the skill is simple, motivation is high,

purpose is to practice a skill, the athletes are experienced

Distributed - breaks are taken whilst developing the skill. Suitable

when the skill is new or complex, fatigue could result in injury,

motivation is low, poor environmental conditions

Distributed practice is considered the most effective.

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COMMON TEACHING METHODS

Lecture

A lecture is an oral presentation intended to present information or teach

people about a particular subject, for example by

a university or college teacher. Lectures are used to convey critical

information, history, background, theories and equations. A politician's

speech, a minister's sermon, or even a businessman's sales presentation may

be similar in form to a lecture. Usually the lecturer will stand at the front of

the room and recite information relevant to the lecture's content.

Though lectures are much criticized as a pedagogical method, universities

have not yet found practical alternative teaching methods for the large

majority of their courses. Critics point out that lecturing is mainly a one-way

method of communication that does not involve significant audience

participation. Therefore, lecturing is often contrasted to active learning. But

lectures delivered by talented speakers can be highly stimulating; at the very

least, lectures have survived in academia as a quick, cheap and efficient way

of introducing large numbers of students to a particular field of study.

Lectures have a significant role outside the classroom, as well. Academic

and scientific awards routinely include a lecture as part of the honor, and

academic conferences often center around "keynote addresses", i.e., lectures.

The public lecture has a long history in the sciences and insocial

movements. Union halls, for instance, historically have hosted numerous

free and public lectures on a wide variety of matters.

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Similarly,churches, community centers, libraries, museums, and other

organizations have hosted lectures in furtherance of their missions or their

constituents' interests.

STRENGTHS:

- presents factual material in direct, logical manner

- contains experience which inspires

- stimulates thinking to open discussion

- useful for large groups

LIMITATIONS:

- experts are not always good teachers

- audience is passive

- learning is difficult to gauge

- communication in one way

PREPARATION:

- needs clear introduction and summary

- needs time and content limit to be effective

- should include examples, anecdotes

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Lecture With Discussion

DISCUSSION or Debate (American English) or debating (British English) is

a formal method of interactive and position representational argument.

Debate is a broader form of argument than logical argument, which only

examine the consistency from axiom, and factual argument, which only

examine what is or isn't the case or rhetoric which is technique of

persuasion. Though logical consistency, factual accuracy as well as some

emotional appeal to audience are important elements of the art of persuasion,

in debating, one side often prevails over the other side by presenting superior

"context" and/or framework of the issue, which is far more subtle and

strategic.

STRENGTHS:

- involves audience at least after the lecture

- audience can question, clarify & challenge

LIMITATIONS:

- time may limit discussion period

- quality is limited to quality of questions and discussion

PREPARATION:-

- requires that questions be prepared prior to discussion

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Panel of Experts

An "expert" is someone widely recognized as a reliable source of

technique or skill whose faculty for judging or deciding rightly, justly, or

wisely is accorded authority and status by their peers or the public in a

specific well distinguished domain. An expert, more generally, is a person

with extensive knowledge or ability in a particular area of study. Experts are

called in for advice on their respective subject, but they do not always agree

on the particulars of a field of study. An expert can be, by virtue

of training, education, profession, publication or experience, believed to

have special knowledge of a subject beyond that of the average person,

sufficient that others may officially(and legally) rely upon the

individual's opinion. Historically, an expert was referred to as a sage. The

individual was usually a profound philosopher distinguished for wisdom and

sound judgment.

STRENGTHS:

- allows experts to present different opinions

- can provoke better discussion than a one person discussion

- frequent change of speaker keeps attention from lagging

LIMITATIONS:

- experts may not be good speakers

- personalities may overshadow content

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- subject may not be in logical order

PREPARATION:

- facilitator coordinates focus of panel, introduces and summarizes

- briefs panel

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Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a group creativity technique designed to generate a large

number of ideas for the solution to a problem. The method was first

popularized in the late 1930s by Alex Faickney Osborn, an advertising

executive and one of the founders of BBDO, in a book called Applied

Imagination. Osborn proposed that groups could double their creative output

by using the method of brainstorming.

Although brainstorming has become a popular group technique, researchers

have generally failed to find evidence of its effectiveness for enhancing

either quantity or quality of ideas generated. Because of such problems as

distraction, social loafing, evaluation apprehension, andproduction blocking,

brainstorming groups are little more effective than other types of groups, and

they are actually less effective than individuals working independently. In

the Encyclopedia of creativity, Tudor Rickards provides the article on

brainstorming, summarizing the controversies. He also indicates the dangers

of conflating productivity in group work with quantity of ideas.

There have been numerous attempts to improve brainstorming or replace it

with more effective variations of the basic technique. Although traditional

brainstorming may not increase the productivity of groups, it may still

provide benefits, such as enhancing the enjoyment of group work and

improving morale. It may also serve as a useful exercise for team building.

Use of the term "brainstorming" has been criticized on the grounds that it is

politically incorrect and offensive to people with epilepsy. However, there

appears to be little truth to this claim. A 2005 survey by

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the UK charity National Society for Epilepsy found that 93 per cent of

people with the condition surveyed do not find the word offensive

STRENGTHS:

- listening exercise that allows creative thinking for new ideas

- encourages full participation because all ideas equally recorded

- draws on group's knowledge and experience

- spirit of congeniality is created

- one idea can spark off other other ideas

LIMITATIONS:

- can be unfocused

- needs to be limited to 5 - 7 minutes

- people may have difficulty getting away from known reality

- if not facilitated well, criticism and evaluation may occur

PREPARATION:

- facilitator selects issue

- must have some ideas if group needs to be stimulated

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Videotapes

Videotape is a means of recording images and sound onto magnetic tape as

opposed to movie film.

In most cases, a helical scan video head rotates against the moving tape to

record the data in two dimensions, because video signals have a very high

bandwidth, and static heads would require extremely high tape speeds.

Video tape is used in both video tape recorders (VTRs or, more common,

video cassette recorders (VCRs)) and video cameras. Tape is a linear method

of storing information, and since nearly all video recordings made nowadays

are digital, it is expected to gradually lose importance as non-linear/random

access methods of storing digital video data are becoming more common.

This stuff is also used in the education for its very wide usability and

entertaining ability by which the teaching becomes very interesting for

teachers as well as the students

STRENGTHS:

- entertaining way of teaching content and raising issues

- keep group's attention

- looks professional

- stimulates discussion

LIMITATIONS:

- can raise too many issues to have a focused discussion

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- discussion may not have full participation

- only as effective as following discussion

PREPARATION:

- need to set up equipment

- effective only if facilitator prepares questions to discuss after the

show

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Class Discussion

If you ask most instructors what their primary goal during a classroom

discussion is, the answer seems obvious: Get students talking and keep them

talking. For any instructor who has struggled to break through the stubborn

silence of tired, timid, or unprepared students, success may be measured by

the minutes of sustained student speaking. However, while student

participation is necessary for successful classroom discussions, it is hardly

sufficient. Students can talk for hours without learning anything of

substance. Truly successful classroom discussions are guided by specific

teaching goals such as increasing students’ comfort with the specialized

language and methods of a field or developing critical thinking. Each

teaching goal will suggest different strategies for guiding a classroom

discussion. This newsletter reviews several teaching goals that are well-

served by discussion:

1. Increase students’ comfort with the specialized language and methods of a

field.

2. Develop critical thinking.

3. Develop problem-solving skills.

STRENGTHS:

- pools ideas and experiences from group

- effective after a presentation, film or experience that needs to be

analyzed

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- allows everyone to participate in an active process

LIMITATIONS:

- not practical with more that 20 people

- few people can dominate

- others may not participate

- is time consuming

- can get off the track

PREPARATION:

- requires careful planning by facilitator to guide discussion

- requires question outline

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Small Group Discussion

Group Discussion session is an important part of the admission procedure

followed by the B-Schools worldwide. This session is conducted to analyze

the ability of the candidates to think on a subject and present their views on

the respective subject. This examination also helps the examiners judge the

ability of the applicants to perform in groups. Students are always advised to

practice group discussion sessions from time ahead so that they can come

out with their best foot forward on the day of the examination. Group

discussion topics are carefully selected from various fields to judge the

qualities of the candidates. 

Topics that are selected for group discussion are chosen from various fields

like sports, politics, social issues, environmental issues and current events. It

is always difficult to guess the group discussion topics as it can be chosen

from any field of work. However, students are always advised to read a lot

of newspapers and business magazines to stay aware of the current events

and happenings. Students might not possess thorough information about the

GD topics, but common sense and familiarity with the issue can be of great

help during the time of group discussion. This always helps you to present

your ideas in a proper manner. 

In order to contribute meaningfully in the verbal test, it is essential for you to

go through newspapers and other articles available online on a regular basis.

Most of the GD topics are selected from current events, so profound

knowledge on the recent issues is a must. You can also collect various group

discussion topics online and start preparing yourself. This would help you

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build your confidence for the upcoming session. The examiners are there to

see your psychological poise and temperament during the examination. You

need to be confident about yourself and be smart and clear while presenting

your ideas on the subject. 

STRENGTHS:

- allows participation of everyone

- people often more comfortable in small groups

- can reach group consensus

LIMITATIONS:

- needs careful thought as to purpose of group

- groups may get side tracked

PREPARATION:

- needs to prepare specific tasks or questions for group to answer

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Case Studies

A case study is one of several ways of doing social science research. Other

ways include experiments, surveys, multiple histories, and analysis of

archival information .

Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol to examine limited

number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal

examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic

way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and

reporting the results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened

understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might

become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case

studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses .

Another suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research

strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its

real-life context. Case study research means single and multiple case studies,

can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and

benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. Case studies

should not be confused with qualitative research and they can be based on

any mix of quantitative and qualitative evidence. Single-subject

research provides the statistical framework for making inferences from

quantitative case-study data.[1][3] This is also supported and well-formulated

in (Lamnek, 2005): "The case study is a research approach, situated between

concrete data taking techniques and methodologic paradigms.

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STRENGTHS:

- develops analytic and problem solving skills

- allows for exploration of solutions for complex issues

- allows student to apply new knowledge and skills

LIMITATIONS:

- people may not see relevance to own situation

- insufficient information can lead to inappropriate results

PREPARATION:

- case must be clearly defined in some cases

- case study must be prepared

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Role Playing

In roleplaying, participants adopt and act out the role of characters, or parts,

that may have personalities, motivations, and backgrounds different from

their own. Roleplaying, also known as RP to some, is like being in

an improvisational drama or free-form theater, in which the participants are

the actors who are playing parts, and the audience.

People use the phrase "role-playing" in at least three distinct ways:

To refer to the playing of roles generally such as in a theater, or

educational setting;

To refer to a wide range of games including computer role-playing

games, play-by-mail games and more;

To refer specifically to role-playing games

STRENGTHS:

- introduces problem situation dramatically

- provides opportunity for people to assume roles of others and thus

appreciate another point of view

- allows for exploration of solutions

- provides opportunity to practice skills

LIMITATIONS:

- people may be too self-conscious

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- not appropriate for large groups

- people may feel threatened

PREPARATION:

- trainer has to define problem situation and roles clearly

- trainer must give very clear instructions

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Report-Back Sessions

In writing, a report is a document characterized by information or other

content reflective of inquiry or investigation, which is tailored to the context

of a given situation and audience. The purpose of reports is usually to

inform. However, reports may include persuasive elements, such as

recommendations, suggestions, or other motivating conclusions that indicate

possible future actions the report reader might take. Reports can be public or

private, and often address questions posed by individuals in government,

business, education, and science. Reports often take the structure of

scientific investigation: Introduction, Methods, Results and

Discussion (IMRAD). They may sometimes follow a problem-solution

structure based on the audience's questions or concerns. As for format,

reports range from a simpler format with headings to indicate topics, to more

complex formats including charts, tables, figures, pictures, tables of

contents, abstracts, summaries, appendices, footnotes, hyperlinks,

and references. The purpose of a report is to show information collected to

the reader about certain topics, usually to set targets or to show a general

view on the subject in hand. Another purpose is to discuss and analyze ideas

and thoughts on any problems or improvements to be made and to inform

the audience. They can either persuade, suggest or to motivate conclusions A

report is an extended formal document with lots of pages that shows

different types of information with details of the findings like e.g.

Methodology, findings and added Appendices. The document structure is

easily navigated by using a table of contents, so the audience can easily find

specific information by clear headings and a set structure of text and images.

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STRENGTHS:

- allows for large group discussion of role plays, case studies, and

small group exercise

- gives people a chance to reflect on experience

- each group takes responsibility for its operation

LIMITATIONS:

- can be repetitive if each small group says the same thing

PREPARATION:

- trainer has to prepare questions for groups to discuss

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Worksheets/Surveys

A worksheet is a piece of paper, often preprinted in a way designed to help

organize material for learning or clear understanding. Students in

a school may have "fill-in-the-blank" sheets of questions, diagrams or maps

to help them with their exercises. Students will often use worksheets to

review what has been taught in class. K-12 Educators often create

worksheets for students on a daily basis.

In accounting a worksheet often refers to a loose leaf piece

of stationery from a columnar pad, as opposed to one that has been bound

into a physical ledger book. From this the term was extended to designate a

single two-dimensional array of data within a computerized spreadsheet

program.

In the Microsoft spreadsheet program Excel, a single document is known as

a "workbook" and by default each workbook contains three arrays or

"worksheets." One advantage of such programs is that they can contain

formulas so that if one cell value is changed, the entire document is

automatically updated, based on those formulas. Analysts, investors, and

accountants track a company's financial statements, balance sheets, and

other data on worksheets. Worksheets can be made with Microsoft Office

Excel and other formula based software. More sophisticated database

programs may display data from many tables as a "view."

In academia, a survey article is a paper that is a work of synthesis,

published through the usual channels (a learned journal or collective volume,

such as conference proceedings or collection of essays). It stands outside the

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usual run of research papers, for two reasons: it is not presented as the

author's original research, but as a survey or summary of a field; and it is not

necessarily subject to the same degree of peer review. Sometimes short

survey articles appear in the guise of book reviews, where the context of the

book is summarised first, often at greater length than is devoted to the book.

The treatment in a survey article is often more sketchy than would be

accepable in a textbook, and the topic or sub-field chosen one in which

recent work seems to require summary. In its objectivity, a survey article

may lie somewhere between a personal essay, and an encyclopedia article.

The intention is to give rapid access to material scattered over many papers.

Some fields, such as theoretical physics, depend quite highly on such

surveys to bring recent progress into focus, on a time scale of around 18

months to two years.

STRENGTHS:

- allows people to thing for themselves without being influences by

others

- individual thoughts can then be shared in large group

LIMITATIONS:

- can be used only for short period of time

PREPARATION:

- facilitator has to prepare handouts

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Index Card Exercise

An index card is heavy paper stock cut to a standard size. Index cards are

often used for recording individual items of information that can then be

easily rearranged and filed. The most common size in the United

States and Russia is 3 in by 5 in (76 by 127 mm), hence the common

name 3-by-5 card. Other sizes widely available include 4 in by 6 in (102 by

152 mm), 5 in by 8 in (127 by 203 mm) andISO-size A7 (74 mm by

105 mm). Cards are available in blank, ruled and grid styles in a variety of

colors. Special divider cards with protruding tabs and a variety of cases and

trays to hold the cards are also sold by stationers.

As the name implies, index cards were widely used in

the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to create an index to large collections

of documents. A major law firm, for example, might have a room full of

metal cabinets with drawers designed to hold index cards. Clerks might fill

out several cards for an individual document or legal case, allowing them to

be filed alphabetically under a number of terms.

STRENGTHS:

- opportunity to explore difficult and complex issues

LIMITATIONS:

- people may not do exercise

PREPARATION:

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- facilitator must prepare questions

Guest Speaker

Incorporating a guest speaker into a distance education course can be a great

way to bring up-to-the-minute expertise to a cohort-based course. A

"listserv," threaded discussion environment (such as a course bulletin board),

or even a course chat room can be used to enable a guest speaker to interact

with students. The guest speaker will, of course, want to know what s/he is

getting into! To aid the speaker, the following set of guidelines was put

together for an Adult Education course that might be useful to "borrow" for

other courses!

STRENGTHS:

- personalizes topic

- breaks down audience's stereotypes

LIMITATIONS:

- may not be a good speaker

PREPARATION:

- contact speakers and coordinate

- introduce speaker appropriately

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Values Clarification Exercise

Values change over time in response to changing life experiences.

Recognizing these changes and understanding how they affect one's actions

and behaviors is the goal of the values clarification process. Values

clarification will not tell you what your values should be, it simply provides

the means to discover what your values are.

For the purpose of values clarification, Raths, Harmin and Simon identified

seven criteria that must be met if a value is to be considered a full value.

These criteria can be divided into three categories: choosing, prizing and

acting. To be a full value, the value must be chosen freely from a list of

alternatives, only after thoughtful consideration has been given to the

consequences of each alternative. The value must be cherished and made

known to other people. The value must also be translated into behaviors that

are consistent with the chosen value and integrated into the life style.

STRENGTHS:

- opportunity to explore values and beliefs

- allows people to discuss values in a safe environment

- gives structure to discussion

LIMITATION:

- people may not be honest

- people may be too self-conscious

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PREPARATION:

- facilitator must carefully prepare exercise

- must give clear instructions

- facilitator must prepare discussion questions

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Ancient education

About 3000 BC, with the advent of writing, education became more

conscious or self-reflective, with specialized occupations requiring

particularskills and knowledge on how to be a scribe, an astronomer, etc.

Philosophy in ancient Greece led to questions of educational method

entering national discourse. In his Republic, Plato describes a system of

instruction that he felt would lead to an ideal state. In his Dialogues, Plato

describes the Socratic method.

It has been the intent of many educators since then, such as the Roman

educator Quintilian, to find specific, interesting ways to encourage students

to use their intelligence and to help them to learn.

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Medieval education

Comenius, in Bohemia, wanted all boys and girls to learn. In his The World

in Pictures, he gave the first vivid, illustrated textbook which contained

much that children would be familiar with in everyday life, and use it to

teach the academic subjects they needed to know. Rabelaisdescribed how

the student Gargantua learned about the world, and what is in it.

Much later, Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his Emile,

presented methodology to teach children the elements of science and much

more. In it, he famously eschewed books, saying the world is one's book.

And so Emile was brought out into the woods without breakfast to learn the

cardinal directions and the positions of the sun as he found his way home for

something to eat.

There was also Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi of Switzerland, whose

methodology during Napoleonic warfare enabled refugee children, of a

class believed to be unteachable, to learn - and love to learn. He describes

this in his account of the educational experiment at Stanz. He felt the key to

have children learn is for them to be loved, but his method, though

transmitted later in the school for educators he founded, has been thought

"too unclear to be taught today". One result was, when he would ask,

"Children, do you want to learn more or go to sleep?" they would reply,

"Learn more!"

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20th century

In the 20th century, the philosopher and cult founder, Eli Siegel, who

believed that all children are equally capable of learning regardless ofethnic

background or social class, stated: "The purpose of all education is to like

the world through knowing it." This is a goal which is implicit in previous

educators, but in this principle, it is made conscious. With this principle at

basis, teachers, predominantly in New York, have found that students learn

the curriculum with the kind of eagerness that Pestalozzi describes for his

students at Stanz centuries earlier.

Many current teaching philosophies are aimed at fulfilling the precepts of a

curriculum based on Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English

(SDAIE). Arguably the qualities of a SDAIE curriculum are as effective if

not more so for all 'regular' classrooms.

Some critical ideas in today's education environment include:

Instructional scaffolding

Graphic organizers

Standardized testing

According to Dr. Shaikh Imran, the teaching methodology in education is a

new concept in the teaching learning process. New methods involved in the

teaching learning process are television, radio, computer, etc.

Other educators believe that the use of technology, while facilitating

learning to some degree, is not a substitute for educational method that

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brings out critical thinking and a desire to learn. Another modern teaching

method is inquiry learning and the related inquiry-based science.

Elvis H. Bostwick recently concluded Dr. Cherry's quantitative study "The

Interdisciplinary Effect of Hands On Science", a three-year study of

3920 middle school students and their Tennessee State Achievement scores

in Math, Science, Reading and Social Studies. MetropolitanNashville Public

School is considered urban demographically and can be compared to many

of urban schools nationally and internationally. This study divided students

on the basis of whether they had hands on trained teachers over the three-

year period addressed by the study.

Students who had a hands-on trained science teacher for one or more years

had statistically higher standardized test scores in science, math and social

studies. For each additional year of being taught by a hands-on trained

teacher, the student's grades increased.

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Bibliography

BOOKS

1. Gilbert Highet, The Art of Teaching, Knopf, 1950

2. Palmer, Parker. Teaching Practice: Teaching Methods

WEB

1. www.wekipedia.com

2. www.google.com

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