The 1917 Revolution in International Context

EUROPE 1914

The summer of 1914 marked a watershed in world history:

For the first time ever, a world war began Since 1914, we’ve experienced 4 world wars They are historically connected with each other –

like links of a chain They may be viewed as 4 stages of one continuous

period of global conflict

What made world wars possible: 1. An integrated world – globalization 2. Struggle for power within countries acquires

international dimensions 3. Availability of economic resources 4. Development of military technologies 5. The culture of war

New rationalizations of war The idea of total war

World War I: 1914-1918

Resulted from: - -Rivalries between states (Germany-Britain, France-

Germany, Russia-Austria, Russia-Turkey, etc.)- -Social tensions within states- -Nationalist struggles against empires

The war for power and influence inside the global capitalist system

Expected to be brief The reality: a bloody 4-year stalemate Ended by revolutions in Russia (1917) and Germany (1918) 15 mln. deaths, incl. 9 mln. combat The flu pandemic of 1918-1919: 20-40 mln. deaths: a direct

environmental effect of “the Great War”

THE IMPACT OF WORLD WAR ONE

World War I in retrospective – the start of a century of global conflictRead Eric Hobsbawm’s article “The Future of War and Peace”Eric Hobsbawm: The Future of War and PeaceA good reference library on World War I:Trenches on the Web - Reference LibrarySee also this BBC site:BBC - History - The Western Front, 1914 - 1918 AnimationAnd this website devoted to events on the Eastern Front:The Eastern Front — 1914 - 1917

The Russian “battle order”

The effects of wars on the Russian system:

successful wars (1721, 1815, 1878, 1945) – reaffirmed the status-quo, strengthened the state, discouraged reforms

unsuccessful wars (1856, 1905, 1917, 1989) – fostered reforms and revolutions

Causes of Russia’s involvement in World War I:

- own imperial goals (the Balkans and Transcaucasus): natural behaviour of an empire

- influence of Britain and France

- a war to avoid a revolution

The clash of empires:

The interstate conflict

The internal factors:

- interplay of nationalisms

- class conflicts

- struggles over democratic reforms

THE WAR AS A REVOLUTIONARY FORCE: it tested the West and undermined capitalism

Results of the war:

-Collapse of 4 empires: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, German, Turkish

-World capitalism severely undermined – North and South (economically, politically, socially, ideologically)

-The rise of social protest and revolutionary movements everywhere

Russia as “the weakest link”: the sudden fall of the state (the February Revolution)

A key conflict within the February 1917 revolution in Russia:

Reform-minded elites saw removal of autocracy as a way to make Russia more successful in the war

The masses revolted, above all, against the war (as well as against imperialism, autocracy, and capitalism)

February 1917: The Tsar has abdicated, long live free Russia!

The 1917 revolution: The state has collapsed, citizen militias patrol streets

“Dual Power”: the Provisional Government and the Soviets

The 9 months between February and October pushed the masses away from more moderate political forces and gave the initiative to Lenin and the Bolsheviks

Russian Social-Democratic Workers Party (the Bolsheviks) – renamed in 1918 as:

All-Russian Communist Party (the Bolsheviks)

Alexander Kerensky, head of the Provisional Government, July-October 1917

Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924)

Lenin’s plan: Stage a socialist revolution in Russia to ignite revolutions

abroad and overthrow capitalism Advance the most radical demands to gain popular

support:-a democratic peace-radical land reform-worker control of factories-self-determination of nationalities

Push the Soviets to take power Overthrow the Provisional Government by force, if

necessary

Germany’s support of the Bolsheviks: were they really German agents?

November 7 (October 25), 1917: Bolsheviks and their allies establish a Soviet Government, which proceeds to implement the radical program

The first act:

The Decree on Peace: Russia exits the war, offers immediate peace

talks to all warring parties to conclude a democratic peace

Secret documents of the Imperial Government pertaining to the war are made public

The Council of People’s Commissars – the first Soviet Government, October 1917

“Bolshevik”, painting by Boris Kustodiev

“White Russia”: Opponents of the Reds fleeing abroad after defeat in the Civil War

3 CONCEPTS OF WORLD ORDER

CONSERVATIVE: a balance of power between strong states pursuing their national interests

LIBERAL: democratic values, self-determination of nations, free trade, disarmament, a world organization to keep the peace

RADICAL: socialism to replace capitalism; promotion of social and national revolutions

Read Paul Kennedy’s article on geopolitics vs. democracy: Blending Democratic Ideals With Geopolitical Wisdom In the wake of WWI, conservative notions were

discredited. The US advocated a liberal alternative Soviet Russia adopted a radical program – or was it that

radical?

DECREE ON PEACE, 7.11.17

 

1.     Called for immediate democratic peace without any territorial claims or indemnities

2.     Right of nations to self-determination

3.     Willing to consider other terms proposed by other states

4.     Immediate armistice for 3 months

5.     Call to working people of the world to rise against “slavery and exploitation of any kind”

 

 

Woodrow Wilson, US President in 1913-1920

WILSON’S 14 POINTS, 8.01.18     Expressed “universal human sympathy” with the Russian

desire for peace and the Russian proposals. Offered a program for establishing “an ordered peace”:

-         Open diplomacy, no secret treaties-         Absolute freedom of the seas-         Free trade-         Maximum arms reduction-         Evacuation of the Russian territory-         Right of nations to self-determination-         Creation of an international organization to keep peace THE KEY THEME: 

“The principle of justice to all peoples and nationalities and the right to live on equal terms of liberty and safety with one another, whether they be strong or weak”  

Russia and America offered alternatives to the collapsed world order

Russia’s radical alternative (revolution)America’s liberal-democratic alternative (reform)Despite similarities, the two alternatives were

fundamentally incompatible: US strove to preserve global capitalism through reformRussia sought to destroy capitalism and replace it with communism

For the first time in their shared history, Russia and America became enemies

US, as well as Britain, France, and Japan, intervened in the Civil War on the side of the Whites

It sent troops to occupy a few areas of Russia in the North and the Far East

It refused to recognize the Soviet Government until 1933

In the ideological sense, the Cold War started in 1917

Results of World War I – for detailed analysis read:

Results of World War One

The Soviets launch their foreign policy in a combination of diverse approaches:

1. Repudiate international obligations of the Empire

2. Foster revolution abroad – use propaganda, subversion, armed force if necessary. Creation of the Communist International (Comintern).

3. Build a strong state and deal with other states on the basis of Realpolitik – and use all the traditional tools of the state

4. Support some liberal-internationalist ideas

CONTRADICTIONS IN FOREIGN POLICY: WILL THEY HURT OR HELP THE SOVIETS?

FIRST TASKS OF SOVIET FOREIGN POLICY

1.Extricate Russia from WWI Talks with Germany and its alliesThe Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: almost fatal to Soviets The eruption of the Civil War – peace with Germany one of the causes

2.Win the Civil WarDefeat the Whites militarily and politicallyRepel foreign intervention

3.Help establish Soviet-type regimes around RussiaUnsuccessful: Germany, Finland, Baltic states, Hungary, Northern IranSuccessful: Ukraine, Belarus, Transcaucasia, Central Asia, Mongolia

Timeline

1917-1921: the Revolution and the Civil War 1921-1929: consolidation 1929-1941: mobilization 1941-1945: the Great Patriotic War 1946-1991: the Cold War

In the first year of the Civil War, Moscow’s sphere of control shrinks to 15th century borders

Civil War: Communist poster urging people to volunteer for the Red Army

Communist poster: “Work and keep your rifle at your side”

Hallmarks of the period

1921 as the pivotal year End of the Civil War: a devastated country Shift from War Communism to NEP

World revolution is postponed Formation of the Soviet Union Normalization of relations with other countries Machiavellianism Use of the Comintern The rise of Stalin

“World revolution” is postponed

Stabilization of capitalism worldwide NEP means a shift from revolution to reform, a revival of

capitalism in Russia, a compromise between communism and capitalism

“Socialism in one country” becomes the goal; success of the Soviet model would be the best help to the world revolution

Primacy of internal tasks over foreign policy Deep splits within the leadership, the Communist Party, and

the Comintern: has the revolution been betrayed?

The empire restored: the rise of the Soviet Union

Formation of the Soviet Union – 1922

The Russian Empire is largely restored under a different management

Revolutionary annexation of non-Russian lands: Ukraine, Belarus, the Caucasus, Central Asia.

Suppression of nationalists; use of the Red Army; reliance on pro-Soviet groups

The ambivalence of Soviet federalism: was it a mere façade for a unitary state?

Normalization of relations with other countries

Recognition of the Soviet Government: Afghanistan – 1919, USA – 1933 Britain – the trade agreement of 1921

The Soviet needs: Legitimation: from a rogue state to a legal successor

to the Russian Empire A peaceful international environment Trade and investment Participation in international diplomacy

Machiavellianism Using conflicts between potential adversaries;

building balances of power; pragmatic maneuvering in world affairs, readiness to use any means available to achieve foreign policy goals

Rapallo (1922) and the Soviet-German axis A separate deal between 2 “rogue states” Mutual interests Mutual rearmament What about German Communists?

The China policy Support of Chinese nationalism against Japan and

the West What about Chinese Communists?

Use of the Comintern (and other Internationals) The Comintern: 1919-1943 Idealism vs. pragmatism Extremism vs. moderation The domestic/international linkage of Comintern The Comintern as a tool of Soviet foreign policy

The state relied on subversive forces abroad The key role of secret services Undermined official interstate relations Had some disastrous consequences on politics abroad Discredited the idea of communism

Not a single successful revolution Partial responsibility for the rise of Nazism in Germany The tragedy of true believers

Lenin with his disciple, Iosif Stalin (1922)

Stalin during the Civil War

Stalin in his early years as Communist Party General Secretary

The Rise of Stalin Stalin as the ultimate Machiavellian: the needs of

the state and the personality Lenin’s legacy and the fight over it: leadership,

ideology, policy dilemmas A conservative or a revolutionary?