The black oceans of the deep web,and the crystal clear databases

by Alejandro Ochoa G.

Guadalajara, State of Jalisco, Mexico

Wednesday, June 24, 2009

The web is opaque.

Currently –June, 2009– we are still sailing "our" black oceans. Or, we are surfing somewhat blindly the waters of the web.

We accept and rely on what search engines like yahoo.com, bing.com, ask.com, google.com, kosmix.com, hakia.com, lexxe.com, answers.com/bb, wolframalpha.com, cuil.com, deeppeep.org, clusty.com, http://blindsearch.fejus.com, duckduckgo.com, yauba, hunch.com, oneriot, scoopler, powerset, et cetera, retrieve from the internet by using their web crawlers, bots or robots, ants, automatic indexers, worms, spiders, or Web scutters, and then delivering the results of their searches to us through the links their software creates.

I think the time has come for someone to tell the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) that soon there will be a need to create at least three new top-level domains (TLDs): .odb, .sdb, and .fdb (open databases, shareable databases, and free databases).

There are several well-known TLDs:

.aero, .asia, .biz, .cat, .com, .coop, .gov, .gob [in Spanish], .info, .int, .jobs, .mil, .mobi, .museum, .name, .net, .org, .pro, .tel, .travel, .tv, et cetera.

I believe it would be ideal, “perfect” or good for many of us internet surfers to stop being surfers, and become internet divers or crew members of a submarine or a bathyscaphe.

We would be better if we could leave the surfboard or the clipper or the yacht, and enter a submarine or a bathyscaphe in order to see directly what the deep oceans of the web conceal.

The sunlight cannot light the Coca-Cola-colored or sewage-like-colored deep waters, so perhaps we need:

(a) a bathyscaphe, or several or many bathyscaphes (id est, hardware, computers, laptops and desktops).

(b) the powerful lights of submarines or bathyscaphes (id est, NEW or modified database software).

(c) to pour Clorox (or Cloralex [a brand not related to Clorox], in Mexico) into the deep seas (id est, the collaboration or cooperation of web divers –the creators, fillers, and users of REALLY open databases– who from time to time will type data [Wikipedia-wise], and will be filling in the fields at the databases they will be interested in).

(d) to use our “own human phosphorus” (maybe the one inside our brains) in order to shed some light and watch the environment, the dangerous places, the pros and cons, et cetera, as deep-sea creatures do (id est, the possibility of using our rational faculties such as discernment, thought, memory, understanding, for which we need to use our mother tongue [English, Spanish, German, Japanese...] certainly not by speaking, but by reading and CREATING new ways, by generating new ideas, new thoughts, and, as American futurologist Alvin Toffler says, “by continually shift, add, subtract, combine and rearrange numbers, symbols, words, images, and memories, combining them with emotions to form new thoughts.")

–“... bioluminescent characteristics that allow deep sea fish to produce light, the only source of light in the deep sea...”.

Then, maybe we shall see thousands of NEW species ... like a red octopus that steers itself with wings on its head, a carnivorous sponge, a giant spider crab, et cetera, as reported by Nature Magazine, May 17, 2007 (“Anctartic Biodiversity”).

How can we enter “our” bathyscaphe in order to explore the deep web?

By creating many and multiple SHAREABLE, OPEN, and FREE databases (better if some or many of these are relational and/or interchangeable and/or interrelatable databases) in websites where the ACTUAL databases would be visible, not concealed by a dark veil or by the ink of octopuses.

[SQL... —or should I write MySQL— HSQLDB, CodeBase,R Language, Visio Professional 2007...]

[Reverse-engineer database models and software solutions.]

[Maybe it will be necessary to modify the nowadays database software, or to CREATE NEW database software.]

–Let us take the case of IMDb, for example.

You can type the name of an actress/actor, so you get some information (or a lot of information) about her/him, but you cannot see the REAL database.

Now, please do not think I am against the Internet Movie Database (IMDb), or against the free enterprise system or the profitable corporations. No. I have just chosen that company to illustrate the matter.

Neither I would want people reveal their credit card numbers, personal and private info, nor that the CIA, FBI, NSA, SBIs, reveal data out of their files or archives or databases.

No.

—The COLLABORATIVE databases I am speaking of, would be built up freely by the users, by the people, by the web divers, out of a sort of combination of Wikipedia and Youtube roads, wikipedia-wise.

— —

Imagine these open, shareable, collaborative and free databases.

For example,

(1). A company which makes and sells wood vertical sash windows, would be quick in adding its data (name, street address, telephone numbers, websites, e-mail addresses, products, prices, links to photos et cetera), INTO THE lines and columns of the database, into the open and free databases...

(2). The fans of Guns n’ Roses would type data about this rock group, would create links to videos, photos, et cetera.

(3). A geometer would type the names and perhaps the descriptions of different types of lines: straight, curved, dotted, broken, mixed, conchoid, asymptote, et cetera.

The people, the web surfers or WEB DIVERS, the users, actually could open, see, watch, read, search into and manipulate the real databases in order to retrieve data OR to visit a website: by clicking with the mouse on a certain line and/or column of a specific database, they will be able to go directly to a specific website.

Maybe they also could do (by means of using MySQL or some other 21st century software) the equivalent of (in dBASE III Plus):

[INITIAL COMMANDS] append, average, browse, change, continue, copy, count, create, dir, display, do, edit, export, find, go, GoTo, import, index, label, list, locate, modify command/file, create/modify query, quit, recall, release, rename, replace, report, create/modify screen, seek, set, skip, sort to, store, sum, total, type, use...

BUT perhaps not: delete, delete all, delete file, erase, pack.

(Right now I am using terminology of a software program called dBASE III Plus, devised by the Ashton-Tate company, Torrance, California [1985-1987].

Also:[ADVANCED COMMANDS] accept, cancel, call, close, copy

file, display, display files, display history, display memory, display status, display structure, do case, do while, exit, if, input, insert, join, join with, load, list, list files, list history, list memory, list status, list structure, loop, macro, modify, modify command/file, modify label form, modify query file, modify report form, modify screen file, modify database structure, modify view file, note, on, parameters, private, procedure, public, read, reindex, restore, resume, retry, return, run / !, save, select, suspend, text, update, modify view, wait,

BUT perhaps not: zap.

Making the web bigger and greater by typing and/or uploading and/or copying & pasting data and information in databases... just like any wordcaster/web surfer/web diver can type words, express his/her ideas and concepts about just any subject in the Wikipedia websites, or like almost anyone can upload or broadcast a video in Youtube.

American futurologist Alvin Toffler (1928- ) says we should recombine knowledge.

Toffler states in a book written by him and his wife Heidi Toffler, Revolutionary Wealth (Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 2006), that some of the deep fundamentals of wealth are: work, time, space, and knowledge (happily or strangely, he does not mention money, platinum, gold, silver, diamonds, oil... as being deep fundamentals).

We are not merely expanding the ASK [Aggregate Supply of Knowledge], but altering the way in which it is organized, achieved, and distributed. Search engines in the Web let more and more immediate and sophisticated questions, and more and more ways of combining and manipulating contents...

In a previous book, The Third Wave (William Morrow and Company, Inc., New York, 1980), Toffler wrote that in the world, knowledge was worse distributed than arms and riches.

Also, about knowledge:

“In each of us there is a crowded, invisible warehouse full of knowledge and its precursor data and information. But unlike a warehouse, it is also a workshop in which we —or, more accurately, the electrochemicals in our brains— continually shift, add, subtract, combine and rearrange numbers, symbols, words, images, and memories, combining them with emotions to form new thoughts.”

Maybe in the not-so-distant future it will be necessary a form of classification for certain databases, of for certain lines or columns of some databases. For example, the UNESCO has a six-digit classification system to be used mainly by scholars...

... but it is a poor one, or can become a poor one in the future.

Perhaps we shall need a new classification system.

http://enc.slider.com/Enc/UNESCO_Nomenclature

True, the UNESCO system is limited to research papers and doctoral dissertations, but we could create wider or “universal” classifications of disciplines, sciences, fields, areas, activities, et cetera.

The creation of classification systems is a work which should be approached by interdisciplinary transsectorial teams.

The classification systems could be arranged according to a specific scheme / design / methodology, or under a combination of two or more choices, in a flexible, elastic, adaptable, changeable, modifiable, ad-hoc-able, updateable way, with multiple variables / inputs / outputs:

(a). By following, but not copying, the Dewey Decimal Classifications system, the idea of Melvil Dewey (1851-1931), for libraries and librarians:

http://www.questionpoint.org/crs/html/help/en/ask/ask_map_lcctoddc.html

(b). One similar to the Library of Congress Class headings (which I do not like).

(c). With the least possible use of numbers; instead, by letting the alphabet be the guide, up to certain point.

(d) Other ways which I have not thought about. Hope some readers bring their ideas. The “forum” will always be open.

I have added, as Appendix “A”, a draft, a preliminary, very poor, unfinished and incomplete list, towards the creation of a classification system.

... Also, maybe false databases (lighter, with less weight measured in megabytes or gigabytes) could be created (as “fuzzy” or “coarse” copies of the real databases), out of the real operable and functional databases which would be slower to be opened or downloaded.

A false database could contain or have the same data almost as they are saved in the “COMPLETE” database (its “parent” database), also it would have functional links, but the false or

fictitious database would not be as manipulatable as the real, GIANT database. A false or fictitious database would be lighter, “slim” (it would have less megabytes or gigabytes) and more easily viewed (or downloaded). It would be a “bad” copy of the original database. This copy would be used only to throw a look and reach a specific website faster.

If the use of one or several or many search algorithms were necessary in order to perform some searches outside or inside the databases, these algorithms should be posted and made visible or readable for all, so, anyone could copy and/or modify them.

I consider that in the area of databases, we need to follow the way inaugurated in the software field by Swedish-speaking Finnish programmer Linus Torvalds (1969- ) –open source, et cetera–, almost copycatted or combined with the initial work of American philosopher Larry Sanger (1968- ), co-founder of Wikipedia, and also follow some signs and several ideas of American poet, essayist, retired Wyoming cattle rancher, political activist, former lyricist for the Grateful Dead rock group, AND cyberlibertarian John Perry Barlow (1947- ); also, he was one of the founding members of the Electronic Frontier Foundation.

Related to this, you can follow some links:

http://groups.csail.mit.edu/mac/classes/6.805/articles/int-prop/barlow-economy-of-ideas.html

The above link leads us to an article written by John Perry Barlow, with a long quote by U.S. founding father Thomas Jefferson as epigraph.

http://www.infoworld.com/t/business/fair-use-under-assault-046

http://www.law.suffolk.edu/highlights/stuorgs/jhtl/book_reviews/2006_2007/Betsy%20VanderVoort_Book%20Review.pdf1

Who Controls the Internet?Illusions of a Borderless World

By Jack Goldsmith and Tim WuNew York, NY; Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-19-515266-2(Price $28.00), pp. 184.

Reviewed by Betsy Vander Voort

Journal of High Technology LawSuffolk University Law School

“In 1990, John Perry Barlow1 described the Internet as the “electronic frontier”, a new world “unspoiled, self-governing and best left to inhabitants to run as they pleas[e].” Utopian visions of the Internet, like Barlow’s, saw this new technology as a way to connect people like never before, and the potential to start new societies beyond the control of government and the confines of territorial borders...”.

http://www.amazon.com/Who-Controls-Internet-Illusions-Borderless/dp/B001GNC2UG

— —

–[Linux distributions such as Ubuntu, openSUSE, Fedora, Mandriva.]

–[Debian Project.]

Sure, there would arise many problems and questions.

One problem could be this one: A number of guys could DELETE or “edit” some lines, several columns, or even ENTIRE databases. But there should be several ways to prevent or remedy these calamities:

By allowing the possibility to write and add information, but not to erase/delete it; “pre-editing” by the generators or creators of databases; setting of software padlocks; creation of some barriers; instant automated copying toward mirror websites, and other ways that at this time do not come to my mind.

But, I think anyone should be enabled to search, organize or reorganize, arrange or rearrange, and retrieve data.

1. Besides, the possibility of creating databases in which the different columns include not only synonyms, and antonyms like “long”, “short”, but ALSO (or SIMPLY) words related to each other, exempli gratia, “sweet”, “bitter”, “sour”, “salty”; another example: “variable(s)”, “constant(s)”, could lead us to have online manipulatable dictionaries arranged in the form of databases.

2. In addition, there could be TRANSPARENT dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms PLUS dictionaries of related words and ideas (not necessarily synonyms [“sweet”, “bitter”, “sour”, “salty”]), and like terms.

3. Furthermore, I think there is a need for creating a TRANSPARENT, see-thru database containing a reverse, inverted or backwards dictionary.

Imagine, in the first line of the right column of your database you have written the word abecedary... well, in the first line of the left column you will have to write the word yradeceba.... et cetera, and you will have to arrange the lines according to the common alphabetical order, IN the LEFT column.

Rome, Emor; Rio de Janeiro, Orienaj ed Oir; Canada, Adanac;silver, revlis; gold, dlog; god, dog; dog, god; civic, civic; level, level; rotator, rotator; kayak, kayak; racecar, racecar.

The last five words (id est, the last five pairs of words) are called palindromes.

Adanac CanadaAikon Nokiacivic civicdlog golddog goddraw warddrow wordEmor Romeevird driveevird t’nac can’t driveEvird Tnak Kant Drivegod doghapztuhc chutzpahkarona anorakkayak kayaklacismihw whimsicallarenim minerallevel levelmurd drummurdnunoc conundrumnaginanehs shenaniganNokuy YukonNosscire EricssonOrienaj ed Oir Rio de Janeirorevlis silverracecar racecar

rotator rotatortebahpla alphabetward drawyksihw whiskyyradeceba abecedaryyrreb berryyrrebduolc cloudberryyrrebekohc chokeberryyrrebeldnac candleberryyrrebelkcuh huckleberryyrrebeulb blueberryyrrebhcnub bunchberryyrrebkcah hackberryyrrebkcalb blackberryyrreblaroc coralberryyrreblib bilberryyrrebnarc cranberryyrrebnawor rowanberryyrrebnesyob boysenberryyrrebnognil lingonberryyrreb olaffub buffalo berryyrrebpsar raspberryyrrebrab barberryyrrebragus sugarberryyrrebredle elderberryyrrebrekcehc checkerberryyrrebwarts strawberryyrrebwed dewberryyrrebwoc cowberryyrrebworc crowberryyrrebyab bayberryyrrehc cherryyrrem merryyrret terry

Please note that some pairs, as:

dog / god,god / dog,

draw / ward, ward / draw,

while are not palindromes, their respective inversions result in other EXISTENT or CORRECT words in English.

According to the Webster dictionary, a palindrome is:

Etymology:Greek palindromos running back again, from palin back, again + dramein to run; akin to Greek polos axis, pole.

Date: circa 1629

a word, verse, or sentence (as “Able was I ere I saw Elba”) or a number (as 1881) that reads the same backward or forward.

Palindromes often consist of a phrase or sentence ("Was it a rat I saw?", "Step on no pets", "Sit on a potato pan, Otis", "Lisa Bonet ate no basil", "Satan, oscillate my metallic sonatas".

In Spanish, there are a number of inverted dictionaries. In English... no. It seems that there are only a few.

I think this is due to phonetic reasons. In Spanish, most of the letters of the abecedary have only one way to be uttered, one sound, while in English... consider the “w”, for example, in “wrangler” is silent; in “water”, not. What about the “i”? We know there are many ways it can be spoken.

4. How about another dictionary... but this time not about inverted or reversed words, but a dictionary of anagrams?

Old West Action – Clint EastwoodMr. Mojo Risin – Jim Morrison

http://www.anagramgenius.com/archive/clint.html

5. Also, the creation of bilingual, trilingual... multilingual

databases could lead us to choose easier roads in order to approximate ourselves to better, more accurate machine

translations... through crystal clear databases, and with equal importance, through special and precise classifications of disciplines, sciences, fields, areas, activities, and parcels of human knowledge.

— — — — ....................................................................

The juxtaposed ideas shown above were inspired in part:

— (a) After having read four of the many books written by Alvin Toffler: The Future Shock, The Third Wave, Powershift, and Revolutionary Wealth.

— (b) By the lyrics and the music of the song “Wonderworld”

Written by: Ken HensleyArranged and performed by: Uriah Heep, a British rock groupRecorded at: Musicland, Munich, Germany, January-March 1974Produced by: Gerry BronEngineered by: Peter GallenMusicland engineers: Hans Menzel & MackiCutting engineers: Harry Moss, E.M.I. Studios, Abbey Road, LondonPublished by: Sydney Bron Music Company, Limited.

We freely speak of dreamsWe marvel at what they concealBut in my wonderworldEach sleeping vision is so realSo I believe and hopeThat all the things I seeMay one day bringSuch truth and peaceAs we can feel

Free from this waking world,Deep in sleep's mystery,My will is free to wanderFree to wander carelesslyAt times it's not so farFrom what we call realityAnd at times I know I wonderIf it all could come true

Oh, Mr. WonderworldDon't be afraid'Cause dreams were madeWere made to dim the lightThe torment day can bringAnd leave you freeTo laugh aloud and hearYour heart bells ringOh, oh, Mr. WonderworldWonderworld

Oh, Mr. WonderworldDon't be afraid'Cause your dreams were madeThey were made to dim the lightThe torment day can bringAnd leave you freeTo laugh aloud and hearYour heart bells ringOh, oh, Mr. WonderworldMr. WonderworldMr. Wonderworld

— (c) After having read “Truthfully Speaking”, an interview with Mr. Guy Kawasaki (by Amanda C. Kooser) in pages 118-125 of the November 2007 issue of Entrepreneur Magazine.

http://entrepreneur.com/magazine/entrepreneur/2007/november/185628.html

Here is an excerpt:

”I'm into democratization —of information, in this case. Information was [once] owned by royalty and the religious elite —they had scribes. Then Gutenberg made it possible to print Bibles. Then Apple/Adobe/Aldus created desktop publishing. Then people could create websites, then blogs. It's getting easier, cheaper and more democratized to publish information, but even at the website/blog stage, you still need to own/operate a website or blog. I wanted to go even further: to enable anyone to "tell the world." [With Truemors.com,] they can publish information. They don't have to wait for editorial approval, the next print run, whatever.

[...]

“What does the fact that you were able to create a web startup so quickly and inexpensively tell us about the state of web entrepreneurship in general?

“Now more than ever, people should give it a shot to create the next Google, You-Tube, Facebook, eBay, whatever. You can get things done so much cheaper, faster and better* because of tools like MySQL and WordPress as well as the willingness of the crowds. There are many tech businesses that take millions to start, but there are many that can be done on credit cards. I hope I've proven that.”

* I would add: easier.............................................................

Now, maybe it is time to climb another step of the ladder, by creating visible, reorganizable, rearrangeable, manipulatable,

interchangeable, interrelatable, CRYSTAL CLEAR, SEE-THRU and free databases FOR EVERYONE...

... in such a way that the people can take the place of yahoo, bing, google, ask.com, et cetera.

— (d) after having read the following paragraph:

“One of the central concepts in Complex Systems is Emergence. It is this automagical process through which elements of a system give rise to a higher order system. Emergence is how physics becomes chemistry and chemistry becomes biology. It is how web 1.0 evolved into web 2.0, and how that, in turn, will become the next web.”

in the web article: “Yahoo! Pipes and The Web As Database”

http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/yahoo_pipes_web_database.php

I think that, strictly speaking, the internet IS NOT a database, but search engines companies have organized some web information in the form of databases.

I have discovered warm water!

— (e) after having read the following (about the importance of the words and the language):

(e1).

In an interview with the at that time –August 8, 1997– president of the Royal Spanish Academy (Real Academia Española, www.rae.es , Fernando Lazaro-Carreter [1923-2004], by journalist Florinda Salinas, in Madrid, Spain.

Salinas – Is the language the framework of the thought? Lazaro-Carreter – Yes, the language is the only framework of the thought. Science is nothing but a well-constructed language. We all think by means of words, no matter if we want it that way or not. If there is not a verbal analysis of the world, there is no way of knowing it.

(e2).

“The [Spanish] language was always the companion of the [Spanish] Empire.”

“Siempre fue la lengua compañera del imperio.”

Antonio de Nebrija (Lebrija, Sevilla, Spain, 1441 — Alcala de Henares, Spain, July 5, 1522), a Spanish scholar, humanist and grammarian who penned a grammar of the Castilian language (Gramática castellana, 1492), credited as the first published grammar of any Romance language.

(e3).

Politicians work mainly by speaking and debating and by writing and approving bills, that is, by the use of language, as well as teachers use language in order to educate their disciples, and a boy wins the affection of a girl by the word, et cetera...

(e4).

Once, German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889 —1976) said that “the problem of philosophy is not the truth, but the language”.

(e5).

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. — (John, 1, 1-2, The Gideons International, 1960.)

Before the world was created, the Word already existed; he was with God, and he was the same as God. From the very beginning, the Word was with God. — (John, 1, 1-2, American Bible Society, 1966.)

In fact, the Word is so important, that he is the Second Person of the Trinity, and he is God, according to Saint John.

(e6).

[God our Saviour...] Who will have all men to be saved, and to come unto the knowledge of the truth. — (I Timothy, 2, 4.)

Apostle Paul uses words in order to convince his readers.

(e7).

(For all the Athenians and strangers which were there spent their time in nothing else, but either to tell, or to hear some new thing.) — (Acts, 17, 21.)

—————

The by now hypothetical websites and web pages displaying databases could also show web widgets, and tickers similar to those you can see at the bottom of the screen in channels such as those of CNN.

I consider this of PARAMOUNT importance, due to the implied possibilities and potentialities of web divers interacting... to enrich the internet.

As for the financial issues, the sustenance or the economic viability of the .fdb, .odb, and/or .sdb database websites, there could be at least two kinds of these:

(a) Some database websites could carry advertising.

(b) Some could follow the model of Jimmy Wales’ Wikipedia (which I do not like), by not taking advertisements, but accepting donations.

— “Wikipedia chief considers taking ads”

That was the heading of a newspaper article, December 30, 2005:

http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/media/article783408.ece

— — — —

Praise to:

(a) The dBASE III Plus software, from Ashton-Tate, Torrance, California [1985-1987], Clipper C, C+, C++, PHP, MySQL, Apache, Oracle, et cetera.

(b) John George Kemeny (Budapest, May 31, 1926 – New Hampshire, December 26, 1992) a Hungarian-American mathematician, computer scientist, and educator, and Thomas Eugene Kurtz (February 22, 1928 – ), an American computer scientist. They developed the BASIC programming language (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), and authored the book Basic Programming (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1971).

(c) The fathers of the internet: Leonard Kleinrock (1934 – ), Vinton Cerf (1943 – ), Robert E. Kahn (1938 – ); and others: J.C.R.

Licklider, Robert Taylor; Ray Tomlinson, who invented the internet-based e-mail in late 1971.

(d) Dennis C. Hayes, who invented the PC modem in 1977.

(e) File Transfer Protocol (FTP), TCP/IP, Internet Relay Chat (IRC), Mosaic, Gopher, Apache, Bulletin Board System (BBS), Majordomo, Eudora...

(f) Marc Andreessen (1971 – ) and James H. Clark (1944 – ) creators/founders of Netscape Navigator and developers of Secure Sockets Layer Protocol (SSL), which is still widely used.

(g) In today’s brave, fast-paced, web-based world, praise to Tim Berners-Lee (London, 1955 – ), of the CERN, Centre Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire, near Geneva, Switzerland, for having created the world wide web (www, an important part of the internet, but not to be confused with this one) in 1990, and for having simply given it all away for free to the world, only promoting its wider use.

Alejandro Ochoa G.

Guadalajara, State of Jalisco, Mexico

Wednesday, June 24, 2009.

Appendix “A”abbreviationsaccidentsacronymsactingactionadministrationadvertising

aeronauticsAfricaagriculturealcoholismanatomyAmericaanimal husbandryAntarcticaAntillesantiquesappraisementarchitectureart

ASCII code, and Unicode

For ASCII CODE, please press ALT plus the ascii code numbers corresponding to each letter. For example, if you press ALT plus 97, you will get an a.

For Unicode, please press ALT plus x while the cursor (mouse pointer) is immediately at the right side of the Unicode characters (numbers and/or letters).

This system has the particularity that it is reversible, id est, if you type directly, for example, the letter f and you place the cursor immediately at the right side of that letter and then press ALT plus x (the letter “x”) in your keyboard, you will get the Unicode for the letter f, which is 0066.

If you type, for example, the following four characters: 0067 and without moving the cursor you press ALT plus x, you will get a letter: g.

Press again ALT plus x, and you will get: 0067...Press again ALT plus x, and you will get a letter: g... and so on.

This list is not comprehensive. It includes some codes only.

Letteror ASCIIsymbol code Unicode

a 97 0061á 160 00E1 00e1à 133 00E0 00e0ä 132 00E4 00e4â 131 00E2 00e2ã 198 00E3 00e3å 134 00E5 00e5ā 257 0101ă 259 0103

A 65 0041Á 181 00C1 00c1À 183 00C0 00c0Ä 142 00C4 00c4Â 182 00C2 00c2Ã 199 00C3 00c3Å 143 00C5 00c5Ā 256 0100Ă 258 0102

ç 135 00E7 00e7Ç 128 00C7 00c7

e 101 0065 0065é 130 00E9 00e9è 138 00E8 00e8ë 137 00EB 00ebê 136 00EA 00ea

E 69 0045É 144 00C9 00c9È 212 00C8 00c8Ë 211 00CB 00cbÊ 210 00CA 00ca

i 105 0069í 161 00ED 00edì 141 00EC 00ecï 139 00EF 00efî 140 00EE 00ee

I 73 0049Í 214 00CD 00cdÌ 222 00CC 00ccÏ 216 00CF 00cfÎ 215 00CE 00ce

ñ 164 00F1 00f1Ñ 165 00D1 00d1

o 111 006F 006fó 162 00F3 00f3ò 149 00F2 00f2ö 148 00F6 00f6ô 147 00F4 00f4õ 228 00F5 00f5

O 79 004F 004f

Ò 227 00D2 00d2Ö 153 00D6 00d6Ô 226 00D4 00d4Õ 229 00D5 00d5

ß 225 00DF 00df

u 117 0075ú 163 00FA 00faù 151 00F9 00f9ü 129 00FC 00fcû 150 00FB 00fb

U 85 0055Ú 233 00DA 00daÙ 235 00D9 00d9Ü 154 00DC 00dcÛ 234 00DB 00db

y 121 0079ý 236 00FD 00fdÿ 152 00FF 00ff

Y 89 0059Ý 237 00DD 00dd

~ 126 007E 007e£ 156 00A3 00a3Ø 157 00D8 00d8× 158 00D7 00d7ƒ 159 0192® 169 00AE 00ae½ 171 00BD 00bd¼ 172 00BC 00bc¾ 243 00BE 00beµ 230 00B5 00b5± 241 00B1 00b1§ 245 00A7 00a7© 184 00A9 00a9

☺ 1 0031☻ 2 0032♥ 3 0033♦ 4 etc.♣ 5

♠ 6• 7◘ 8○ 9◙ 10♂ 11♀ 12♪ 13♫ 14☼ 15► 16◄ 17↕ 18‼ 19¶ 20§ 21▬ 22↨ 23↑ 24↓ 25→ 26← 27∟ 28↔ 29▲ 30▼ 31space 32 ¡ 33” 34# 35$ 36% 37& 38’ 39( 40) 41* 42+ 43, 44- 45. 46/ 470 481 492 503 514 525 536 547 55

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£ 156Ø 157× 158ƒ 159á 160í 161ó 162ú 163ñ 164Ñ 165ª 166º 167¿ 168® 169¬ 170½ 171¼ 172¡ 173« 174» 175© 184· 250¹ 251³ 252² 253■ 254

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chemical elements

By name

Name, Symbol, Atomic number, Atomic mass, Group, Period

Actinium Ac 89 [227][1] 7 Aluminium (Aluminum) Al 13 26.9815386(8) 13 3 Americium Am 95 [243][1] 7 Antimony (Stibium) Sb 51 121.760(1)[2] 15 5 Argon Ar 18 39.948(1)[2][3] 18 3 Arsenic As 33 74.92160(2) 15 4 Astatine At 85 [210][1] 17 6 Barium Ba 56 137.327(7) 2 6 Berkelium Bk 97 [247][1] 7 Beryllium Be 4 9.012182(3) 2 2 Bismuth Bi 83 208.98040(1)[1] 15 6 Bohrium Bh 107 [264][1] 7 7 Boron B 5 10.811(7)[2][4][3] 13 2 Bromine Br 35 79.904(1) 17 4

Cadmium Cd 48 112.411(8)[2] 12 5 Caesium (Cesium) Cs 55 132.9054519(2) 1 6 Calcium Ca 20 40.078(4)[2] 2 4 Californium Cf 98 [251][1] 7 Carbon C 6 12.0107(8)[2][3] 14 2 Cerium Ce 58 140.116(1)[2] 6 Chlorine Cl 17 35.453(2)[2][4][3] 17 3 Chromium Cr 24 51.9961(6) 6 4 Cobalt Co 27 58.933195(5) 9 4 Copper (Cuprum) Cu 29 63.546(3)[3] 11 4 Curium Cm 96 [247][1] 7 Darmstadtium Ds 110 [271][1] 10 7 Dubnium Db 105 [262][1] 5 7 Dysprosium Dy 66 162.500(1)[2] 6 Einsteinium Es 99 [252][1] 7 Erbium Er 68 167.259(3)[2] 6 Europium Eu 63 151.964(1)[2] 6 Fermium Fm 100 [257][1] 7 Fluorine F 9 18.9984032(5) 17 2 Francium Fr 87 [223][1] 1 7 Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25(3)[2] 6 Gallium Ga 31 69.723(1) 13 4 Germanium Ge 32 72.64(1) 14 4 Gold (Aurum) Au 79 196.966569(4) 11 6 Hafnium Hf 72 178.49(2) 4 6 Hassium Hs 108 [277][1] 8 7 Helium He 2 4.002602(2)[2][3] 18 1 Holmium Ho 67 164.93032(2) 6 Hydrogen H 1 1.00794(7)[2][4][3] 1 1 Indium In 49 114.818(3) 13 5 Iodine I 53 126.90447(3) 17 5 Iridium Ir 77 192.217(3) 9 6 Iron (Ferrum) Fe 26 55.845(2) 8 4 Krypton Kr 36 83.798(2)[2][4] 18 4 Lanthanum La 57 138.90547(7)[2] 6 Lawrencium Lr 103 [262][1] 3 7 Lead (Plumbum) Pb 82 207.2(1)[2][3] 14 6 Lithium Li 3 6.941(2)[2][4][3][5] 1 2 Lutetium Lu 71 174.967(1)[2] 3 6 Magnesium Mg 12 24.3050(6) 2 3 Manganese Mn 25 54.938045(5) 7 4 Meitnerium Mt 109 [268][1] 9 7 Mendelevium Md 101 [258][1] 7 Mercury (Hydrargyrum) Hg 80 200.59(2) 12 6 Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94(2)[2] 6 5 Neodymium Nd 60 144.242(3)[2] 6 Neon Ne 10 20.1797(6)[2][4] 18 2 Neptunium Np 93 [237][1] 7 Nickel Ni 28 58.6934(2) 10 4 Niobium Nb 41 92.906 38(2) 5 5

Nitrogen N 7 14.0067(2)[2][3] 15 2 Nobelium No 102 [259][1] 7 Osmium Os 76 190.23(3)[2] 8 6 Oxygen O 8 15.9994(3)[2][3] 16 2 Palladium Pd 46 106.42(1)[2] 10 5 Phosphorus P 15 30.973762(2) 15 3 Platinum Pt 78 195.084(9) 10 6 Plutonium Pu 94 [244][1] 7 Polonium Po 84 [210][1] 16 6 Potassium (Kalium) K 19 39.0983(1) 1 4 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.90765(2) 6 Promethium Pm 61 [145][1] 6 Protactinium Pa 91 231.03588(2)[1] 7Radium Ra 88 [226][1] 2 7 Radon Rn 86 [220][1] 18 6 Rhenium Re 75 186.207(1) 7 6 Rhodium Rh 45 102.905 50(2) 9 5 Roentgenium Rg 111 [272][1] 11 7 Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678(3)[2] 1 5 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07(2)[2] 8 5 Rutherfordium Rf 104 261[1] 4 7 Samarium Sm 62 150.36(2)[2] 6 Scandium Sc 21 44.955912(6) 3 4 Seaborgium Sg 106 [266][1] 6 7 Selenium Se 34 78.96(3)[3] 16 4 Silicon Si 14 28.0855(3)[3] 14 3 Silver (Argentum) Ag 47 107.8682(2)[2] 11 5 Sodium (Natrium) Na 11 22.98976928(2) 1 3 Strontium Sr 38 87.62(1)[2][3] 2 5 Sulfur (Sulphur) S 16 32.065(5)[2][3] 16 3 Tantalum Ta 73 180.94788(2) 5 6 Technetium Tc 43 [98][1] 7 5 Tellurium Te 52 127.60(3)[2] 16 5 Terbium Tb 65 158.92535(2) 6 Thallium Tl 81 204.3833(2) 13 6 Thorium Th 90 232.03806(2)[1][2] 7 Thulium Tm 69 168.93421(2) 6 Tin (Stannum) Sn 50 118.710(7)[2] 14 5 Titanium Ti 22 47.867(1) 4 4 Tungsten (Wolfram) W 74 183.84(1) 6 6 Ununbium Uub 112 [285][1] 12 7 Ununhexium Uuh 116 [292][1] 16 7 Ununoctium Uuo 118 [294][1] 18 7 Ununpentium Uup 115 [288][1] 15 7 Ununquadium Uuq 114 [289][1] 14 7 Ununseptium Uus 117 [293][1] 17 7 Ununtrium Uut 113 [284][1] 13 7 Uranium U 92 238.02891(3)[1][2][4] 7 Vanadium V 23 50.9415(1) 5 4 Xenon Xe 54 131.293(6)[2][4] 18 5

Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04(3)[2] 6 Yttrium Y 39 88.90585(2) 3 5 Zinc Zn 30 65.409(4) 12 4 Zirconium Zr 40 91.224(2)[2] 4 5

Notes

1. The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets, e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element. However, three elements, Thorium, Protactinium, and Uranium, have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and thus their atomic mass given.

2. The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the table.

3. The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more precise atomic weight can not be given.

4. The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from the given value.

5. The atomic weight of commercial Lithium can vary between 6.939 and 6.996—analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a less and more accurate value.

By symbol

Symbol, Name, Etymol. of symb., Atomic No., Rel. atom. mass, Group Period

Ac Actinium from Greek aktinos 89 [227][1] 7 Ag Silver Latin argentum 47 107.8682(2)[2] 11 5 Al Aluminium (Aluminum) Latin alumen 13 26.9815386(8) 13 3 Am Americium the Americas 95 [243][1] 7 Ar Argon Greek argon 18 39.948(1)[2][3] 18 3 As Arsenic Greek arsenikos 33 74.92160(2) 15 4 At Astatine Greek astatos 85 [210][1] 17 6 Au Gold Latin aurum 79 196.966569(4) 11 6 B Boron borax 5 10.811(7)[2][3][4] 13 2 Ba Barium Greek barys 56 137.327(7) 2 6 Be Beryllium beryl 4 9.012182(3) 2 2 Bh Bohrium Niels Bohr 107 [264][1] 7 7 Bi Bismuth from German wissmuth 83 208.98040(1) 15 6 Bk Berkelium Berkeley, California 97 [247][1] 7 Br Bromine Greek bromos 35 79.904(1) 17 4 C Carbon Latin carbo 6 12.0107(8)[2][3] 14 2 Ca Calcium Latin calx 20 40.078(4)[2] 2 4 Cd Cadmium from Greek kadmia 48 112.411(8)[2] 12 5

Ce Cerium Ceres 58 140.116(1)[2] 6 Cf Californium State and University of California 98 [251][1] 7 Cl Chlorine Greek chloros 17 35.453(2)[2][3][4] 17 3 Cm Curium Pierre and Marie Curie and the traditional -um ending 96 [247][1] 7 Co Cobalt from German kobold 27 58.933195(5) 9 4 Cr Chromium Greek chroma 24 51.9961(6) 6 4 Cs Caesium (Cesium) Latin caesius 55 132.9054519(2) 1 6 Cu Copper Latin Cuprum 29 63.546(3)[3] 11 4 Db Dubnium Dubna, Russia 105 [262][1] 5 7 Ds Darmstadtium Darmstadt, Germany 110 [271][1] 10 7 Dy Dysprosium Greek dysprositos 66 162.500(1)[2] 6 Er Erbium Ytterby, Sweden 68 167.259(3)[2] 6 Es Einsteinium Albert Einstein 99 [252][1] 7 Eu Europium Europe 63 151.964(1)[2] 6 F Fluorine Latin fluo 9 18.9984032(5) 17 2 Fe Iron Latin ferrum 26 55.845(2) 8 4 Fm Fermium Enrico Fermi 100 [257][1] 7 Fr Francium France 87 [223][1] 1 7 Ga Gallium Latin Gallia 31 69.723(1) 13 4 Gd Gadolinium gadolinite 64 157.25(3)[2] 6 Ge Germanium Germany 32 72.64(1) 14 4 H Hydrogen Greek hydror 1 1.00794(7)[2][3][4] 1 1 He Helium Greek helios 2 4.002602(2)[2][3] 18 1 Hf Hafnium Latin Hafnia 72 178.49(2) 4 6 Hg Mercury Latin hydrargyrum 80 200.59(2) 12 6 Ho Holmium Latin Holmia 67 164.930 32(2) 6 Hs Hassium Hesse, Germany 108 [277][1] 8 7 I Iodine Greek ioeides 53 126.904 47(3) 17 5 In Indium indigo blue 49 114.818(3) 13 5 Ir Iridium Greek iris 77 192.217(3) 9 6 K Potassium (Kalium) Latin kalium 19 39.0983(1) 1 4 Kr Krypton Greek kryptos 36 83.798(2)[2][4] 18 4 La Lanthanum Greek lanthanien 57 138.90547(7)[2] 6 Li Lithium Greek lithos 3 6.941(2)[2][3][4][5] 1 2 Lr Lawrencium Ernest O. Lawrence 103 [262][1] 3 7 Lu Lutetium Latin Lutetia 71 174.967(1)[2] 3 6 Md Mendelevium Dmitri Mendeleyev 101 [258][1] 7 Mg Magnesium Magnesia, Greece 12 24.3050(6) 2 3 Mn Manganese Latin magnes 25 54.938045(5) 7 4 Mo Molybdenum Greek molybdos 42 95.94(2)[2] 6 5 Mt Meitnerium Lise Meitner 109 [268][1] 9 7 N Nitrogen Greek nitron 7 14.0067(2)[2][3] 15 2 Na Sodium Latin natrium 11 22.98976928(2) 1 3 Nb Niobium Niobe 41 92.906 38(2) 5 5 Nd Neodymium Greek neos didymos 60 144.242(3)[2] 6 Ne Neon Greek neos 10 20.1797(6)[2][4] 18 2 Ni Nickel German kupfernickel 28 58.6934(2) 10 4 No Nobelium Alfred Nobel 102 [259][1] 7 Np Neptunium Neptune 93 [237][1] 7 O Oxygen Greek oxys 8 15.9994(3)[2][3] 16 2

Os Osmium Greek osme 76 190.23(3)[2] 8 6 P Phosphorus Greek phosphoros 15 30.973762(2) 15 3 Pa Protactinium Greek protos and actinium 91 231.03588(2)[1] 7 Pb Lead Latin plumbum 82 207.2(1)[2][3] 14 6 Pd Palladium Pallas and the traditional -dium ending 46 106.42(1)[2] 10 5 Pm Promethium Prometheus 61 [145][1] 6 Po Polonium Poland 84 [210][1] 16 6 Pr Praseodymium Greek prasios 59 140.90765(2) 6 Pt Platinum Greek platina 78 195.084(9) 10 6 Pu Plutonium Pluto 94 [244][1] 7 Ra Radium Latin radius 88 [226][1] 2 7 Rb Rubidium Latin rubidus 37 85.4678(3)[2] 1 5 Re Rhenium German Rheinprovinz 75 186.207(1) 7 6 Rf Rutherfordium Ernest Rutherford 104 261[1] 4 7 Rg Roentgenium Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen 111 [272][1] 11 7 Rh Rhodium Greek rhodon 45 102.905 50(2) 9 5 Rn Radon radium and emanation 86 [220][1] 18 6 Ru Ruthenium Latin Ruthenia 44 101.07(2)[2] 8 5 S Sulfur (Sulphur) Latin sulfur 16 32.065(5)[2][3] 16 3 Sb Antimony Latin stibium 51 121.760(1)[2] 15 5 Sc Scandium Scandinavia 21 44.955912(6) 3 4 Se Selenium Greek selene 34 78.96(3)[3] 16 4 Sg Seaborgium Glenn T. Seaborg 106 [266][1] 6 7 Si Silicon Latin silex 14 28.0855(3)[3] 14 3 Sm Samarium samarskite 62 150.36(2)[2] 6 Sn Tin Latin stannum 50 118.710(7)[2] 14 5 Sr Strontium Latin Strontian 38 87.62(1)[2][3] 2 5 Ta Tantalum King Tantalus 73 180.94788(2) 5 6 Tb Terbium Ytterby, Sweden 65 158.92535(2) 6 Tc Technetium Greek technetos 43 [98][1] 7 5 Te Tellurium Greek tellus 52 127.60(3)[2] 16 5 Th Thorium Thor 90 232.03806(2)[1][2] 7 Ti Titanium the Titans 22 47.867(1) 4 4 Tl Thallium Greek thallos 81 204.3833(2) 13 6 Tm Thulium Thule and the traditional -ium ending 69 168.93421(2) 6 U Uranium Uranus 92 238.02891(3)[1][2][4] 7 Uub Ununbium Latin uni, uni, and bi 112 [285][1] 12 7 Uuh Ununhexium Latin uni, uni, and Greek hex 116 [292][1] 16 7 Uuo Ununoctium Latin uni, uni, and oct 118 [294][1] 18 7 Uup Ununpentium Latin uni, uni, and Greek pent 115 [288][1] 15 7 Uuq Ununquadium Latin uni, uni, and quadr 114 [289][1] 14 7 Uus Ununseptium Latin uni, uni, and sept 117 [293][1] 17 7 Uut Ununtrium Latin uni, uni, and Greek tri 113 [284][1] 13 7 V Vanadium Vanadis 23 50.9415(1) 5 4 W Tungsten German wolfram 74 183.84(1) 6 6 Xe Xenon Greek xenos 54 131.293(6)[2][4] 18 5 Y Yttrium Ytterby, Sweden 39 88.90585(2) 3 5 Yb Ytterbium Ytterby, Sweden 70 173.04(3)[2] 6 Zn Zinc German zink 30 65.409(4) 12 4 Zr Zirconium zircon 40 91.224(2)[2] 4 5

Notes1. The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets,

e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element. However, three elements, Thorium, Protactinium, and Uranium, have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and thus their atomic mass given.

2. The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the table.

3. The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more precise atomic weight can not be given.

4. The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from the given value.

5. The atomic weight of commercial Lithium can vary between 6.939 and 6.996—analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more accurate value.

6. Name changed due to a standardization of, modernization of, or update to older formerly-used symbol.

7. Name designated by discredited/disputed claimant.8. Name proposed prior to discovery/creation of element or prior to official

re-naming of a placeholder name.9. Temporary placeholder name.

By atomic number

Atomic number, Name, Symbol, Period, Group, Chemical series, Mass (g/mol)

1 Hydrogen H 1 1 Nonmetal 1.00794(7)[1] [2] [3] 2 Helium He 1 18 Noble gas 4.002602(2)[1] [3] 3 Lithium Li 2 1 Alkali metal 6.941(2)[1] [2] [3] [4] 4 Beryllium Be 2 2 Alkaline earth metal 9.012182(3) 5 Boron B 2 13 Metalloid 10.811(7)[1] [2] [3] 6 Carbon C 2 14 Nonmetal 12.0107(8)[1] [3] 7 Nitrogen N 2 15 Nonmetal 14.0067(2)[1] [3] 8 Oxygen O 2 16 Nonmetal 15.9994(3)[1] [3] 9 Fluorine F 2 17 Halogen 18.9984032(5) 10 Neon Ne 2 18 Noble gas 20.1797(6)[1] [2] 11 Sodium Na 3 1 Alkali metal 22.98976928(2) 12 Magnesium Mg 3 2 Alkaline earth metal 24.3050(6) 13 Aluminium Al 3 13 Poor metal 26.9815386(8) 14 Silicon Si 3 14 Metalloid 28.0855(3)[3] 15 Phosphorus P 3 15 Nonmetal 30.973762(2) 16 Sulfur S 3 16 Nonmetal 32.065(5)[1] [3] 17 Chlorine Cl 3 17 Halogen 35.453(2)[1] [2] [3]

18 Argon Ar 3 18 Noble gas 39.948(1)[1] [3] 19 Potassium K 4 1 Alkali metal 39.0983(1) 20 Calcium Ca 4 2 Alkaline earth metal 40.078(4)[1] 21 Scandium Sc 4 3 Transition metal 44.955912(6) 22 Titanium Ti 4 4 Transition metal 47.867(1) 23 Vanadium V 4 5 Transition metal 50.9415(1) 24 Chromium Cr 4 6 Transition metal 51.9961(6) 25 Manganese Mn 4 7 Transition metal 54.938045(5) 26 Iron Fe 4 8 Transition metal 55.845(2) 27 Cobalt Co 4 9 Transition metal 58.933195(5) 28 Nickel Ni 4 10 Transition metal 58.6934(4) 29 Copper Cu 4 11 Transition metal 63.546(3)[3] 30 Zinc Zn 4 12 Transition metal 65.38(2) 31 Gallium Ga 4 13 Poor metal 69.723(1) 32 Germanium Ge 4 14 Metalloid 72.64(1) 33 Arsenic As 4 15 Metalloid 74.92160(2) 34 Selenium Se 4 16 Nonmetal 78.96(3)[3] 35 Bromine Br 4 17 Halogen 79.904(1) 36 Krypton Kr 4 18 Noble gas 83.798(2)[1] [2] 37 Rubidium Rb 5 1 Alkali metal 85.4678(3)[1] 38 Strontium Sr 5 2 Alkaline earth metal 87.62(1)[1] [3] 39 Yttrium Y 5 3 Transition metal 88.90585(2) 40 Zirconium Zr 5 4 Transition metal 91.224(2)[1] 41 Niobium Nb 5 5 Transition metal 92.90638(2) 42 Molybdenum Mo 5 6 Transition metal 95.96(2)[1] 43 Technetium Tc 5 7 Transition metal [98.9063][5] 44 Ruthenium Ru 5 8 Transition metal 101.07(2)[1] 45 Rhodium Rh 5 9 Transition metal 102.90550(2) 46 Palladium Pd 5 10 Transition metal 106.42(1)[1] 47 Silver Ag 5 11 Transition metal 107.8682(2)[1] 48 Cadmium Cd 5 12 Transition metal 112.411(8)[1] 49 Indium In 5 13 Poor metal 114.818(3) 50 Tin Sn 5 14 Poor metal 118.710(7)[1] 51 Antimony Sb 5 15 Metalloid 121.760(1)[1] 52 Tellurium Te 5 16 Metalloid 127.60(3)[1] 53 Iodine I 5 17 Halogen 126.90447(3) 54 Xenon Xe 5 18 Noble gas 131.293(6)[1] [2] 55 Caesium Cs 6 1 Alkali metal 132.9054519(2) 56 Barium Ba 6 2 Alkaline earth metal 137.327(7) 57 Lanthanum La 6 Lanthanide 138.90547(7)[1] 58 Cerium Ce 6 Lanthanide 140.116(1)[1] 59 Praseodymium Pr 6 Lanthanide 140.90765(2) 60 Neodymium Nd 6 Lanthanide 144.242(3)[1] 61 Promethium Pm 6 Lanthanide [146.9151][5] 62 Samarium Sm 6 Lanthanide 150.36(2)[1] 63 Europium Eu 6 Lanthanide 151.964(1)[1] 64 Gadolinium Gd 6 Lanthanide 157.25(3)[1] 65 Terbium Tb 6 Lanthanide 158.92535(2) 66 Dysprosium Dy 6 Lanthanide 162.500(1)[1] 67 Holmium Ho 6 Lanthanide 164.93032(2)

68 Erbium Er 6 Lanthanide 167.259(3)[1] 69 Thulium Tm 6 Lanthanide 168.93421(2) 70 Ytterbium Yb 6 Lanthanide 173.054(5)[1] 71 Lutetium Lu 6 3 Lanthanide 174.9668(1)[1] 72 Hafnium Hf 6 4 Transition metal 178.49(2) 73 Tantalum Ta 6 5 Transition metal 180.9479(1) 74 Tungsten W 6 6 Transition metal 183.84(1) 75 Rhenium Re 6 7 Transition metal 186.207(1) 76 Osmium Os 6 8 Transition metal 190.23(3)[1] 77 Iridium Ir 6 9 Transition metal 192.217(3) 78 Platinum Pt 6 10 Transition metal 195.084(9) 79 Gold Au 6 11 Transition metal 196.966569(4) 80 Mercury Hg 6 12 Transition metal 200.59(2) 81 Thallium Tl 6 13 Poor metal 204.3833(2) 82 Lead Pb 6 14 Poor metal 207.2(1)[1] [3] 83 Bismuth Bi 6 15 Poor metal 208.98040(1) 84 Polonium Po 6 16 Metalloid [208.9824][5] 85 Astatine At 6 17 Halogen [209.9871][5] 86 Radon Rn 6 18 Noble gas [222.0176][5] 87 Francium Fr 7 1 Alkali metal [223.0197][5] 88 Radium Ra 7 2 Alkaline earth metal [226.0254][5] 89 Actinium Ac 7 Actinide [227.0278][5] 90 Thorium Th 7 Actinide 232.03806(2)[5] [1] 91 Protactinium Pa 7 Actinide 231.03588(2)[5] 92 Uranium U 7 Actinide 238.02891(3)[5] [1] [2] 93 Neptunium Np 7 Actinide [237.0482][5] 94 Plutonium Pu 7 Actinide [244.0642][5] 95 Americium Am 7 Actinide [243.0614][5] 96 Curium Cm 7 Actinide [247.0704][5] 97 Berkelium Bk 7 Actinide [247.0703][5] 98 Californium Cf 7 Actinide [251.0796][5] 99 Einsteinium Es 7 Actinide [252.0829][5] 100 Fermium Fm 7 Actinide [257.0951][5] 101 Mendelevium Md 7 Actinide [258.0986][5] 102 Nobelium No 7 Actinide [259.1009][5] 103 Lawrencium Lr 7 3 Actinide [264][5] 104 Rutherfordium Rf 7 4 Transition metal [265][5] 105 Dubnium Db 7 5 Transition metal [268][5] 106 Seaborgium Sg 7 6 Transition metal [272][5] 107 Bohrium Bh 7 7 Transition metal [273][5] 108 Hassium Hs 7 8 Transition metal [276][5] 109 Meitnerium Mt 7 9 Transition metal [279][5] 110 Darmstadtium Ds 7 10 Transition metal [278][5] 111 Roentgenium Rg 7 11 Transition metal [283][5] 112 Ununbium Uub 7 12 Transition metal [285][5] 113 Ununtrium Uut 7 13 Poor metal [287][5] 114 Ununquadium Uuq 7 14 Poor metal [289][5] 115 Ununpentium Uup 7 15 Poor metal [291][5] 116 Ununhexium Uuh 7 16 Poor metal [293][5] 117 Ununseptium Uus 7 17 Halogen [295] [6]

118 Ununoctium Uuo 7 18 Noble gas [294][5]

Notes

1. The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the table.2. The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from the given value.3. The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more precise atomic weight can not be given.4. The atomic weight of commercial lithium can vary between 6.939 and 6.996—analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more accurate value.5. The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets, e.g. [209], indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element or characteristic isotopic composition.6. This element has not been discovered/synthesized.

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Hodge conjectureRiemann hypothesisYang-Mills existence and mass gapNavier-Stokes existence and smoothnessBirch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture

algebramonomialbinomialtrinomialpolynomialbinomial theorem

General formula to solve quadratic equations: completing the perfect square

ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a cannot be 0

Subtract c from both sides of the equation:

ax2 + bx = –c

Divide both sides by the coefficient of x2

x2 + (b/a)x = –c/a

Divide the coefficient of x by 2, square it, then add to both sides

Note: This makes a perfect square on the left side

x2 + (b/a)x + b2/4a2 = –c/a + b2/4a2

Simplify the left side into a square

(x + b/2a)2 = –c/a + b2/4a2

Simplify the right side by finding the lowest common denominator

(x + b/2a)2 = –4ac/4a2 + b2/4a2

Add the fractions on the right

(x + b/2a)2 = (b2 – 4ac)/4a2

Take the square root of both sides

x + b/2a = ± √(b² – 4ac)/2a

Subtract b/2a from both sides

x = –b/2a ± √(b² – 4ac)/2a

Simplify

x = [–b ± √(b² – 4ac)]/2a

arithmetic, computation, calculationsum (addition)

summand/addendsubtraction

minuendsubtrahend

multiplicationmultiplicandsproducts

divisiondividenddivisorquotientremainder

square rootcubic rootrootsmatricesdeterminantsconstantsvariablesratioradianstereo radian

numeratorgreatest common divisorlowest common denominator

integersnegative integerspositive integersrational numbersirrational numbersreal numbersimaginary numbers

perfect numbersfriendly numbersamicable numbers

calculusdifferential calculusintegral calculus

geometrysets (Georg Cantor)trigonometry

odds (chances, probabilities)even numbers (such as –4,–2, 0, 2, 4)odd numbers (such as –5, –3 –1, 1, 3)

et cetera

mechanical engineeringmedicine

AllergologyAndrologyAnesthesiaAngiologyAthletic TrainingAviation medicineCardiologyDentistryDermatologyDisaster medicineEmergency medicineEndocrinologyFamily medicineGastroenterologyGeneral practiceMedical geneticsGeriatricsGerontologyGynecologyHematologyHematologyHepatologyImmunologyInfectious diseasesIntensive care medicineMilitary medicineNephrologyNeurologyNuclear medicineObstetricsOncologyOphthalmologyOral and maxillofacial surgeryOrthopedics and TraumatologyOtolaryngologyPaleopathology

Palliative medicinePathologyPediatricsPodiatryPsychiatryPulmonologyRadiologyRehabilitation medicineRheumatologySerologySexual healthSleep medicineSports medicineSurgeryToxicologyTransplantation medicineUrologyWilderness medicine

meteorologymilitary affairsmineralogyminingmilitiamovementmotionmotoringmoviesmusic

AfricanAndeanArabbachatabluesbossa novacharlestonclassiccountrycumbiadiscoeasy listeningfolkfoxtrothuapangohuaynolambada

mambomoroccanpoprancherarapreggaerhythm and bluesrockrock and rollsalsasambasoultangotex-mexwaltzworld beatzamba

Musical instruments

Electronic instruments

computercontinuumdenis d'orDubreq stylophonedrum machineelectric guitarelectronic organelectronic organ - synthesizer hybridelectric pianoelectric violinfingerboard synthesizerHammond organlaser harpmellotronoctapadondes martenotturntables (record player/phonograph)Rhodes pianosamplersynclaviersynthesizerteleharmoniumtenori-onthereminvocoder

Keyboard instruments

accordionbandoneóncalliopecarilloncelestaclavichordclavinetglasschordharpsichordkatzenklavierkeytarMIDI keyboardorganelectronic organHammond organpipe organ

Pianos

baby grand piano electric piano grand piano janko piano mechanical Piano honky tonk synthesizerthumb pianotoy piano upright piano upright grand piano viola organista

Other

crystallophoneshardarthydraulophoneplasmaphonepyrophonequintephonesea organshishi odoshi (Japanese) suikinkutsu (Japanese water zither) wobble board (Australian)

Percussion instruments

bass drumbongo drumchicodjembe (West Africa)drum kit goblet drumkettle drumoctabanrepiquesnare

steel drumsurdo (Brazil)tabla (Pakistan,India)tan-tantalking drumtamboril (Uruguay)teponaxtli (Mexico)timpani (kettledrums)tom-tom

Other percussion instruments

bellbonesboomwhackerscajóncarilloncastanetscaxixi (Brazil) chimechingclapperclavescowbellcrotalescrash cymbalhi-hat cymbalride cymbalsplash cymbalzil (finger cymbal)cymbalumfangxiang (China)gamelan (Indonesia) American gamelan glass marimbaglass harmonicaglockenspielgonggubanguirohandsclappinghandbellshangkalimba (Africa}man-lémaracasmarimbamarimbaphonembirametallophonemusical sawrainstickratchetrattleriqshekeresinging bowlslit drum

spoonssteelpantambourinetriangletrycheltimpanitubular bellsuduvibraphonevibraslapwashboardwhipxylophonexylorimba

String instruments

aeolian harpAppalachian dulcimer (United States)arpeggionebalalaika (Russia)bandurabanjobiwa (Japan)cello (violoncello)Chapman stickcharango (Peru)cimbalomcithara (cither) see zitherelectric cymbalumclavichordcuatro double-neck guitjodouble bassfiddlefortepiano or pianoforte

Guitars

acoustic bass guitaracoustic guitarbass guitarchitarra battente (Italy)cigar box guitar classical guitar or Spanish guitarelectric guitarflamenco guitarharp guitarseven-string guitarslide guitarSpanish guitar or classical guitarsteel guitarguitarrón (Mexico)

hammered dulcimerharmonicoharp

harpsichordlyra (Cretan) (Greece)lyra (Byzantine) (Byzantine Empire)lyre mando-bassmandocellomandolamandolinmusical bow octave mandolin (octave mandola)octobassoudpiano pianoforte or fortepianopiccolo violin piccolo 'cello/violoncello piccolopipa (China)psalteryquatroquenarebab (Afghanistan) rebec rudra vina (India) sitar (India) Stroh violin sopranino mandolintea chest basstenor violatimpletrestrumpet marine/tromba marinaukulelevertical viola (and other members of the violin octet family)viellevihuela (Spain)viol (also called as viola da gamba)viola da gambaviolaviola d'amoreviolinviolottawashtub basszither overtone zither

Wind instruments

didgeridoo flageolet (France) Irish flute nose flute ocarina (Italy) organ pipe Pan pipespiano hornquena (South America)recorder (Germany) samponia (Peru)slide whistle

tin whistlevertical flute

Western concert flutes:

piccoloflutealto flutebass flutecontra-alto flutecontrabass flutesubcontrabass flutedouble contrabass flutehyperbass flutewhistlewillow flute (Scandinavia)

Single reed instruments

clarinets

clarinetpiccolo clarinetsopranino clarinetsoprano clarinetsaxonettebasset clarinetclarinette d'amourbasset hornalto clarinetbass clarinetcontra-alto clarinetcontrabass clarinetoctocontra-alto clarinetoctocontrabass clarinet

octavin

saxophonessaxophonesoprillosopranino saxophoneC soprano saxophonesoprano saxophonemezzo-soprano saxophonealto saxophoneC melody saxophone tenor saxophone baritone saxophone bass saxophone contrabass saxophone subcontrabass saxophone

tubaxtarogato (modern single-reed) folgerphone

Double reed instruments

bassooncontrabassoon/double bassoontenoroondulzaina (Spain)

Oboespiccolo oboeoboeoboe d'amorecor anglais/English hornOboe da cacciabass/baritone oboecontrabass oboerackett contrabass á anche /reed contrabass

tarogato (original two-reed variety)trompeta china (Cuba) tromboon [bagpipesbagpipeuilleann pipes

Free aerophones

bullroarerharmonicalasso d'amorewhipsiren

Voice

sopranomezzo-sopranoalto/contraltocountertenortenorbaritonebasso/basscastratofalsettokazoodeath growlovertone/throat singingmicrophone

Brass instruments

air hornalphornbaritone hornbass Trombonebazooka

bugle (instrument)buglerkeyed buglecimbassoconchcornetcornettdidgeridoodoulophone/cuprophoneear trumpeteuphonium flugelhorn horn/French hornjugmellophoneRoman tubasaxhornsubcontrabass tubaserpentshofarsousaphonetenor horn/alto horntrombonetrumpettubaWagner tubaquinticlave

Free reed instruments

accordionchromatic accordionbutton accordionfree bass accordionbandoneoncombconcertinaelectric thumb pianoharmonicaharmoniumhulusiJew's harpkalimbamelodicamelodeonmusical box pipe organrecorderthumb pianotom (instrument)yu

nationNorth Americanutrition

obituariesOceania

pending tasks

Please let me a “digression”: a pending task, by the way, is the standardization of:

http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/forms/v3r0m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.help.forms.doc/locale_spec/i_xfdl_r_format_datatype_styles.html

Date and time styles

Data type styles affect how various data types are displayed in the form. Different locales may have different styles for displaying information related to dates and time, such as dates, days of month, days of week, and years.

The following table shows how the style affects the presentation of various data types in the en_US locale. For other locales, refer to the locale in the Locale Specification for XFDL. The symbols used to define each format are explained in Date patterns.

Data Type Style Format Example

Date numeric yyyyMMdd 20041123

  short yyyy-MM-dd 2004-11-23

  medium d MMM yyyy 23 Nov 2004

  long MMMM d, yyyy November 23, 2004

  full EEEE, MMMM d, yyyy Tuesday, November 23, 2004

day_of_month numeric D 3

  short D 3

  medium D 3

  long D 3

  full D 3

day_of_week numeric E 3

  short e 3

  medium EEE Wed

  long EEEE Wednesday

  full EEEE Wednesday

date_time numeric yyyyMMdd H:mm 20041123 08:15

Data Type Style Format Example

  short yyyy-MM-dd H:mm 2004-11-23 08:15

  medium d MMM yyyy h:mm a 23 Nov 2004 8:15 AM

  long MMMM d, yyyy h:mm a November 23, 2004 8:15 AM

Month numeric M 9

  short M 9

  medium MMM Sep

  long MMMM September

  full MMMM September

Time numeric H.mm 17.30

  short H:mm 17:30

  medium h:mm a 5:30 PM

  long h:mm a 5:30 PM

Year numeric yyyy 2004

  short yy 04

  medium yyyy 2004

  long yyyy 2004

  full yyyy G 2004 AD

philology

philosophy:

1. theory of science(or theory of scientific knowledge)

1.1 formal theory of science; theory of the formal principles of reasoning; theory of the right thought (LOGIC)1.2. theory of knowledge; material theory of science;theory of the true thought (EPISTEMOLOGY)

2. theory of values

2.1. theory of ethic values (ETHIC)2.2. theory of aesthetic values (AESTHETIC)

2.3. theory of religious values (PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION)

3. theory of the conception of the universe3.1. METAPHYSICS

3.1.1. metaphysics of nature3.1.2. metaphysics of the spirit

3.2. conception or theory of the universe.

physicsBohr atomic modelBose-Einstein condensateBoltzmann constant = 1.3806503 × 10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1

E = mc2

ƒ Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Planck constant = 6.626068 × 10-34 m2 kg / s∑speed of lightet cetera

physiologypokerpollutionpoultrypovertyprintingpropertypsychologypublishing

qualityquality controlquantity

radiorefrigeration engineeringrelationshipsrelationship, order, and causalityreligionrightsroulette

satellitessciencesensitivityservicessituationsoftwaresoftware engineeringSouth Americaspacespecial and foreign charactersspecialtiessports

athleticsbadmintonbaseballbasketballboxingcar racingcyclingequestrian sportsfootballgolfgymnasticshap ki dojai alaijiu jitsujoggingjudokaratekendomoo duk kwanpaddingrugbysoccerspinningswimming and divingtae kwon dotennisthoroughbred racingvolleyballwater polo

stagestartstatisticsstock exchangesymbolssystematics

tailoringtaxonomytechnologytelephonestelevisiontheatertimetourismtranslations, metaphrases, machine translationstransportationtravel

UnicodePlease see “ASCII code, and Unicode” (above)

Unter den Linden

valuationvicesvideos

warwillwork

zoologyzooszootechnics