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C ONTENTS
1. C HAPTER 1: I NTRODUCTION
2. C HAPTER 2: BLOCK DIAGRAM AND CIRCUITS
3. C HAPTER 3: DETAILS OF PCBS USED
4. C HAPTER 4: DETAILS OF ICS USED
5. C HAPTER 5: FLOW DIAGRAM
6. C HAPTER 6: CONTROL SOFTWARE
7. C HAPTER 7: DETAILS OF MDS FOR 8032
8. C HAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS
9. C HAPTER 9: B IBLIOGRAPHY
10. A NNEXURE : DATA SHEETS
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C HAPTER 1
I NTRODUCTION
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INTRODUCTION TO THE P ROJECT
In the present times, the connectivity between equipment is increasing. The
computers are inter-connected to get the maximum benefit out of polling resources and quick
interchanging of data. It is aptly named as networked world. Though the equipments are
networked or inter-connected, the actual data has to go through the connecting wire. The
mass of wires restricted the distance between the equipments and it was becoming a limiting
factor. The countries are connected by optic fibers, whose lengths equal the circumference of
the Earth or more. 3 years back a undersea and overland cable was laid to connect Europe
and Asia. The cable project was named as SEA-ME-WE (South East Asia Middle East
West Europe). The cable was submerged undersea from Middle east to Indian shores of
Kerala. From there it traveled over the land and it left India from Chennai on the eastern side
to Malaysia and Singapore. This was hailed as a milestone in inter-continental
communication as this communication network now connects these countries.
Though there are Satellite links, the need for wires was not altogether non existent.
When this is the situation in the international scenario, where the Satellite and other wireless
methods are replacing wires gradually, the situation at micro level was still based on wires.
The ICs are still inter-connected by wires. For example, the more and more data bits were
added to microprocessors and Micro controllers, the number of wires needed to
communicate between the master (Processor) and the slave devices (ADCs, RTCs, Memory
devices to name a few), needed several pairs of wire for communication. In this context, the
work done by the engineers of Philips needs to be mentioned. While several methods were
suggested to connect Master and Slave ICs, the idea of Phillips was found to be easy to adopt
by most designers. This technique is called I2
C short for Inter IC Communication. It used
two wires, one for clock and other for data. It can be seen that the technique is an advanced
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serial communication, which makes use of its own clock, there by eliminating handshake
problems. Just by using two wires and a ground reference (this is actually called as 3-wire
technology), several devices can be connected in parallel, but addressed independently by the
master. This has come very close to reducing wires but not actually replacing wires for inter
equipment communication.
The solution for such wireless communication between equipment is a recent one
when several equipment manufacturers across the world had joined together to propose a
solution. This is called Blutooth technology. The description of this technology is given
below for reference.
BLUETOOTH is a low cost, low power, short-range radio technology, originally
developed as a cable replacement to connect devices such as mobile phone handsets,
headsets, and portable computers by enabling standardized wireless communications
between any electrical devices, Bluetooth has created the notion of Personal Area
Network (PAN), a kind of close range wireless network that looks set to revolutionize
the way people interact with the information technology landscape around them.
(J. Bray & C.F. Sturman, BLUETOOTH Connect Without Cables, Prentice Hall 2001,
page 1).
It can be seen that the Blutooth (as it now called) technology is set to invade Industry
and home environment. The protocol for communication is an elaborate and complicated
one. But it made easy by the IC manufacturers who propose to make custom built processors
for this technology. But this experiment is in the initial stages and it will take several years
for the technology to be adopted in Indian industry and homes.
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It can be understood at this stage, that this project proposes to replace wires between
the sensor and the equipment. The idea of using a temperature sensor is to make it easy
for demonstration of the proposed principle. It can be replaced by any sensor that needs
to be measured and needs controlling. The sequence of operation is explained here.
The Temperature sensor and associated amplifier is designed to give 10 mV/ oC.
A V-to-F is used to convert this voltage into frequency. This stage gives 1 Hz/mV
This frequency is transmitted to the master control unit through FM
The receiver at the Master control unit recovers this frequency. The frequency is
fed into a F-to-V converter designed to give 1mV/Hz.
This voltage is fed to an ADC, which gives 8-bit digital equivalent of the voltage
input. In effect the digital output is equivalent to the temperature.
Micro controller reads this 8-bit value and displays this value.
C now reads the 3 digit push wheel switch (PWS) and compares the displayed
temperature value with PWS.
If PWS is lower than temperature, a OFF signal is issued to the heater unit
If PWS-5>Temperature, then heater On signal is issued.
This operation is repeated in an endless loop
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CHAPTER 2:
BLOCK DIAGRAM
AND
CIRCUITS
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Block diagram for Remote temperature Control unit.
PT 100 Probe
Container
With water
Electric heater
Remote UNIT (Temperature) to be controlled
The Master control unit
Tx-RxSwitching
Network
Wheat stone
Bridge andAmplifier CA741
F-to-VConverter LM 331
433.97MHzTransmitter
RemoteBELL
Receiver
Solid stateRelaycontrol
Tx-Rx
Switching Network
RemoteBellTransmitter
433.97MHzReceiver
F-to-VConverter LM 331
80C32 andAddressdecoder andEPROMunits ADC
0808withgates
LCD and TWS units
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The Working method:
1. The C, when switched on initialises required memory locations, sends a heater on pulse
and initializes LCD.
2. The ADC is read and the 8 bit hex is converted in to 3 digit BCD. This value is displayed
in LCD. The Push wheel switch is now read.
3. The value of push wheel switch (PWS) and BCD is compared. To PWS is greater then, no
action is taken and it goes to step 2.
4. If PWS>BCD, then the C waits for Transmission from remote unit to be over, to switch
on its transmitter to send power OFF pulse to remote unit. Power to the heater at remote
unit will be switched off. The temperature now comes down.
5. The ADC is read and PWS-5
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T HE INTERFACE BOARD
02
04
05
06
07
08
09
20
14
13
12
10
01
11 19
18
1703
16
15
20
11
02
03
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01
10
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20
02
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01
19
02
03
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06
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20
05
18
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15
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12
11
10
01
19
D0
D1
D2
D3
RS
En
Gnd, R/W, Intensity
Vc c
16 Charector 1 - line LCDDisplay Unit
3 digit PUSHWHEEL Switch
Isolation Diodes12 x 1N4148
Tx ON
Heater ON
Heater OFF
FROM theoutput of ADC0804
Rx ON signal in
P R O J E C T :R e m o t e w T e m p e r a t u r e
s e n s o r & C o n t r o l l e r- I n t e r f a c e B o a r d
+ 5V
20 PinFR CFromC PCB
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The MAIN BOARD - C Board
+
A D 1
A D 2
A D 6
A D 7
A 4
A 7
A 5
D 1
D 2
D 3
L E
0 9
0 8
0 5
0 4
0 2
0 6
0 7
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 0
0 12 0P 2 . 0
P 2 . 2
P 2 . 3
P S E N
3 6
2 1
2 4
2 2
3 4
3 5
3 8 0 9
0 8
0 6
0 4
0 3
0 5
0 7
1 0
1 7
1 9
1 3
1 5
1 6
1 8
0 2
2 0
2 8P 2 . 1
1 0
1 1
0 1 2 0
2 1 9
1 2 9
1 3 8
1 4 7
1 5 6
1 6 5
1 7 4
1 8 8
1 3
1 7
1 6
1 2
0 2
0 5
0 6
0 7
0 8
0 4
0 1
0 3
G n d +
7 8 0 5
1 N 4 0 0 7
1 N 4 0 0 7
2 2 0 E L E D
1 8
1 9
1 2 Mx t a l 2 2 0 V
A . C .
8 0 C 3 1
C S
A 1 1
A 1 0
A 9
A 8
D 01 2
2 7 C 6 47 4 L S 5 7 3
2 K 1 N 4 1 4 8
3 3 p F x 2
3 3
0 9
A D 3
A D 5
A L E
A D 4
A D 0
2 0 p i n F R C c o n n e c t o r -c o n n e c t s t o o t h e r b o a r d s
2 6
2 7
0 1
2 4
2 1
2 5
2 3
2 2
A 0
A 3
1 8A 6
+ 5 V9 - 0 - 9 V - 1 A
+
0 3
1 9
A 2
A 1
D 7
D 6
D 5
D 4
1 2
1 1
1 1
3 9
3 2
3 7
3 1
2 3
3 0
1 4
1 5
2 0
4 0
1 1 1 0
2 F
+
8 0 C 3 1 C - M a i n B O A R D
+
2 2 0 0 F
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Project Report: Remote Temperature Sensor and Controller
1K
1K
1K 2
1K 2
-5
2
3
6
7
4
-12V
2
3
7
00be
470E
1K 2
1K
+5
10K MTP
47 K4K 7
74 174 1
10 K
100K
8 3
1 F 0.01F
12 K+10K
MT P
4
6
16
100K
47E22 K
10K MTP
42
5
7L M 3 3 1
+ 12 V
+ 5 V
Transmitter
100K
1M
2
78
1
4
9 5 6
10 183.59 MHz0.1F
390K
65
3
14
7
9
10
13
12
1
2
8
11
4
14
12
3
17
16
0.1F400V
470E
220E 220E
1KBC548
LE D
2
14
6
MO C3041
BT13 6
The switching circuitis not shown here
L
Heater ONIndicator
0 VACom EB
Heater 00 W
7 4 0 0
8 8 7 0
+5
R e c e i v e r
6
1 25
7
43
83 3 1
10 K
220 pF
1920 6
46
8
1
2
7
10
11
18171615141312
3 5
A D C 0 8 0 4
7 4 13
2 67
4
-12 V
2
1
5
4
3
7
3 V Z e n o r 1 K
1 0 K0 . 1 F
B C 5 4 8
11
14
12
16
1 0 0 F
1
2
3
4
6
13
5
7
6
12
14
1 K
-12V
+12V
To 74LS573
4 pin rely mateconnector
+5 V
MSB D7
LSB - D0
+12V
+5 V
pin 11pin 12
pin 14pin 13
pin 15pin 16pin 17pin 18
10 pinrelymate
pins of 74245to bematched
LE DLE D
220E 220E
14
7
2
13
65
4
7 4 0 0
4 0 6 69 1 2 1 4
F MT x
F MR x
100K
10 K0. 1
12 K
BC54 8
470pF
10 K
1F100K
5K
12K
68 K
10 K 6K 8
CAP NP
3 . 5 8M H zX t a l
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CHAPTER 3:
DETAILS OF PCB S USED
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Description of Boards
usedMICRO CONTROLLER BOARD
The C board, which acts as a mother board by excising control over all other boards,
Consists of a C Chip 80C31, an 8 bit latch and an EPROM. It is connected to other boards
through a 20-pin FRC (Flat Ribbon Cable) connector, which carries the 8 bits of PORT-1
and 8 chip-selects from Port 3. Also this board has the four Port 3 bits of INT0, INT1 and T0
and T1 brought out separately through a 6 pin rely mate connector for future use. The C
80C31 is a 40 Pin Chip, which works on + 5V DC supply and has a 12 MHz crystal
connected as clock source. It has four 8-bit Ports, named Port 0 through Port 3. The reset pin
is connected to ground through a 47K resistor and a 0.1 F/Tantalum capacitor is connected
between reset pin and positive supply. A push switch is connected across this capacitor to
apply reset manually when ever required. The supply to this board is through a 3 pin rely
mate connector. It connects the micro controller board with power supply. The power supply
will supply 5 V DC @ 1.0 amps and 12 V DC @ 200 mA. An LED on the micro controller
board indicated that the power is applied to the board.
The Port 0 is used as multiplexed Address-Data lines AD0 to AD7, as in 8085 and
the PORT-2 will be used by the C to emit higher order address bits - A8 to A15. These two
ports would have been available to us if we elected to use 89C51 (From ATMEL, USA) or
87C51 or 80C51 (From Intel USA). But the Micro controller development system that we
have used supported only 80C31 and we have decided to stick to the same C in our project
design for the sake of simplicity. A 27C64 is used, which is an 8K byte EPROM, to store and
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generate the required sequence of hex byte command and data for the C. This is the least
capacity EPROM presently available in the market.
Using an 8 bit latch 74HC573, along with ALE of 80C32 like in 8085 systems, the
address and data lines are separated and latched. As explained in earlier chapters, the Port 3
bits of 80C32 have additional usage or alternate uses. The ICE for 80C32 that we have used
has given us the control over entire port 1 bits and port 3 bits. The Emulator was driven by a
serial communication port (RS 232) of the PC. It was very easy for us to connect the
emulator to the Microcontroller board as there was no need to effect any change.
Had we not used ICE for 80C32, we would have to have to try the control software in
the simulator and having perfected to the extend possible, the same should have been burned
into an EPROM. If the circuit works after power up, then every thing is OK. Generally the
electronics circuit does not work on the first try and the emulator had given us a chance to
run the programme under our control. The emulator uses an 8 K RAM for downloading the
programme from the computer and configures this RAM as EPROM and connects it to the
micro controller inside for real time emulation. The additional control circuitry takes the
command on the computer keyboard and controls the way the micro controller works. This
micro controller board has a 20 pin connector on its side. The other boards that need to be
connected will also have an identical 20 pin connector, so that the data and control lines
along with supply lines may be interconnected between boards. This type of arrangement is
easy to implement and messy interconnecting wiring of individual points are avoided.
The reset switch is brought out on the panel board for applying manual reset by the
user. The housing in which the project is enclosed will have an LED on the panel to indicate
the status of power to the micro controller board.
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INPUT/OUTPUT BOARD
As explained earlier in this chapter, the micro-controller board can only support 16
lines in the test target board for interfacing the controller with other devices. As we need
several 8-bit ports to realize the required functions for our project, we are forced to find a
solution for this problem. One solution is to connect an 8255 PPA with two 8-bit ports and
two 4-bit ports. The 8255 IC draws considerable amount of power. We have decided to use
8-bit latches and transceivers in the place of 8255 to realise the required port implement.
We have chosen 74LS573, an 8-bit latch to be used as an output port. This IC has its
pin 1 grounded to make the chip always selectable. The chip enable pin 11 will be used to
latch on to the new data as and we require. This IC suits our requirement for output port. For
realizing an input port, we have chosen 74LS245, an 8-bit transparent bus transceiver. This
IC has the capacity to transmit or receive the signals in 8-bit groups. This means that the
direction of data flow can be controlled. It can transmit or receive data. That is why this IC is
classified as Transceiver (Combination of TRANSmitter reCEIVER. We have grounded its
direction pin (Pin 1) to make it only receive the signals. This way we use this IC as an input
buffer. The advantage in using such an arrangement is that the ports need not be initialised
and only setting or clearing the corresponding bit in port 3, which acts as CS for the port
under use, we can operate the appropriate ports. Consequently the power consumed by this
arrangement is far below the 40 pins IC 8255. Additionally, there is no reset or clock
required as in 8255 for synchronising. The hand shaking capabilities of 8255 is missing in
this simple-to-implement port buffers. As our requirement for this particular project is
minimum resources requirement, we really do not the sophistications of 8255.
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For both the ICs (74LS245 and 74LS573), the Data input pins are pin 2 to pin 9,
which are multiplexed that is pin2 of all buffers are connected together, pin3 off all buffers
are connected together and so on. The multiplexed lines are terminated in the 20-pin FRC
connector. The connection on 20 Pin FRC on this Input/Output board is identical to the
connections on 20 Pin FRC connector on the micro controller board. When the two boards
are inter connected by a 20 pin FRC, the pins of 80C32 and the input pins of the buffers are
connected. This connection will ensure that pin1 of 80C32 will connect to pin2 of all buffers
(D0). Similarly pin2 of 80C32 will connect to common pin3 of buffers as D1. Similarly pin3
to pin 8 of 80C32 will connect to Pin4 to pin 9 of buffers. The chip selects of all the buffers
are yet to be connected. The appropriate bits of port 3 from 80C32 will be used as chip
select.
This board houses four devices, two each of 74LS245 and 74LS573. This
arrangement will enable us to connect two such boards in parallel by choosing different Port
3 pins for chip select. The input side of the 74LS245 (Pin 18 to Pin 11) has a SIP resistor of
10K pull-up (The pins are pulled up by default to read a high, when there is no signal
present). The output latches and the input of the transceiver are terminated in a 10 pin rely
mate connector each for external connection. This board also has an LED indicator to give
the visual indication of power being connected to this board.
The 10 pin connector on the buffer has the 8 bit data and supply lines. This will
ensure that the devices connected to the buffers are properly powered up.
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INTERFACE BOARD for INPUT & OUTPUT operations
This board interfaces Micro controller and the Transmitter receiver of the master
control unit. The receiver output is in audio range and this represents the value of the output
from the temperature sensor in Hz (1Hz = 1 mV). This frequency is converted in to voltage
by F-to-V converter using LM331. The output is buffered and the resultant analogue voltage
is supplied to the ADC 0804. The 8-bit digital value equivalent to the temperature is supplied
to the Micro controller for processing. When Micro controller wants to switch off the heater,
it waits for the transmission from the heater unit to be over and issues an OFF command.
Sending a DTMF tone over the FM channel by the Micro controller brings about this effect.
For ON command a different DTMF tone is sent. MM91214 DTMF generator is used for
this purpose by the controller.
Heater Control Unit
The heater control unit consists of sensor amplifier for giving an output of 10 mV/ oC.
This voltage is converted in to equivalent frequency by V-to-F converter LM331. This
resultant Frequency is transmitted to the master control unit through an FM transmitter. The
control signal received from the master control unit in the form of DTMF signal is decoded
by the DTMF to BCD decoder IC mm8870D. The decoded output is used to drive a Flip-flop
formed around 74LS00. The output is used to drive a TRIAC BT 136 through opto coupler
Triac IC CA3041.
POWER SUPPLY BOARD
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The DC power for the entire equipment is supplied by a linear Power supply built
around a Transformer of 0 10 V AC, secondary at 1 Amp capacity. A bridge rectifier
formed by four power diodes 1N4007 converts the AC into fluctuating DC. The filtering of
this pulsating DC is done by the capacitor of 2200 F/25 V DC. A 3-pin regulator IC 7805,
with suitable heat sink is connected to the output of the bridge-filter capacitor. The resultant
5 V DC is supplied to the C board and through 20-pin FRC connector to other boards. The
unregulated DC is used to power any device that needs 12 V for its operation.
T HE T RANSMITTER BOARD
The equipment under observation will have a potential free contact associated with its
working condition. Potential free condition means the contact will not source or sink any
electrical potential. It may a relay contact. The equipment may be generally ON and the
contacts will be in closed condition. As and when this contact opens, the fault condition is
generated. In some equipment, the equipment may normally be OFF and when the fault
occurs, it comes ON. In such conditions, the contacts will normally be open and when they
close, the fault condition is generated. In reality different parts of the same equipment may
be under observation. For example a chemical tank is under observation. The lower limit and
upper limit are being monitored. The probe for the lower limit is always immersed and the
associated relay will always be on. The upper limit probe should not be on and the associated
relay will always be off. When the lower limit relay open an error condition is generated.
In the way, if the relay associated with upper limit closes, the fault condition is generated.
For each equipment or points to be monitored, a transmitter with an audio oscillator
is associated. As long as the relay is ON, the transmitter is also ON and the window
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annunciator receives this FM carrier wave and also the audio frequency modulated. The
audio oscillator is built around the Timer IC 555 in free running mode. The audio range
frequency generated is fed to the FM transmitter. The power for the entire circuit is given
through the relay contact. When the relay is ON, power for this circuit is supplied and the
transmission is done. In the actual circuit a switch is provided as there is no equipment is
monitored. The switch is used to send or stop the transmission.
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CHAPTER 4:
DETAILS OF ICS USED
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IC S USED IN THE P ROJECT
INTEL 80C31 - C
The heart of any project is the brain or the C which combines the functions of
P and an I/O process. In this project the central command is INTELs industrial standard
C 80C31. This is an 8 bit controller, that is it communicates internally as well as externally
through an 8 bit data bus. There are several variations to this family of controllers and this
particular controller is chosen because the controller does not have internal ROM. The
control programme should be stored in an external ROM or EPROM. It is easy to
programme conventional EPROMs in comparison to special devices needed for programming 87C51 or 89C51, which can have up to 4K of internal programme memory.
This consideration is the main reason for choosing this particular micro controller. Another
reason is the availability of In-Circuit-Emulator or ICE for 8032. The ICE for 8032 is a
versatile tool that would make developing control software for 8032 an easy task. The
working of the ICE for 8032 is explained in detail in the MDS for 8032 chapter of this
report.
This 40 pin IC comes in different flavours and the generic type number is 80C31. In this
version, the ports P0 and P2 of the micro controller are NOT available for the designer.
These ports will serve as multiplexed Address-Data BUS, AD0-AD7 (Port 0) and Address
Bus A8 to A15 (port 2). Using an octal latch, the DATA and ADDRESS bus can be
separated, like in 80C85 circuits. The Other two ports are used to expand the usable port to 8
numbers of 8 bit ports. This is done by using 74LS245 8-bit transceiver as an input buffer
and 74LS573 8-bit latch as an output buffer. The port 1 (P1) is used as 8-bit data bus to
send and receive information to output buffer or to read 8-bit data from input buffer. Port 3
(P3) is used as chip select and up to 8 such devices in any combination of input and output
can be used. The provision is made for 8 input/output buffers.
The capacity of this processor to address individual bit locations made it a very
versatile IC. For this reason this IC is also called as Boolean Processor or Bit processor.
Several instruction to handle bit related process makes it a unique processor. The final
control programme becomes very compact and it can be executed very efficiently. The two-
byte instruction in the traditional three bytes instructions of 80C85 makes the resultant
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EPROM memory extremely small. Using page concepts and defining 3 types of jumps, the
designer of this processor had given high speed processing capabilities. The speed with
which the instructions are executed can be compared with conventional processor. In the
coming pages, an attempt to explain some of the salient features of this IC has been made,
which is the favourite of the Electronic Industry.
Another reason for choosing this C is the availability of resources for developing
control programmes. The computer screen based simulator downloaded from the Internet,
the in-circuit-emulator for 80C31 controller, several data sheets, assemblers etc, made us use
this IC for this project. The details are given in the following pages on the salient points that
are markedly different from the popular P IC 80C85.
We start the discussion about this controller, with the type of memory it offers to the
designers and explain the SFRs and BIT manipulation techniques. In order to keep the
explanation short, we have not explained the full working of this IC. It has several features
that makes it the industry standards, but as explained we limit it to the required features for
carrying out this project.
TYPES OF MEMORY
The 8051 has three very general types of memory. To effectively program the 8051 it is
necessary to have a basic understanding of these memory types.
The memory types are illustrated in the following graphic.
They are: On-Chip Memory, External Code Memory, and
External RAM.
On-Chip Memory refers to any memory (Code, RAM, or
other) that physically exists on the microcontroller itself. On-
chip memory can be of several types, but we'll get into that
shortly.
External Code Memory is code (or program) memory that resides off-chip. This is often in
the form of an external EPROM.
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External RAM is RAM memory that resides off-chip. This is often in the form of standard
static RAM or flash RAM.
Code Memory
Code memory is the memory that holds the actual 8051 program that is to be run. This
memory is limited to 64K and comes in many shapes and sizes: Code memory may be found
on-chip , either burned into the microcontroller as ROM or EPROM. Code may also be stored
completely off-chip in an external EPROM. That is, it is possible to have 4K of code memory
on-chip and 64k of code memory off-chip in an EPROM.
However, code memory is most commonly implemented as off-chip EPROM. This is
especially true in low-cost development systems and in systems developed by students.
External RAM
As an obvious opposite of Internal RAM , the 8051 also supports what is called External
RAM .
As the name suggests, External RAM is any random access memory, which is found off-
chip . Since the memory is off-chip it is not as flexible in terms of accessing, and is also
slower. For example, to increment an Internal RAM location by 1 requires only 1 instructionand 1 instruction cycle. To increment a 1-byte value stored in External RAM requires 4
instructions and 7 instruction cycles. In this case, external memory is 7 times slower!
On-Chip Memory
8051 includes a certain amount of on-chip memory. On-chip memory is really one of two
types: Internal RAM and Special Function Register (SFR) memory. The layout of the 8051's
internal memory is presented in the following memory map:
As is illustrated in this map, the 8051 has a bank of 128 bytes of Internal RAM . This Internal
RAM is found on-chip on the 8051 so it is the fastest RAM available, and it is also the most
flexible in terms of reading, writing, and modifying its contents. Internal RAM is volatile,
so when the 8051 is reset, this memory is cleared.
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The 128 bytes of internal ram is
subdivided as shown on the memory
map. The first 8 bytes (00h - 07h)
are "register bank 0". By
manipulating certain SFRs, a
program may choose to use register
banks 1, 2, or 3. These alternative
register banks are located in internal
RAM in addresses 08h through 1Fh.
Bit Memory also lives and is part of
internal RAM. The bit addressable
memory resides in internal RAM,
from addresses 20h through 2Fh.
The 80 bytes remaining of Internal
RAM, from addresses 30h through 7Fh, may be used by user variables that need to be
accessed frequently or at high-speed. This area is also utilized by the Microcontroller as a
storage area for the operating stack . This fact severely limits the 8051s stack since, as
illustrated in the memory map, the area reserved for the stack is only 80 bytes--and usually it
is less since these 80 bytes has to be shared between the stack and user variables.
Register Banks
The 8051 uses 8 "R" registers which are used in many of its instructions. These "R" registers
are numbered from 0 through 7 (R0, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, and R7). These registers are
generally used to assist in manipulating values and moving data from one memory location
to another. For example, to add the value of R4 to the Accumulator, we would execute the
following instruction:
ADD A, R4
Thus if the Accumulator (A) contained the value 6 and R4 contained the value 3, the
Accumulator would contain the value 9 after this instruction was executed.
However, as the memory map shows, the "R" Register R4 is really part of Internal RAM.
Specifically, R4 is address 04h. This can be see in the bright green section of the memory
map. Thus the above instruction accomplishes the same thing as the following operation:
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ADD A, 04h
This instruction adds the value found in Internal RAM address 04h to the value of the
Accumulator, leaving the result in the Accumulator. Since R4 is really Internal RAM 04h,
the above instruction effectively accomplished the same thing.
But watch out! As the memory map shows, the 8051 has four distinct register banks. When
the 8051 is first booted up, register bank 0 (addresses 00h through 07h) is used by default.
However, your program may instruct the 8051 to use one of the alternate register banks; i.e.,
register banks 1, 2, or 3. In this case, R4 will no longer be the same as Internal RAM address
04h. For example, if your program instructs the 8051 to use register bank 3, "R" register R4
will now be synonymous with Internal RAM address 1Ch.
The concept of register banks adds a great level of flexibility to the 8051, especially when
dealing with interrupts (we'll talk about interrupts later). However, always remember that the
register banks really reside in the first 32 bytes of Internal RAM.
Bit Memory
The 8051, being a communications-oriented microcontroller, gives the user the ability to
access a number of bit variables . These variables may be either 1 or 0.
There are 128 bit variables available to the user, numbered 00h through 7Fh. The user may
make use of these variables with commands such as SETB and CLR. For example, to set bit
number 24 (hex) to 1 you would execute the instruction:
SETB 24h
It is important to note that Bit Memory is really a part of Internal RAM. In fact, the 128 bit
variables occupy the 16 bytes of Internal RAM from 20h through 2Fh. Thus, if you write the
value FFh to Internal RAM address 20h youve effectively set bits 00h through 07h. That is
that:
MOV 20h, #0FF h => SETB 00h, SETB 01h, SETB 02h, SETB 03h, SETB 04h,
SETB 05h, SETB 06h, SETB 07h
As illustrated above, bit memory isnt really a new type of memory. Its really just a subset
of Internal RAM. But since the 8051 provides special instructions to access these 16 bytes of
memory on a bit by bit basis it is useful to think of it as a separate type of memory. However,
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always keep in mind that it is just a subset of Internal RAM--and that operations performed
on Internal RAM can change the values of the bit variables.
Bit variables 00h through 7Fh are for user-defined functions in their programs. However, bit
variables 80h and above are actually used to access certain SFRs on a bit-by-bit basis. For
example, if output lines P0.0 through P0.7 are all clear (0) and you want to turn on the P0.0
output line you may either execute:
MOV P0, #01h (or) SETB 80h
Both these instructions accomplish the same thing. However, using the SETB command will
turn on the P0.0 line without affecting the status of any of the other P0 output lines. The
MOV command effectively turns off all the other output lines, which, in some cases, may not
be acceptable. The Best way is to make the full use of the processor its bit handling
capacity. 80C32 family of processors are called as Boolean processors and the bit handling
commands will be used straight away, rather than masking technique used in byte oriented
processor like 80C85
SFRs
The 8051 is a flexible Microcontroller with a relatively large number of modes of operations.
Your program may inspect and/or change the operating mode of the 8051 by manipulating
the values of the 8051's Special Function Registers (SFRs). SFRs are accessed as if they
were normal Internal RAM. The only difference is that Internal RAM is from address 00h
through 7Fh whereas SFR registers exist in the address range of 80h through FFh.
Each SFR has an address (80h through FFh) and a name. The following chart provides a
graphical presentation of the 8051's SFRs, their names, and their address.
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Although the address range of 80h through FFh offers 128 possible addresses, there are only
21 SFRs in a standard 8051. All other addresses in the SFR range (80h through FFh) are
considered invalid. Writing to or reading from these registers may produce undefined values
or behaviour.
SFR Descriptions
P0 (Port 0, Address 80h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 0. Each bit of this
SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the microcontroller. For example, bit 0 of port 0 is pin
P0.0, bit 7 is pin P0.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the
corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low level.PCON (Power Control, Addresses 87h): The Power Control SFR is used to control the
8051's power control modes. Certain operation modes of the 8051 allow the 8051 to go into a
type of "sleep" mode, which requires much, less power. These modes of operation are
controlled through PCON. Additionally, one of the bits in PCON is used to double the
effective baud rate of the 8051's serial port.
TCON (Timer Control, Addresses 88h, Bit-Addressable): The Timer Control SFR is used
to configure and modify the way in which the 8051's two timers operate. This SFR controlswhether each of the two timers is running or stopped and contains a flag to indicate that each
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timer has overflowed. Additionally, some non-timer related bits are located in the TCON
SFR. These bits are used to configure the way in which the external interrupts are activated
and also contain the external interrupt flags, which are set when an external interrupt has
occurred.
TMOD (Timer Mode, Addresses 89h): The Timer Mode SFR is used to configure the
mode of operation of each of the two timers. Using this SFR your program may configure
each timer to be a 16-bit timer, an 8-bit auto reload timer, a 13-bit timer, or two separate
timers. Additionally, you may configure the timers to only count when an external pin is
activated or to count "events" that are indicated on an external pin.
TL0/TH0 (Timer 0 Low/High, Addresses 8Ah/8Bh): These two SFRs, together, represent
timer0. Their exact behaviour depends on how the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR;
however, these timers always count up. What is configurable is how and when they
increment in value.
TL1/TH1 (Timer 1 Low/High, Addresses 8Ch/8Dh): These two SFRs, together, represent
timer1. Their exact behaviour depends on how the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR;
however, these timers always count up. What is configurable is how and when they
increment in value.
P1 (Port 1, Address 90h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 1. Each bit of this
SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the microcontroller. For example, bit 0 of port 1 is pin
P1.0, bit 7 is pin P1.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the
corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low level.
SCON (Serial Control, Addresses 98h, Bit-Addressable): The Serial Control SFR is used
to configure the behaviour of the 8051's on-board serial port. This SFR controls the baud rate
of the serial port, whether the serial port is activated to receive data, and also contains flags
that are set when a byte is successfully sent or received.
SBUF (Serial Control, Addresses 99h): The Serial Buffer SFR is used to send and receive
data via the on-board serial port. Any value written to SBUF will be sent out the serial port's
TXD pin. Likewise, any value, which the 8051 receives via the serial ports RXD pin, will be
delivered to the user program via SBUF. In other words, SBUF serves as the output port
when written to and as an input port when read from.
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P2 (Port 2, Address A0h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 2. Each bit of this
SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the microcontroller. For example, bit 0 of port 2 is pin
P2.0, bit 7 is pin P2.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the
corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low level.
IE (Interrupt Enable, Addresses A8h): The Interrupt Enable SFR is used to enable and
disable specific interrupts. The low 7 bits of the SFR are used to enable/disable the specific
interrupts, where as the highest bit is used to enable or disable ALL interrupts. Thus, if the
high bit of IE is 0 all interrupts are disabled regardless of whether an individual interrupt is
enabled by setting a lower bit. The required interrupts bits are set for being processed or
ignored if reset.
P3 (Port 3, Address B0h, Bit-Addressable): This is input/output port 3. Each bit of thisSFR corresponds to one of the pins on the microcontroller. For example, bit 0 of port 3 is pin
P3.0, bit 7 is pin P3.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the
corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to a low level.
IP (Interrupt Priority, Addresses B8h, Bit-Addressable): The Interrupt Priority SFR is
used to specify the relative priority of each interrupt. On the 8051, an interrupt may either be
of low (0) priority or high (1) priority. An interrupt may only interrupt interrupts of lower
priority. For example, if we configure the 8051 so that all interrupts are of low priority
except the serial interrupt, the serial interrupt will always be able to interrupt the system,
even if another interrupt is currently executing. However, if a serial interrupt is executing no
other interrupt will be able to interrupt the serial interrupt routine since the serial interrupt
routine has the highest priority.
PSW (Program Status Word, Addresses D0h, Bit-Addressable): The Program Status
Word is used to store a number of important bits that are set and cleared by 8051
instructions. The PSW SFR contains the carry flag, the auxiliary carry flag, the overflow
flag, and the parity flag. Additionally, the PSW register contains the register bank select
flags which are used to select which of the "R" register banks are currently selected.
The Accumulator
The Accumulator, as its name suggests, is used as a general register to accumulate the
results of a large number of instructions. It can hold an 8-bit (1-byte) value and is the most
versatile register the 8051 has due to the shear number of instructions that make use of the
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accumulator. More than half of the 8051s 255 instructions manipulate or use the
accumulator in some way.
The "R" registers
The "R" registers are a set of eight registers that are named R0, R1, etc. up to and including
R7. These registers are used as auxiliary registers in many operations. To continue with the
above example, perhaps you are adding 10 and 20. The original number 10 may be stored in
the Accumulator whereas the value 20 may be stored in, say, register R4. To process the
addition you would execute the command:
ADD A, R4
After executing this instruction the Accumulator will contain the value 30.
The "B" Register
The "B" register is very similar to the Accumulator in the sense that it may hold an 8-bit (1-
byte) value. The "B" register is only used by two 8051 instructions: MUL AB and DIV AB.
Thus, if you want to quickly and easily multiply or divide A by another number, you may
store the other number in "B" and make use of these two instructions.
Aside from the MUL and DIV instructions, the "B" register is often used as yet another temporary storage register much like a ninth "R" register.
The Data Pointer (DPTR)
The Data Pointer (DPTR) is the 8051s only user-accessible 16-bit (2-byte) register. The
Accumulator, "R" registers, and "B" register are all 1-byte values.
DPTR, as the name suggests, is used to point to data. It is used by a number of commands,
which allow the 8051 to access external memory. When the 8051 accesses external memory
it will access external memory at the address indicated by DPTR.
While DPTR is most often used to point to data in external memory, many programmers
often take advantage of the fact that its the only true 16-bit register available. It is often used
to store 2-byte values, which have nothing to do with memory locations.
The Program Counter (PC)
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The Program Counter (PC) is a 2-byte address, which tells the 8051 where the next
instruction to execute is found in memory. When the 8051 is initialised PC always starts at
0000h and is incremented each time an instruction is executed. It is important to note that PC
isnt always incremented by one. Since some instructions require 2 or 3 bytes the PC will be
incremented by 2 or 3 in these cases.
The Stack Pointer (SP)
The Stack Pointer, like all registers except DPTR and PC, may hold an 8-bit (1-byte) value.
The Stack Pointer is used to indicate where the next value to be removed from the stack
should be taken from. When you push a value onto the stack, the 8051 first increments the
value of SP and then stores the value at the resulting memory location. When you pop a
value off the stack, the 8051 returns the value from the memory location indicated by SP,
and then decrements the value of SP.
This order of operation is important. When the 8051 is initialised SP will be initialised to
07h. If you immediately push a value onto the stack, the value will be stored in Internal
RAM address 08h. This makes sense taking into account what was mentioned two
paragraphs above: First the 8051 will increment the value of SP (from 07h to 08h) and then
will store the pushed value at that memory address (08h).
SP is modified directly by the 8051 by six instructions: PUSH, POP, ACALL, LCALL, RET,
and RETI. It is also used intrinsically whenever an interrupt is triggered.
Addressing Modes
An "addressing mode" refers to how you are addressing a given memory location. It may be
recalled that 8085 has direct, indirect, memory, immediate, indexed addressing modes. In
summary, the addressing modes are as follows, with an example of each:
Immediate Addressing MOV A,#20hDirect Addressing MOV A,30hIndirect Addressing MOV A,@R0External Direct MOVX A,@DPTR Code Indirect MOVC A,@A+DPTR
Each of these addressing modes provides important flexibility.
Immediate Addressing
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Immediate addressing is so-named because the value to be stored in memory immediately
follows the operation code in memory. That is, the instruction itself dictates what value will
be stored in memory. For example, the instruction:
MOV A, #20h
This instruction uses Immediate Addressing because the Accumulator will be loaded with the
value that immediately follows; in this case 20 (hexadecimal).
Immediate addressing is very fast since the value to be loaded is included in the instruction..
Direct Addressing
Direct addressing is so-named because the value to be stored in memory is obtained by
directly retrieving it from another memory location. For example:
MOV A, 30h
This instruction will read the data out of Internal RAM address 30 (hexadecimal) and store it
in the Accumulator. Direct addressing is generally fast since, although the value to be loaded
isnt included in the instruction, it is quickly accessible since it is stored in the 8051s
Internal RAM. It is also much more flexible than Immediate Addressing since the value to be
loaded is whatever is found at the given address--which may be variable.
Indirect Addressing
Indirect addressing is a very powerful addressing mode which in many cases provides an
exceptional level of flexibility. Indirect addressing is also the only way to access the extra
128 bytes of Internal RAM found on an 8052.
Indirect addressing appears as follows:
MOV A, @R0
This instruction causes the 8051 to analyse the value of the R0 register. The 8051 will then
load the accumulator with the value from Internal RAM, which is found at the address
indicated by R0.
External Direct
External Memory is accessed using a suite of instructions, which use what I call "External
Direct" addressing. I call it this because it appears to be direct addressing, but it is used to
access external memory rather than internal memory.
There are only two commands that use External Direct addressing mode:
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MOVX A, @DPTR MOVX @DPTR, A
As you can see, both commands utilize DPTR. In these instructions, DPTR must first be
loaded with the address of external memory that you wish to read or write. Once DPTR
holds the correct external memory address, the first command will move the contents of that
external memory address into the Accumulator. The second command will do the opposite: it
will allow you to write the value of the Accumulator to the external memory address pointed
to by DPTR.
External Indirect
External memory can also be accessed using a form of indirect addressing which I call
External Indirect addressing. This form of addressing is usually only used in relatively small projects that have a very small amount of external RAM. An example of this addressing
mode is:
MOVX @R0,A
Once again, the value of R0 is first read and the value of the Accumulator is written to that
address in External RAM. Since the value of @R0 can only be 00h through FFh the project
would effectively be limited to 256 bytes of External RAM. There are relatively simple
hardware/software tricks that can be implemented to access more than 256 bytes of memory
using External Indirect addressing; however, it is usually easier to use External Direct
addressing if your project has more than 256 bytes of External RAM.
Interrupts
An interrupt is a special feature, which allows the 8051 to provide the illusion of "multi-
tasking," although in reality the 8051 is only doing one thing at a time. The word "interrupt"
can often be substituted with the word "event."An interrupt is triggered whenever a corresponding event occurs. When the event occurs, the
8051 temporarily puts "on hold" the normal execution of the program and executes a special
section of code referred to as an interrupt handler. The interrupt handler performs whatever
special functions are required to handle the event and then returns control to the 8051 at
which point program execution continues as if it had never been interrupted.
Timers
The 8051 comes equipped with two timers, both of which may be controlled, set, read, and
configured individually. The 8051 timers have three general functions: 1) Keeping time
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and/or calculating the amount of time between events, 2) Counting the events themselves, or
3) Generating baud rates for the serial port.
The three timer uses are distinct so we will talk about each of them separately. The first two
uses will be discussed in this chapter while the use of timers for baud rate generation will bediscussed in the chapter relating to serial ports.
How does a timer count?
How does a timer count? The answer to this question is very simple: A timer always counts
up. It doesnt matter whether the timer is being used as a timer, a counter, or a baud rate
generator: A timer is always incremented by the Microcontroller.
USING TIMERS TO MEASURE TIME
Obviously, one of the primary uses of timers is to measure time. We will discuss this use of
timers first and will subsequently discuss the use of timers to count events. When a timer is
used to measure time it is also called an "interval timer" since it is measuring the time of the
interval between two events.
Timer SFRs
As mentioned before, the 8051 has two timers which each function essentially the same way.One timer is TIMER0 and the other is TIMER1. The two timers share two SFRs (TMOD and
TCON) which control the timers, and each timer also has two SFRs dedicated solely to itself
(TH0/TL0 and TH1/TL1).
Weve given SFRs names to make it easier to refer to them, but in reality an SFR has a
numeric address. It is often useful to know the numeric address that corresponds to an SFR
name. The SFRs relating to timers are:
SFR Name Description SFR AddressTH0 Timer 0 High Byte 8ChTL0 Timer 0 Low Byte 8AhTH1 Timer 1 High Byte 8DhTL1 Timer 1 Low Byte 8BhTCON Timer Control 88hTMOD Timer Mode 89h
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When you enter the name of an SFR into an assembler, it internally converts it to a number.
For example, the command: MOV TH0,#25h moves the value 25h into the TH0 SFR.
However, since TH0 is the same as SFR address 8Ch this command is equivalent to:
MOV 8Ch,#25h
Timer 0 has two SFRs dedicated exclusively to itself: TH0 and TL0. That is, when Timer 0
has a value of 0, both TH0 and TL0 will contain 0. When Timer 0 has the value 1000, TH0
will hold the high byte of the value (3 decimal) and TL0 will contain the low byte of the
value (232 decimal). Reviewing low/high byte notation, recall that you must multiply the
high byte by 256 and add the low byte to calculate the final value. That is:
TH0 * 256 + TL0 = 1000
3 * 256 + 232 = 1000
Timer 1 works the exact same way, but its SFRs are TH1 and TL1.
Since there are only two bytes devoted to the value of each timer it is apparent that the
maximum value a timer may have is 65,535. If a timer contains the value 65,535 and is
subsequently incremented, it will reset--or overflow --back to 0.
The TMOD SFR (89h)
TMOD (Timer Mode). The TMOD SFR is used to control the mode of operation of both
timers. Each bit of the SFR gives the microcontroller specific information concerning how to
run a timer. The high four bits (bits 4 through 7) relate to Timer1 whereas the low four bits
(bits 0 through 3) perform the same functions, for timer0. The individual bits of TMOD have
the following functions:
Bit Name Explanation of Function Timer
7 GATE1 When this bit is set the timer will only run when INT1 (P3.3) is high.
When this bit is clear the timer will run regardless of the state of INT1.1
6 C/T1 When this bit is set the timer will count events on T1 (P3.5). When this bit is clear the timer will be incremented every machine cycle. 1
5 T1M1 Timer mode bit (see below) 14 T1M0 Timer mode bit (see below) 1
3 GATE0 When this bit is set the timer will only run when INT0 (P3.2) is high.When this bit is clear the timer will run regardless of the state of INT0. 0
2 C/T0 When this bit is set the timer will count events on T0 (P3.4). When this bit is clear the timer will be incremented every machine cycle. 0
1 T0M1 Timer mode bit (see below) 00 T0M0 Timer mode bit (see below) 0
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As you can see in the above chart, four bits (two for each timer) are used to specify a mode
of operation. The modes of operation are:
TxM1 TxM0 Timer Mode Description of Mode
0 0 0 13-bit Timer.0 1 1 16-bit Timer 1 0 2 8-bit auto-reload1 1 3 Split timer mode
16-bit Time Mode (mode 1)
Timer mode "1" is a 16-bit timer. This is a very commonly used mode. TLx is incremented
from 0 to 255. When TLx is incremented from 255, it resets to 0 and causes THx to be
incremented by 1. Since this is a full 16-bit timer, the timer may contain up to 65536 distinct
values. If you set a 16-bit timer to 0, it will overflow back to 0 after 65,536 machine cycles.
8-bit Time Mode (mode 2)
Timer mode "2" is an 8-bit auto-reload mode. When a timer is in mode 2, THx holds the
"reload value" and TLx is the timer itself. Thus, TLx starts counting up. When TLx reaches
255 and is subsequently incremented, instead of resetting to 0 (as in the case of modes 0 and
1), it will be reset to the value stored in THx.
Whats the benefit of auto-reload mode? Perhaps you want the timer to always have a value
from 200 to 255. If you use mode 0 or 1, youd have to check in code to see if the timer had
overflowed and, if so, reset the timer to 200. This takes precious instructions of execution
time to check the value and/or to reload it. When you use mode 2 the microcontroller takes
care of this for you. Once youve configured a timer in mode 2 you dont have to worry
about checking to see if the timer has overflowed nor do you have to worry about resetting
the value--the microcontroller hardware will do it all for you. The auto-reload mode is very
commonly used for establishing a baud rate, which we will talk more about in the Serial
Communications chapter.
The TCON SFR
Finally, theres one more SFR that controls the two timers and provides valuable information
about them. The TCON SFR has the following structure:
TCON (88h) SFR
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Bit NameBitAddress Explanation of Function Timer
7 TF1 8Fh Timer 1 Overflow . This bit is set by the microcontroller whenTimer 1 overflows. 1
6 TR1 8Eh Timer 1 Run . When this bit is set Timer 1 is turned on. Whenthis bit is clear Timer 1 is off. 1
5 TF0 8Dh Timer 0 Overflow . This bit is set by the microcontroller whenTimer 0 overflows. 0
4 TR0 8Ch Timer 0 Run . When this bit is set Timer 0 is turned on. Whenthis bit is clear Timer 0 is off. 0
As you may notice, weve only defined 4 of the 8 bits. Thats because the other 4 bits of the
SFR dont have anything to do with timers--they have to do with Interrupts and they will be
discussed in the chapter that addresses interrupts.
A new piece of information in this chart is the column "bit address." This is because this SFR
is "bit-addressable." What does this mean? It means if you want to set the bit TF1--which is
the highest bit of TCON--you could execute the command:
MOV TCON, #80h
... or, since the SFR is bit-addressable, you could just execute the command:
SETB TF1
This has the benefit of setting the high bit of TCON without changing the value of any of the
other bits of the SFR. Usually when you start or stop a timer you dont want to modify the
other values in TCON, so you take advantage of the fact that the SFR is bit-addressable.
Reading the Timer
There are two common ways of reading the value of a 16-bit timer; which you use depends
on your specific application. You may either read the actual value of the timer as a 16-bit
number, or you may simply detect when the timer has overflowed.
Detecting Timer Overflow
Often it is necessary to just know that the timer has reset to 0. That is, you are not
particularly interest in the value of the timer but rather you are interested in knowing when
the timer has overflowed back to 0.
Whenever a timer overflows from its highest value back to 0, the microcontroller
automatically sets the TFx bit in the TCON register. This is useful since rather than checking
the exact value of the timer you can just check if the TFx bit is set. If TF0 is set it means that
timer 0 has overflowed; if TF1 is set it means that timer 1 has overflowed.
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We can use this approach to cause the program to execute a fixed delay. As youll recall, we
calculated earlier that it takes the 8051 1/20th of a second to count from 0 to 46,079.
However, the TFx flag is set when the timer overflows back to 0. Thus, if we want to use the
TFx flag to indicate when 1/20th of a second has passed we must set the timer initially to
65536 less 46079, or 19,457. If we set the timer to 19,457, 1/20th of a second later the timer
will overflow. Thus we come up with the following code to execute a pause of 1/20th of a
second:
MOV TH0,#76 ;High byte of 19,457 (76 * 256 = 19,456)MOV TL0,#01 ;Low byte of 19,457 (19,456 + 1 = 19,457)MOV TMOD,#01 ;Put Timer 0 in 16-bit modeSETB TR0 ;Make Timer 0 start countingJNB TF0,$ ;If TF0 is not set, jump back to this same instruction
In the above code the first two lines initialise the Timer 0 starting value to 19,457. The next
two instructions configure timer 0 and turn it on. Finally, the last instruction JNB TF0,$ ,
reads "Jump, if TF0 is not set, back to this same instruction." The "$" operand means, in
most assemblers, the address of the current instruction. Thus as long as the timer has not
overflowed and the TF0 bit has not been set the program will keep executing this same
instruction. After 1/20th of a second timer 0 will overflow, set the TF0 bit, and program
execution will then break out of the loop.
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EPROM 27C64
Currently available EPROM in the market is 8K byte type 27C64. As indicated in the
figure below, this IC needs 13 data lines and 8 data lines apart from an OE (output
Enable) and CS (Chip select) line. Two pins are devoted to VCC and Gnd of the supply.
The remaining pins are left unused in this IC.
The designers have assigned the pins of the memory ICs in such a way, the IC can have
up to 64 Kbytes of memory in the same 28 pin version. The least available capacity is
only 8Kbites and we have used this IC, even though our programme does not occupyeven 5% of its capacity. The PSEN (Programme Store Enable) pin of 80C31 will drive
the chip select of this memory IC. The OE is permanently grounded, as there is no other
memory device to create problem with timing requirement.
The EPROM lends itself to intelligent programming due to increased speed in its
operations. In earlier EPROMs, the bytes are written for a fixed length of time, say 50
mS. In the intelligent programming mode, the bytes are written for a 1 mS only and
verified for correctness. In case it is not written correctly, then the same data is written at
the same location for the next 1 mS. The EPROM is programmed by using a PC based
EPROM programmer, which can programme up to 1 MB of EPROM capacity. The
details are given in the later pages about the EPROM programmer and its operations. The
EPROM can be erased y exposing it to UV light (Shining on the crystal window) for
about 20 Minutes.
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8 BIT BI-DIRECTIONAL BUFFER 74LS245
74LS245 8 bit Transceiver
This versatile 8 bit bi-directional buffer is used as a fixed input port for the circuit.
The IC is of 20-pin DIP type. The pins 2 to 9 are designated as A1 to A8 and pins 18 to 11are designated as B1 to B8. As it can be seem from the figure above, the connection exists
between A1 to B1, A2 to B2 and so on up to A8 to B8. The supply pins are 20 (Vcc) and 10
(Gnd). Pin 19 is designated Enable or E. this is like chip select signal used in multiplexed
design. This is active low signal enabled type. This means that a low signal on Enable will
connect A side to B side. When this Enable is high then the two sides are separated and they
present high impedance to the bus. So when this IC is not Enabled, it does not draw any
power from the data lines at A side or B side. It is in TRI-State.
When the Enable pin is low, the pin 1 of the IC determines the direction of flow of
information. If pin 1 is low, signals travel from B to A. that is, B1 -> A1, B2 -> A2 and so on
up to B8 -> B8. When pin 1 is high, then A1 -> B1, A2 -> B2 and so on up to A8 -> B8.
In this project, we have grounded pin 1 to read the data from B-side into A-side. Two
such ICs are used as Fixed Input Port and they will have the enable signal supplied by C
pins 10 and 11. So p3.0 drives one of the 74LS245 and p3.1 drives the other 74LS245. For
the sake of clarity, we have designated the first 74LS245 as LSBIN and the second 74LS245
as MSBIN.
Like the OUTPUT latch IC, all input pins are multiplexed and connected to Port 1 of
the controller IC. Pin 2 of these ICs are connected to pin 1 of the controller and so on up to
pin 9 of these combination is connected to pin 8 of the micro controller. This makes the
combination of 4 ICs, (2 nos of 74LS573 and 2 nos of 74LS245) to share the port 1 as data
bus. Pin 2 of the combination behaves like D0, pin 3 as D1and so on up to pin 9 as D7.
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OCTAL LATCH 74LS573
74LS573 - Octal latch
The Latch IC is used in our design as a Fixed OUTPUT Port to augment theresources of the micro controller. This IC is also used to separate ADDRESS and DATA
from the multiplexed AD0 to AD7 of the controller. This is an improved version of the
earlier octal latch IC 74LS373. In the earlier version, four input and four outputs are located
on side and the remaining four input and inputs are located on the other side. But this IC has
all inputs located on one side and all output located on other side. Apart from these the
TWO ICs are electrically same. It suits our requirements adequately.
This IC functions as a latch when the pin 11 Latch enable pin goes high. In this
state, the signals present in the pin 2 to pin 9 is transmitted to pin 19 to 12. When the pin 11
LE goes low, this value is latched at the output.
As an address-data separator, this IC gets the latch signal from the ALE pin of the
controller. When the controller is outputting the Address A0 to A7, the ALE goes high and
the address is latched. ALE goes low and the same bus is used for DATA.
This IC is used as an output port in the following way. We connect the pin 11 LE
to a control pin from controller. Pin 2 to pin 9 are connected to pin 1 to pin 8 (Port 1) of the
controller. We put the data to be latched on Port 1 of the controller. We make the pin 11 of
the latch high and then low. The value on Port 1 is now latched at the output. There are two
such OUTPUT ports are used in our design. One of the latch is used to drive the LCD
display and we have named this as LCDOUT. The other latch is used for control purpose and
we have named the latch as CNTOUT. Pin 16 of controller is used to control CNTOUT port
and pin 17 of the controller is used to operate LCDOUT latch.
7805 3 Pin - 5V REGULATOR
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This three pin regulator is a boom to power supply
design, when a strict control is needed about the quality
of the output. The simple regulator gets its input from a
bridge connected across a 10 V 1 A transformer. The
pre filtering is done by a 2200 F/25 V capacitor. This IC
gives a constant 5 V DC for the central processor board.
Other parts of the circuit get this regulated voltage from the central processor board.
Adequate heat sink is used to keep the IC operating within safety limits. This IC can supply
constant 5 V DC at about 500 mA (safe value) with simple heat sink. The output remains
same for the range of input from about 6.5 V DC (about 1.5 V DC above the required output
voltage) to 35 V DC.
This IC acts as a series regulator. This means that the IC drops the extra voltage from
the supply and gives constant 5 V DC to the load. So, when the input voltage output
voltage is very high, the IC heats up quickly and a heavy heat sink is needed. The ground pin
is connected to the casing of the IC, making it easy to fix heat sink, which will also be at
ground potential. In this design, using a 10 V secondary transformer would give about 14 V
unregulated DC as input to 7805. As 5 V is the output, about 9 V is the voltage drop on the
regulator. When about 500 mA (0.5 A) current is drawn, the regulator would have todissipate heat equivalent to 9 x 0.5 W or about 4.5 W. A simple heat sink will take care of
this dissipation.
These regulators can provide local on-card regulation, eliminating the distribution
problems associated with single point regulation. That is the noise associated with several
circuits drawing power from one point is taken care off. These regulators employ internal
current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe area protection, making it essentially
indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current.Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with
external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents. These regulators come in
various packages essentially the difference is the ability to deliver this constant voltage at
different current strengths. The package of the regulator used in this project is a TO 220
package capable of delivering up to 1 A at 5 V.
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The 3 pin Regulator IC
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CHAPTER 5:
FLOW DIAGRAM
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FLOW CHART REMOTE T EMPERATURE SENSOR AND C ONTROLLER
YES NO
Yes
Yes No No
The process is an endless loop terminated only by power off or the end of the world whichever happens first.
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Start
InitialiseLocations
Switch
OnHeater
ReadTWS
ReadADC
Convert HEX toBCD & Display
Read TWS
ISTWS>ADC
Heater off OSC is on
IsR X=1
Switchon TX
ReadADC
Convert HEXto BCD andDISPLAY
IS ADC> TWS -5
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CHAPTER 6:
CONTROL SOFTWARE
(This being copy right portion of the Company, it will be supplied only on request to theHOD and NOT to the students)
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CHAPTER 7:
DETAILS OF MDS FOR 8032
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MICRO CONTROLLER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM
Generally, engineering and other education institutions teach students about 8085
microprocessor using a basic development kit. The kit has a startup program and all required programs for keyboard entry and output to display units. Students do not get access to any
other microprocessor development system using computers and computer assisted
equipments. So it is an entirely a new experience working with a windows based Simulator,
IN-CIRCUIT EMULATOR (ICE), EPROM PROGRAMMER and assembler software. The
circuits under test can be tested individually, software can be written using a text editors,
assembled and executed the software from the Windows based simulators and ICE to check
for errors. Once perfected, the hex code generated from the control software is then, put inan EPROM. This EPROM supplies the hex code to C. The C now works on its own in the
same it worked with the hardware emulator. The complete project is now ready to be used.
It is thus possible to take up even more complicated assignments with the help of such
development system for a micro controller. Here, a brief explanation is given about the
windows based simulators, ICE, EPROM PROGRAMMER and assembler software that has
been used.
ASSEMBLER AND TEXT EDITOR SOFTWARE:
As students we were exposed only to enter the software to the development kit and
run the same. But first we were to write the mnemonics and find the hex code of the op-code
and fill up the same using this technique. We have to correctly enter the jump addresses and
also the hex code is only entered byte by byte into the MDS (Microprocessor Development
System). To enter the hex code itself is a tedious job and there were fair chances of wecommitting mistake in data entry stage itself. The display is usually a single line display and
not much information is seen in a line. If programme analysis is to be done, then it is
marathon task as register examination or single step is nightmare experience. So it is
altogether a new experience to write the software in a text file and assemble the same using
an assembler and generate HEX and LST file. The HEX file will be in the Industry standard
HEX format and the list file give a neat line number, location of the opcode, our mnemonics
and our comments. The required branching locations are labelled and referring the jump
location by name to the assembler carries out the programme branching.
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The Assembly program required for the project is written by using a simple text
editor like Norton Editor (NE.EXE) part of NORTON utilities. Though any text editing
software can be used, this editor is used for its simplicity and also it is only 64K byte long! It
contains File related commands to save, save as, load, merge and all other related common
commands. This is a DOS based programme like the assembler software. So it is easy to
operate the text editor and assembler in the same operating mode. This editor lends it to be
configured for any specific use and the tab setting allows us to write a very legible
programme without much effort.
ASSEMBLER DIRECTIVE :
The cross assembler that is used to assemble our programme is supplied along with
the book - The 8051 Microcontroller Architecture, Programming & Applications By
Kenneth J Ayala. The floppy disk accompanying the book contains this software and a
wealth of information about how to use this assembler software. This assembler is
specifically designed for 8051 family of controllers. There is no need to specify the
processor for which the assembly is to be done. The assembler has several features that make
writing mnemonics very easy.
This assembler assembles the program in a TWO-pass assembly. This is because, in
the first pass the assembler may encounter a forward referenced label, for which it cannot
substitute a memory address immediately. In the second pass the address for any reference
can be correctly substituted. It will generate any error message only after both the pass is
over and still there are some unresolved conflicts or address location. To name some of the
errors - syntax error, Label not defined, multiple labels with same name, mnemonics used as
label. The variables can be EQUated to a value and used by its name in the program. Also
the value can be indicated with a mathematical expression.
The assembler already defines the special function registers and we have the liberty
of referring the SFRs by their name. Referring the bit position along with SFR name itself
indicates the bit position within SFRs. For an example, we want to refer to the bit three (d3)
of port 1. It can simply be referred to as p1.3. The same way we can indicate acc.4 to mean
D4 of `A register. This allows us to make full use of bit capabilities of the C without muchdifficulty.
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W INDOWS BASED SIMULATOR FOR 80C52
One of the easiest methods of learning about C 80C52 is by using a software
simulation of the micro controller. In this case the simulator software runs on IBM
compatible machine in windows environment and no hard ware is required to be connected.
On screen simulation is given about the special function registers, IO ports, Internal and
External memory, the programme flow, Timer registers etc. This software is freeware
version produced by M/s Vault Information Services of USA (web site:
http://www.valtbbs.com ). This software is about 650K and installs easily in windows mode.
It also has extensive help command and one can easily learn to operate the same without
much difficulty.
This software allows us to download the HEX file generated by the text editor and
assemblers. Once the HEX file is in the Simulator, we can run the programme at full speed
or single step through the programme. This allows us to see the changes that occur in the
registers, memory locations and also SFRs because of execution of our instructions. We can
go back to our programme and make changes and assemble and once again load the modified
HEX file into the Simulator and test the new and modified software. The Simulator also
allows us to modify the registers, SFRs (With each bit being explained) and memory in bit or
bite fashion. This simulator allows us to set break points in the programme to run the full
programme in full speed mode up to the set break point and allows us to examine registers or
memory locations at that point or the next part of the programme can be single stepped. The
full screen display also permits us to set up watch windows that track the changes in memory
locations and SFRs.
The programme analysis window moves the cursor each time we execute single step
and updates all registers and memory locations. Thus keeping our own assembly programme
in a window, helps us visualise the way the software will be implemented in the actual
system. This software has also the capacity to send the data to the serial port of the PC at
same rate as the C would send it to a PC. This will help a person check the baud rate and
the reliability of the serial port software. The control software for such projects normally
does not require serial port or synchronous operation and hence this facility is not tried out.
The refresh rate of the screen can be set to simulate at real speed or reduced speed.
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The Simulator has several features to help the user. One example is that any memory.
Double clicking on that particular item can change SFR or other register location value.
When TCON or TMOD or any such bit addressable registers value is changed, then the
window where the locations value is displayed for alteration. The explanation on the side of
each bit explains its function of that bit. Also the individual bit value of the location or its
byte value can be changed. The locations can be configured to display hex value or ASCII
Value valuable tool when display of character string is tested.
The real time interrupts can also be simulated by entering a value and allow it to read
the value at the appropriate time. We have explored this software only to the extend required
for this project work. But the immense potential of this simulator software can be realized
only more challenging software for a project is taken up.
IN CIRCUIT EMULATOR - M etalink ICE 80C31
The In-Circuit Emulator, or ICE, is a device that has a 40-pin DIP plug as its output.
This 40 pin dip plug goes into the 40 pin socket meant for 80C31 in the target circuit board.
The ICE is operated from the computer through its serial port. The ICE transfers the entire
control of the 80C31 over the target circuit to the computer user. The HEX code tested with
the Simulator can now be down loaded in to ICE and sent to the target circuit either at full
speed or at one instruction per mouse click or allow the target to run up to a point at full
speed and single step from that point onwards. The SFRs and other details are displayed on
the computer indicating their status. The details of ICE used to develop this project is
explained in brief in this section.
This ICE supplied by Metalink Corporation, USA is specifically designed to emulate
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80C32. It works on windows platform running on IBM or compatible PC. The ICE
configures itself for operating from available serial port of the computer. A cable from the
computer connects to ICE. A separate universal power supply (The power supply gives 5 V
DC at 5.0 A when connected to AC source of voltage between 85 V AC to 285 V AC) gives
power for ICE. Of the 2 LEDs located on ICE, one indicates if the power switch located on
ICE is OFF or ON position. Another LED indicates the Emulator is running or idling. The
reset switch in target circuit can reset the process of ICE. The crystal on the target board or
the crystal inside ICE can be used for emulation. This selection is done through software
option.
The ICE has several facilities like operating the target board at full speed or single
step through each instruction or set break points this option allows the emulator run full
speed up to that points and waits for a command from the key board or mouse. The assembly
instruction can be altered for fast check up. Every time the original programme is changed, it
automatically loads the latest control software developed. It has full transparency port 1 and
port 3. This means that the emulator does not any of these port pins for its use and the user
can connect any device to these port pins and ICE will respond as if the actual micro
controller is functioning in the target circuit. The debug window displays the assembly
programme in text form with labels, for easy follow-up of the sequence of execution of the
control software.
The Metalink ICE can download HEX files or text files in assembly language format
or C programmes written for 8052 in the prescribed format. It has built-in assembler, which
generates HEX files as well as list files that will contain line number, location where the op-
code will be placed, the op-code generated, assembler mnemonics and comment is any. The
Metalink also allows small assembler files to be linked in to a complete project. This way,
several tested sub routines can easily be integrated in to the proposed control programme
solution. The time required to develop future software would be reduced considerably as
several features of earlier program can be cut and pasted to the