Upload
carlyle-alan-thayer
View
217
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
1/74
BackgroundBrief:
BurmasEthnicMinorities
CarlyleA.Thayer
June27,2010
[clientnamedeleted]
Do you foresee any trouble at themomentbetween ethnic groups like the Shan
StatearmyandtheWapeople?Orbetweentheethnicgroupsandthegovernment?
Thingsseemtobequietaheadofelections.Thererepo0rtsthatawaveofRohingya
refugeesisscheduledtoarriveinMalaysiaaheadoftheelectionsbecausewhilethey
areallowed
to
vote
the
government
does
not
want
them
to.
That's
their
argument.
CanyouecommendreadingforethnicgroupsaroundMandalay,MagwayandShan,
inBurmaparticularlythelatestintermsofethnicdisputesandtrouble.
ANSWER: The Kokang problem was related to the SPDCs attempt to integrate
militaryforcesintonationalarmypriortoelections.ThiswouldaffectWaandShan.
Wa have got out ofmethamphetamines, Shans havemoved in a big way. It all
dependsonwhattheTatmadawdoes.
S t d b k d t i l
Thayer ConsultancyABN # 65 648 097 123
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
2/74
Suggested background source material
2
MaryP.Callaghan, Cracks in theEdifice?MilitarySocietyRelations inBurmaSince
1988, in Morten Peterson and Emily Rudland, eds., Burma: Strong State/Weak
Regime.
Sydney:
Crawford
House,
2000.
22
51.
MaryP.Callaghan,DemocracyinBurma:TheLessonsofHistory,NBRAnalysis(May
1998),9:3,526.
MaryP.Callaghan,MakingEnemies:WarandStateBuildinginBurma.Ithaca:Cornell
UniversityPress,2003.
MaryP.Callaghan, JuntaDreamsorNightmare?ObservationsofBurmasMilitary
since1988,BulletinofConcernedAsianScholars(1999),31:3,5258.
MaryP.Callaghan,MakingEnemies:WarandStateBuildinginBurma.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,2003.
Mary P. Callaghan, On Time Warps and Warped Time: Lessons from Burmas
DemocraticEra,inRobertRotberg,ed.,Burma:ProspectsforaDemocraticFuture.
Washington,D.C.:BrookingsInstitution,1998.,4967.
Mary P. Callaghan, The Sinking Schooner:Murder and the State in Independent
Burma, 19481958, in Carl Trocki, ed., Gangsters, the State and Democracy in
SoutheastAsia.Ithaca:SoutheastAsiaProgram,CornellUniversity,1998.,1737.
MaryP.Callaghan,StateFormationintheShadowoftheRaj:Violence,Warfareand
PoliticsinColonialBurma,SoutheastAsianStudies(March2002), 39:4,513536.
Mary P. Callaghan, When Soldiers Kill Civilians: Burmas Crackdown in 1988 in
Comparative Perspective, inAudreyKahin and James Siegel, eds., SoutheastAsia
OverThreeGenerations:EssaysPresented toBenedictAnderson. Ithaca: Southeast
AsiaProgram,CornellUniversity,2003.331346.
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
3/74
3
Stephen McCarthy, Prospects for Justice and Stability in Burma, Asian Survey
(May/June2006),46:3,417436.
DonaldM.
Seekins,
Burma
and
U.S.
Sanctions:
Punishing
an
Authoritarian
Regime,
AsianSurvey(May/June2004),45:3,437452.
JosefSilverstein,Burmasstrugglefordemocracy:thearmyagainstthepeople,R.J.
MayandVibertoSelochan,eds.,TheMilitaryandDemocracyinAsiaandthePacific.
Bathurst:CrawfordHouse,1998.6987.
MaungAungMyoe,BuildingtheTatmadaw:TheOrganisationalDevelopmentofthe
ArmedForcesinMyanmar.Canberra:StrategicandDefenceStudiesCentre,1998.
Maung Aung Myoe, The National Reconciliation Process in Myanmar,ContemporarySoutheastAsia(August2002),24:2,371384.
MaungAungMyoe,OfficerEducationandLeadershipTraining in theTatmadaw:A
Survey,Working PaperNo. 346. Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre,
2000.
AndrewSelth,Burma and Weapons of Mass Destruction,WorkingPaperNo. 334.
Canberra:StrategicandDefenceStudiesCentre,1999.
AndrewSelth,BurmasOrderofBattle:An InterimAssessment,WorkingPaperNo.
351.Canberra:StrategicandDefenceStudiesCentre,2000.
JosefSilverstein,Burma:MilitaryRuleandthePoliticsofStagnation.Ithaca:Cornell
UniversityPress,1977.
AshleySouth, PoliticalTransition inMyanmar:ANewModel forDemocratization,
ContemporarySoutheastAsia(August2004),26:2,233255.
David I Steinberg Burma The State of Myanmar Washington D C Georgetown
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
4/74
4
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
5/74
Military Rule in Burma
(Drugs and Security Annex)
Professor Carl Thayer
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
6/74
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
7/74
Background
Precolonial Crown ServiceGroup
Colonial: Brish Indian Army World War 2 Brish
recruitment from hill tribes
Burmese naonalism lowland Burman
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
8/74
Force Composion
Brish Burma Army 1941Force Size Percent
Regular Army 9,879 35.3%Garrison Coys 1,391 0.49%Auxiliary 3,368 12.0%Territorial 3,272 11.7%Frontier
10,073 36.0%
Total 27,981 95.5%
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
9/74
Ethnic Minories:
Kachin G, FF, RA
Shan G
Chin FF, G, RA
Karen A, FF, RA
A= Auxiliary, G = Garrison, FF =
Froner Force, RA = Regular Army
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
10/74
Ethnic Composion
Brish Burma Army (all forces) 1941
Ethnic Group Number Percent
Burmans 3,742 13.4%Karens 4,782 17.1%Kachins 2,125 7.6%Chin 2,607 9.3%Shans 1,080 3.8%Indians 10,259 36.7%Chinese
368 0.01%
Others British, etc. 2,896 10.3%
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
11/74
Ethnic Composion
Brish Burma Army (regulars) 1941
Ethnic Group Number Percent
Burmans 1,893 19%Karens 2,797 28%Kachins 852 .09%Chin 1,258 13%Yunnanese 32 -Indians 2,578 26%Chinese 330 .03%Others - British etc. 137 0.01%
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
12/74
Thirty Comrades
Ba Maw Aung San Ne Win
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
13/74
Burma Independence Army 1941
Burma Defence Army 1942
Burma Naonal Army 1943
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
14/74
Burma During Second World War
Military Academy established atMingaladon 1943BIA officers v Academy graduates
1943 Japanese grant independenceSecret contact with Brish SOE Force 136
Name change: Peoples Army Rebellion against Japan (March 27, 1944)
Supported by socialist and communist officers
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
15/74
Burma a]er Second World War
SouthEast Asia Command Kandy Agreement between Lord Louis
Mountba_en and General Aung San
Formaon of new army of two partsTroops from regular Brish Burma ArmyFormer BNA troops now renamed Patrioc
Burmese Forces to be organised into ethnic
ba_alions.Under Brish commander and military
law
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
16/74
Burma: Towards Independence
AnFascist Peoples Freedom League(AFPFL) anBrish naonalist movement
Polical PBF officers joined AFPFLCommunists expelled October 1946
Peoples Volunteer Organisaon (PVO)Paramilitary force allied to AFPFL
July 1947 Aung San assassinated Independence January 4, 1948
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
17/74
Burma: Civil War, 194852
Praetorianism
March 1948 Burma Communist Party revolts Socialists and communists split over
appointment of Minister of Defence 3 army ba_alions muny, join communists Largest PVO unit goes underground December 1948 Karen Naonal Defence
Organisaon revolts
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
18/74
Burma Civil War, 194852
Praetorianism
February 1949 1st Kachin Rifles munies andseizes Mandalay briefly
5060% of all government troops now in a state ofrebellion
Government crisis (March 1949) socialists quit AFPFL government
10,000 KMT troops enter Burma Senior Karen officers who remained loyal were
relieved of their commands by General Ne Win
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
19/74
Burma: Civil War, 194852
Burmese military forced to be selfreliantArmy takes over control of many districts,
engages in civic acon
Army makes substanal claim on naonal budgetfor internal security leading to armysindependence from government
Post1952 civil war confined to remote areasArmy does fighngPolicians connue to bicker
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
20/74
Military Professionalism and
Subjecve Civilian Control
Shakeout of civil war led to smaller andmore experienced officer corpsOfficer corps now more cohesive ethnically
BurmanArmy restructured on basis ofnonethnic
ba_alions
Defence Services Academy establishedCode of corporate solidarity and subservience
to central civilian control under theconstuon
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
21/74
Burma: Background
1952 Elecons won by AnFascist PeoplesFreedom League (AFPFL)
Socialist ideology guided policy Growing policaleconomic crisis 1956 AFPFLs electoral support declines AFPFL leadership splits Amnesty policy towards guerrilla groups Crisis and government deadlock
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
22/74
Burma:Background
195860 caretaker government General NeWin replaces U Nu as Prime Minister
Military Staff Council replaces CabinetMassive reshuffle of government and public
service posts, military assumes wide authority
Constuon observed Crisis overcome Naonal elecons held 1960
U Nus facon of AFPFL wins 159 of 237 seats
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
23/74
Burma:Background
Return of civilian government results inparliamentary deadlock
Ethnic minories demand more autonomy oreven separaon
Civilmilitary fricon develops Police removed from army Army economic administrators to resign commissions
Faconalism emerges in military over role inpolical and economic ma_ers
General Ne Win reorganises top army leadership
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
24/74
Burma: March 1962 Coup
General Ne Win headscaretaker government195860
Returns power toelected civiliangovernment
Connued policaleconomic crisis
Seizes power
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
25/74
Polical Overview
196274 Revoluonary CouncilGeneral Ne Win
197488 Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma(renamed Union of Burma 1989)
198897 State Law and Order RestoraonCouncil
1997 State Peace and Development Council
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
26/74
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
27/74
Caretaker government, 195860
The Naonal Ideology and the Role of theDefence Services (October 1958)order and stability, restoraon of peace and rule of
law, democracy (ancommunism), socialisteconomy
Dharma in Danger (1959)Use of Buddhism to oppose communism
Defence Services Instutebanking, department stores, construcon, marime
shipping, fishing
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
28/74
Coup detat March 1962
Born 1910 died 2002
1941 one of Thirty Comrades
194648 CO 4th Burma Rifles
194972 Armed Forces Chief of StaffPrime Minister 195860, 196274
Head Revoluonary Council 196274
President Socialist Republic of theUnion of Burma 197478
Chairman Burma Socialist ProgrammeParty 196288
General Ne Win
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
29/74
Revoluonary Council, 196274
Military under Ne Win replaces civilians Constuon suspended Parliament dissolved Polical pares banned The Burmese Way to Socialism (1962)
Central command economyEliminaon of foreign ownership in business
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
30/74
Revoluonary Council, 196274
Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP)Leniniststyle polical party 1962
The System of Correlaon of Man and HisEnvironment (1963)
BSPP ideology codified 1963 Amnesty offered to communist and
ethnic minority insurgents
1964 polical pares banned
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
31/74
From Revoluonary Council to
Union of Burma
BSPP transformed into mass party 1971 Civil administraon in hands of PM and Cabinet Ne Win reres from the military Power shi] from Army command to party secretariat
New Constuon 1974 Peoples Councils 4 year term Increasing ri] between civilians and regular military
officers over power arrangements naonally and in
local areas 1981 Ne Win steps down as President
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
32/74
Collapse of Ne Win Regime
July 1988 BSPP Extraordinary CongressNe Win and other top leaders resignMulparty elecons promised
Student demonstraons in Rangoon 8888Tatmadawintervenes thousands killed
September 18, 1988 Tatmadawseizespower in name of State Law and OrderRestoraon Council (SLORC)
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
33/74
State Law and Order Restoraon Council
Maral Law under SLORCGeneral Saw Maung named chairman1974 Constuon suspendedDeclares mulparty general elecons will be held
Paral Economic reformsOpen market, correct financial weakness
Burmanisaon Myanmar, Yangon
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
34/74
State Law and Order Restoraon Council
Opposion Naonal League for Democracysweeps 1990 elecons
Militarys Naonal Unity Party does poorly Military refuses to accept results
Aung San Suu Kyi placed under 5year housearrest
Mass detenon of opposion leaders
Prodemocracy supports flee to border area
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
35/74
2nd Major Transformaon
2nd phase of military transformaon andstatebuilding
SLORC had to rebuild collapsed regimeStability and order highest priorityMilitary used to reassert central control over
polical, economic and administrave power
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
36/74
2nd Major Transformaon
Ministry of Defence reorganized 1990 Command and Control reformed Bureau of Special Operaons created
Control over most combat units New army garrisons New naval bases and air staons Military industrial base expanded Privileges: health, welfare, educaon
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
37/74
2nd Major Transformaon
From 186,000 to 370,000 (19881996) Two mobile light infantry divisions Specialised engineer, armour and arllery units
US $1 billion force modernizaon program 140 new combat aircra] 30 naval vessels 170 tanks, 250 APCs Rocket launch systems, anaircra] arllery, infantry
weapons, telecommunicaons surveillance equipment
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
38/74
StateBuilding
Office of Strategic Studies (OSS) Iniate and coordinate policies: economy, drug trade,
ethnic minority affairs, foreign relaons
Regional Commands (N = 12) Daytoday authority over economic and polical affairs Eliminate polical dissent, dismantle older socialist state
and party organs
Effect new administrave and economic arrangements Amassed enormous wealth and power
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
39/74
StateBuilding: Finance
Military spending 40%60% of naonal budget So] loans from China Off budget sources:
Foreign exchange profits Tax on opium and methamphetamine trade
Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings Ltd. Jointly owned by Directorate of Defence Personnel (40%)
and rered and acve duty military (60%)
Registered capital US $1.4 billion Largest indigenous firm gem trade and all foreign
investors
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
40/74
General Saw MaungSLORC Chairman 198892
General Than Shwe
Military CommanderGeneral Khin Nyunt
Secretary One
Declaraon 10/92 April
24, 1992
Rivals
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
41/74
General Khin Nyunt, Secretary1
Negoated ceasefires with ethnicminories1994 created Office of StrategicStudies (OSS) in MOD
Advocated Myanmars entry intoASEAN
Set up Polical Affairs Commi_ee(18 Sept 1998) to guide polical
transion
Author of 7 Step Road Map forDemocrac Transion (Aug 2003)
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
42/74
End of Maral Law (198992)
JuneJuly 1992 SLORC iniates dialogue with policalpares
534 polical prisoners freed But high profile leaders among 1,500 sll held
Aug 1992 Universies and colleges reopened Lecturers and teachers retrained
10 Sept 1992 curfew ended 2 Oct 1992 Commission for Naonal Convenon
convened
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
43/74
Negoated Ceasefires 198995
Wa Kokang Palaung Lisu Akha PaO Shan State Army Shan (other)
Kayah Arakanese Kachin Independence
Organisaon Mon Karenni [16 groups by 1995 [17 groups by 2001
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
44/74
From SLORC to SPDC
Asian Financial Crisis (July 1997) State Peace and Development Council (Nov 1997)
Purge of most corrupt Cabinet members Regional Commanders kicked upstairs to ministerialposions in Rangoon Younger general officers given Regional Commands and
placed in top SPDC leadership
New Order Indonesia a model Unresolved problem of polical opposion andlack of internaonal support
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
45/74
Internal Power Struggle
Sr-Gen Maung AyeSPDC Vice Chairman
Army CommanderLt. Gen. Khin Nyunt SPDC
Secretary 1 & Head of Military
Intelligence & Office of
Strategic Studies
Rivals
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
46/74
SPDC Vacancies Filled March 2002
Lt. Gen Soe Win Secretary 2 andLt. Gen. Khin Nyunt SPDC Secretary 1
General Shwe Mann Military
Affairs
[Gen. Maung Aye recovering
from surgery in Singapore
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
47/74
Cabinet Reshuffle (Aug 25, 2003)
Khin Nyunt
Prime Minister
Lt. Gen Soe WinSecretary 1
Lt Gen Thein SeinSecretary 2
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
48/74
7Point Road Map to Democracy
1. Reconvene Naonal Convenon2. Naonal Convenon to draw up principles for
a new Constuon
3.
Dra] a new Constuon4. Hold a referendum for new constuon5. Hold free and fair elecons6. Convene Hlu_aw (parliament)7. Form a new democrac government
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
49/74
Naonal Convenon Objecves
Dra] principles for a Constuon Nondisintegraon of Union Naonal sovereignty Mulparty system
Parcipaon ofTatmadawin leading role ofnaonal polics of the state
700 delegates from 135 ethnic and funconalgroups convened January 9, 1993
Suspended 19962004 a]er NLD boyco_ Reconvened May 2004
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
50/74
Purge of Khin Nyunt and Directorate of
Defence Services Intelligence
Dismissed fordisobeying orders and
corruption 19 Oct 2004 DDSI (intelligence)purgedConvicted by a specialtribunal on corruptioncharges and sentenced to
44 years in prison
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
51/74
Sr-Gen Than ShweChairman, Chief of State,
CIC Defence ServicesSPDC
Leadership
Sr-Gen Maung AyeSPDC Deputy ChairmanDCIC Defence Services
Army Commander in Chief
Gen Shwe Mann Joint Chief of StaffArmy, Navy and Air
ForceLt Gen Thein Sein
Prime Minister
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
52/74
Shi] to Naypyidaw
NovemberDecember 2005
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
53/74
SPDC Crack Down on 26 Sept 2007
31138 killed and 1,0006,000 arrested
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
54/74
Constuon
Creaon of bicameral legislature Chamber of Depues (440seats)
Township constuencies 25% of seats reserved for military
Chamber of Naonalies (224 seats) Seven regions and seven states
Military to select: Head of State, Ministers of Defence, Home Affairs and
Border Development
Referendum May 10, 2009
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
55/74
Cyclone Nargis, May 2, 2008[referendum held anyway
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
56/74
Major Problems
Ethnic minories entrenched in regions17 negoated ceasefire agreements (19891996)Ethnic groups retained their arms and now police
their own territory
Former rebel armies now funcon as privatesecurity forces to protect legal and illegal
business operaons
Deadline for conversion of ethnic milias toBorder Guard under central control
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
57/74
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
58/74
Conclusion
Military Fissures CentrePeripheryRegional Commanders parcularly powerfulEmerging gap in professionalism of officer corps
Disciplinary problems in expanded Army200,000 added to ranksRecruitment drive based on quotas led to intake
of criminals and young toughs
Naonal elecons 2010
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
59/74
Drugs and Security
Drugs are used to fund criminal acvies Gun running, forgery, money laundering, bribery,
trafficking in persons
Corrupon of police, security, customs andjudicial officials
Lowers quality of governance, weakens the state Decreases governmental legimacy Undue influence of drug lords in polics Skews and diverts government funding Enables transnaonal criminal networks
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
60/74
Opium Producon: Afghanistan,
Myanmar and Laos
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
61/74
Drug
Trafficking:The Golden
Triangle
Thailand,
Burma and
Laos
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
62/74
Opium Producon in Myanmar
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
63/74
Opium Producon in Laos
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
64/74
Opium
Growing Areas
in the Shan
State
The Shan Stateproduces 89%
of Burmas
total opiumcrop
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
65/74
Opium Producon Inside Myanmar
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
66/74
Shan State Army South
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
67/74
Ch i l d
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
68/74
Chemical Drug Producon Factory
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
69/74
From opium to
morphine to heroin
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
70/74
AmphetamineType
Smulants (ATS)and Heroin
Refineries in the
Shan State
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
71/74
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
72/74
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
73/74
Methamphetamine
Producon inBurma
8/9/2019 Thayer Burma Military Rule and Ethnic Minorities
74/74
Methamphetamines
shabu ice or
yaba