The Bomb Test Programs1946 - 1963

Art work by Grant Powell

Between 16 July 1945 and 23 September 1992 the United States of America conducted (by official count) 1054 nuclear tests, and two nuclear attacks. Whatare the reasons and results?

List of US atmospheric Bomb tests

Operation Year Location #

Crossroads 1946 Bikini Atoll 2

Sandstone 1948 Enewetak Atoll 3

Ranger 1951 Nevada Test Site 5

Greenhouse 1951 Enewetak Atoll 4

Buster-Jangle 1951 Nevada Test Site 7

Tumbler-Snapper 1951 Nevada Test Site 7

Ivy 1952 Enewetak Atoll 2

Upshot-Knothole 1953 Nevada Test Site 11

Castle 1954Bikini Atoll

Enewetak Atoll6

Teapot 1955 Nevada Test Site 14

Wigwam 1955 Pacific Ocean 1

Pacific Atolls and Nevada desert areas

Project 56 1955 Nevada Test Site 4

Redwing 1956Bikini AtollEnewetak Atoll

17

Plumbbob 1957 Nevada Test Site 30

Project 58 1957 Nevada Test Site 2

Project 58 A 1958 Nevada Test Site 2

Hardtack I 1958Bikini AtollEnewetak AtollJohnston Island

35

Argus 1958 South Atlantic 3

Hardtack II 1958 Nevada Test Site 37

Nougat1961-1962

Nevada Test Site 32

Dominic(with Fishbowl)

1962Christmas IslandJohnston IslandCentral Pacific

36

Storax(with Sunbeam and Roller Coaster)

1962-1963

Nevada Test SiteNellis Air Force Range

56

316 tests until October 10, 1963; Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

Preparation of PopulationTest program needed psychological preparation of populationdown-playing internal impact while up-playing external enemy

familiarizing population and society through media & propaganda

The Commies are coming, the Commies are coming!

The Red Nightmare:Federally funded propaganda film. The tale of an ordinary American town and its life as a Communist satellite, with everyone becoming emotionless automations.

Invasion, USA is the key cold war 'scare' picture. Unlike pacifist weepies such as Arch Oboler's Five, this show depicts a Soviet Union so aggressive, SenatorJoe McCarthy wouldn't recognize it.

The Fear Factor

Comic Book Industry

Presenting violence and horror with “the good guys” beating “the bad guys”

The American Hero at the End of Times

No doubt or criticism was voiced in media, film, and popular literature towards arms race, weapons development and testing!

Duck and Cover

Training to be prepared and to accept the “unavoidable”!

The public warning system

Preparation and Shelter

Public shelter and warning system was installedPurchasing private “atomic bunker” system became big business. Business based on fear and false information.

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Back in business?

But there were limits …

To realistic movies and or satire was suppressed or forbiddento avoid the generation of criticism and/or panic reactions.

Nukes as business motivatorMarch 1, 1954 Hydrogen Bomb test on Bikini Atoll;Louis Réard, thought his daring new swimsuit would have an impact comparable to the impact of the bomb.

Fall-Out Pattern

Crater

Nukes became normal part of everybody’s life

But accidents occurred and criticism grew slowly but surely!

The Nature of the Blast

Kind and shape of blasts Blast effects, range & damage Thermal effects Radiation effects

The results of the weapons test programs

Blast—40-60% of total energy Thermal radiation—30-50% of total energy Ionizing radiation—5% of total energy Residual radiation (fallout)—5-10% of total energy

Classifications of blasts Surface Blast:

fireball in touch with surfacevaporization of surface structures through blastand firestorm, immediate radioactive fallout

High Altitude Air Blast: fireball > 100,000 ft (>3000m)interrupts satellite based communicationthrough electromagnetic pulse (EMP)

Low Altitude Air Blast:fireball < 100,000 ft (without touching ground)generates shock waves, pressure differenceartificial for large areal damage, sea battle

Subsurface Blast:Underwater burstgenerates surge

Surface Blast – the fireball

Central temperature: ~10,000,000 KImmediate vaporization of material!Central pressure: ~33000 atm

Radiation release & absorption in surrounding matter generates red-glow intense luminosity. Expansion of fireball through internal pressure Fireball rises like hot air balloon

StokesAugust 1957

1500 Foot Balloon19 kt

Fireball expansion

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Pressure evolution within the fireball:

Initial expansion speed vcs is the speed of sound in the vaporized gas is the specific heat ratio of the gas

Five times earth gravitation escape velocityte

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The shock front developmentAfter ~10 second the fireball expands with constant rate of ~300 ft/s

After ~ 1minute fireball has cooled and radiation emission ceases!

18 ms

16 ms

6ms

90 ms

109 ms

15.0 s

General Features – the mushroom the emergence of the mushroom shape

Absorption of cool airtriggers fast toroidal circulation of hot gases and causes upwardmotion forming the stem and mushroom.

Condensation of water changes red brownish color ofcloud towards white!

Strong upward windDrags dirt and debrisInto the cloud mixingwith radioactive material

Cloud rises in heightwith ~ 440 ft/s

Evolution of Mushroom cloud

Dirt

Cloud AltitudeMaximum altitude for cloudrise is reached after ~ 4min. RATE OF RISE OF THERADIOACTIVE CLOUD FROM a I-MEGATON AIRBURSTHeight Time Rate of Rise(miles) (min) (mph) 2.0 0.3 330 3.0 40.7 270 4.0 61.1 220 5.0 102.5 140 6.0 123.8 27

Cloud height & cloud radiusdepend on the magnitude ofthe explosion, increase ofboth radius & height scaleswith explosion yield.