Occupational Stress and

Temporal Orientation

Instructor: Alyssa Gradus

Today’s Agenda

Occupational Stress-Temporal Orientation

•Conceptualization of Stress

•Stress Across Cultures

•Conceptualization of Temporal Orientation

•Polychronicity vs. Monochronicity

•Time as a Cultural Concept

•Time and Stress

•The Dark Side of Stress

•Best Practices

Occupational Stress

Learning Objectives: Training Part 1

To gain an understanding on what occupational stress is

To learn how occupational stress may differ across cultures

To learn about temporal orientation

To gain and understanding on how temporal orientation and stress relate

Conceptualization of Stress

Stress

“General area of study that includes the examination of stressors and strain”

(Glazer & Palekar, 2013)

“An appropriate definition of stress should reflect to a large extent

the social and philosophical preconcerns of a given culture.”

(Laungani, 1996)

Stressor

“Events or conditions within the environment that create a

motivation to react”

Strain

“Negative, psychological, physiological,

or behavioral responses to stressors”

(Glazer & Palekar, 2013)

(Glazer, 2008; Glazer et al.,2012)

Examples of Stressors Examples of Strain

Psychosocial

(e.g., role overload, role ambiguity)

Physical

(e.g., situational constraints,

lighting)

Temporal Stressors

(e.g., perceptions of deadlines)

Physiological

(e.g., headaches, sleeplessness)

Psychological

(e.g., turnover cognition, anxiety)

Behavioral

(e.g., turnover, smoking, overeating)

Strains Across Cultures

China U.S.A.

(Lui et al., 2007)

•Anxiety

•Tired

•*Frustration

•Higher turnover intention

•*“Feeling overwhelmed”

•*Stomach problems

•Anxiety

•Tired

•*Helplessness

•*Hopelessness

•More physical strains

•*“Feeling hot”

•*Sleep problems

Stress Across Cultures

The Stress Process

(Glazer & Beehr, 2005)

(Glazer & Beehr, 2005)

v

v

*Same direction

*Magnitude differs

!Learning Check!

This is what we have learned so far!

The term “stress” is not exactly universal in meaning

Stress: stressor-strain relationship

Examples of stressors and strains

How stress differs across cultures

The stress process may be universal

Temporal Orientation

What is Temporal Orientation?

“A stable individual difference variable, influenced by cultural practices, and

serves as an internal representation of a culture’s normative approach to time”

“Preference to manage time across various domains, work and leisure”

(Glazer & Palekar, 2013)

“The way time is viewed by an individual…

influenced by socialization, values, and other cultural elements”

(Leonard, 2008)

Monochronicity & Polychronicity

• First noted by anthropologist Edward T. Hall (1959)

Monochronicity:

“Clock Time” or “M-Time”

“preference to complete one event

before moving to another”

• Time is tangible

• Time can be…

“spent”, “wasted”, “saved”, or “lost”

Polychronicity:

“Event Time” or “P-Time”

“preference to juggle between life

events”

• Present oriented—living in the now

(Glazer & Palekar, 2013)

Monochronic People Polychronic People

• Concentrate on one task at a time

• Take time commitments

• Finish tasks from beginning to end

• Adhere to plans, deadlines, & schedules

• Emphasize promptness

• Have short-term relationships

• Do many things at once

• Time is a guideline

• Tasks will get done eventually

• Plans change often and easily

• Base promptness on relationships

• Build long-term relationships

(Kaufman-Scarborough, 2003)

Temporal Orientation as a Cultural Concept

Culture

“…values, attitudes, meanings (attributed to language), beliefs, and ways of acting and interacting that are learned and shared by a group of people over a period of history and are often taken for granted as reality by those within the ‘said’ culture.”

(Glazer, 2002, p. 146)

Let’s break it down…

How is Time Orientation learned?

• From our parents, grandparents, and friends

(e.g., bedtime or family gathering time)

• Our culture, values, view of self, and attitudes

(e.g., IND-COL and Independent-Interdependent self)

Why does time become shared?

How is time taken for granted?

• Experiencing time from another perspective

(e.g., expatriates, cross-cultural business, strain)

Temporal Orientation Video (Leonard, 2008)

!Learning Check!

Polychronic and Monochronic Behaviors and Characteristics

Activity

Cultural Variation on Temporal Orientation

(Leonard, 2008)

Individualism Collectivism

Allocentism Interdependent self

Idiocentrism Independent self

*Allocentrism better indicated…

-Preference for polychronicity

• As level of polychronicity increased…

- Job satisfaction increased (and)

- Psychological strain decreased

Self Construal:

(Leonard, 2008)

(Leonard, 2008)

Differentiation Matching

“ If the cognitive orientation of individuals matches the structure of features of their society… individuals are more likely to be more positive in affect and behavioral terms”

Time and Stress Relationship Across Cultures

Exploring the impact of Polychronic Behavior

Individual Level of Polychronicity and Monochronicity:

• Polytasking – working on multiple projects at a time

• Monotasking- working on one project at a time, start to finish

Anglo Women and Polytasking

(Cotte & Ratneshwar, 1999)

Positive Meanings

• Time flies

• Sense of urgency

• Efficiency

• Realistic

• Motivating

• Achievement and Accomplishment

Negative Meaning

• Frustration

• Confusion

• Stress

• Poor work quality

“…when I was getting my Master's. I was getting my Master's, working part time, looking for a house, and planning a wedding. So I felt really split sort of four ways and I remember thinking I can't wait to have all this over with and just have one job…”

“I would rather have one big job to focus my energy on and I guess that's the way I work best. I don't like to be fragmented."

Participant Testimonials: 1

(Cotte & Ratneshwar, 1999)

“[For one Anglo woman] even deviating slightly from a "to-do list" is a negatively charged emotional experience”

“That’s my favorite thing to do is cross things off my list”

Participant Testimonials: 2

(Cotte & Ratneshwar, 1999)

Latina Women and Polytasking

• Polychronic when it comes to leisure

• Some were monochronic at work

(Cotte & Ratneshwar, 1999)

“…she will often combine attendance at several different functions in

one evening. At work as well as socially, she sees polychronicity as

perfectly normal, "not a problem."

Participant Testimonials: 3

(Cotte & Ratneshwar, 1999)

(Glazer & Palekar, 2013)

Time and Stress

• Personal Polytasking

• Organizational Polytasking

• National vs. Industry Culture

• Temporal Incongruence

Findings:

1. Non-Asian Indians prefer polytasking

2. Non-Asian Indians see organizations as preferring polytasking

3. Temporal congruence for Non-Asian Indians yielded greater well-being

4. Temporal incongruence for Indians in India yielded greater strain

(lower well-being, lower job satisfaction, and lower AC)

(Glazer & Palekar, 2013)

2.74

Personal Preference

Perceived Org. Preference

3.33

3.01

3.16

2.77

Why is it important to examine temporal orientation and stress?

The Dark Side of Stress

• Unhealthy lifestyles

-High job strain 34% more likely to have an unhealthy lifestyle

• Burnout

-Emotional Exhaustion poor cognitive functioning

• Cognitive Functioning

-quicker processing, but more errors at work

-took longer to fill out paperwork

Mistakes and accidents at work

(Heikkila et al., 2013; Allan et al., 2014; Deligkaris et al., 2014)

Best Practices

Person-Environment (P-E) fit

“When an individual is not compatible with a given environment,

the person may develop stress”

Temporal Congruence

“The rhythm of work fits the individual’s preference”

Flexible Work Arrangements

(Glazer & Palekar, 2013; Hecht & Allen, 2005; Leonard, 2008)

Team Activity

Read the instructions with your team

International Business Relations Manager: Ms. Jane Doe

Supervisors: Alyssa and Will

If there are any questions, please contact your supervisors

*Please refer to your training slides and activities to complete the assignment

Key Takeaways

• Temporal orientation can guide work behavior

• Culture and other environmental factors can influence one’s temporal orientation

• The stress process may be universal, but magnitude in intensity varies

• Strains vary across cultures (environmental factors and opportunity)

• Temporal Incongruence may yield greater strain

• It is important to study all factors impacting occupational stress because stress

has a very dark side!

• P-E fit and temporal congruence may yield greater employee well-being

Allan, J. L., Farquharson, B., Johnston, D. W., Jones, M. C., Choudhary, C. J., & Johnston, M. (2014). Stress in telephone helpline nurses is associated with failures of concentration, attention and memory, and with more conservative referral decisions. British Journal Of Psychology, 105(2), 200-213.

Cotte, J., & Ratneshwar, S. (1999). Juggling and hopping: What does it mean to work polychronically? Journal of Managerial Psychology, 14(3-4), 184-204.

Deligkaris, P., Panagopoulou, E., Montgomery, A. J., & Masoura, E. (2014). Job burnout and cognitive functioning: A systematic review. Work & Stress, 28(2), 107-123

Glazer, S. (2008). Cross-cultural issues in stress and burnout. In J. R. B. Halbesleben (Ed.), Handbook of Stress and Burnout in Health Care (pp. 79-93). Huntington, NY: Nova Science Publishers.

Glazer, S., & Beehr, T. A. (2005). Consistency of implications of three role stressors across four countries. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(5), 467-487.

References

Glazer, S. & Palekar, A. A. (2013). Indian perspective of time management. In H. Helfrich, E. Holter & I.V. Arzhenowskiy (Eds.), Time and management from a cross-cultural perspective (pp. 39-59). Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers.

Hecht, T. D., & Allen, N. J. (2005). Exploring links between polychronicity and well-being from the perspective of person-job fit: Does it matter if you prefer to do only one thing at a time?. Organizational Behavior And Human Decision Processes, 98(2), 155-178.

Heikkilä, K., Fransson, E. I., Nyberg, S. T., Zins, M., Westerlund, H., Westerholm, P., & ... Kivimäki, M. (2013). Job strain and health-related lifestyle: Findings from an individual-participant meta-analysis of 118,000 working adults. American Journal Of Public Health, 103(11), 2090-2097

Kaufman-Scarborough, C. (2003), "Two Perspectives on The Tyranny of Time: Polychronicity and Monochronicity as Depicted in Cast Away," Journal of American Culture, Volume 26 (1) , 87-95.

Laungani, P. (1996). Cross-cultural investigations of stress: Conceptual and methodological considerations. International Journal of Stress Management, 3(1), 25-35.

References Continued…

Leonard, K. M. (2008). A cross-cultural investigation of temporal orientation in work organizations: A differentiation matching approach. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(6), 479-492.

Liu, C., Spector, P. E., & Shi, L. (2007). Cross-National Job Stress: A Quantitative and Qualitative Study. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 28(2), 209-239.

Masuda, A. D., et. al. "Flexible Work Arrangements Availability and their Relationship with Work-to-Family Conflict, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions: A Comparison of Three Country Clusters." Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61.1 (2012). Pages 1-29.

References Continued…