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THE CHANGING FACE OF THE YELLOW PERIL:
A CASE STUDY OF USING NARRATIVES IN HISTORY EDUCATION
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Department of History
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
The requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
History
by
Wayne Wang Yip To
SPRING
2012
ii
© 2012
Wayne Wang Yip To
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
iii
THE CHANGING FACE OF THE YELLOW PERIL:
A CASE STUDY OF USING NARRATIVES IN HISTORY EDUCATION
A Project
by
Wayne Wang Yip To
Approved by:
______________________________________, Committee Chair
Chloe Burke
______________________________________, Second Reader
Donald J. Azevada, Jr.
______________________________________
Date
iv
Student: Wayne Wang Yip To
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credits is to
be awarded for the project.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator __________________
Mona Siegel Date
Department of History
v
Abstract
of
THE CHANGING FACE OF THE YELLOW PERIL:
A CASE STUDY OF USING NARRATIVES IN HISTORY EDUCATION
by
Wayne Wang Yip To
Over 22,000 Japanese Americans and 13,000 Chinese Americans actively served
in the U.S. armed forces during the Second World War. While there are numerous
historical works on the Japanese American military experience, little research has been
developed regarding the service of Chinese Americans in the U.S. military. The first two
chapters of this project trace and compare the contributions made by both Japanese
Americans and Chinese Americans through their military service during the First and
Second World Wars. This portion of study also draws upon major periodicals and oral
histories to examine how shifts in mainstream racial attitudes changed in favor of
Chinese Americans over Japanese Americans during the early decades of the twentieth
century. As most historical studies of recent years are narrow in scope, they have a
limited applicability to the high school classroom. The third chapter utilizes the evidence
vi
from this research project to demonstrate how to apply narrowly-focused historical
research to the classroom through construction of historical narratives.
_____________________________________, Committee Chair
Chloe Burke
_____________________________________
Date
vii
PREFACE
Over six decades after the end of World War II in June of 2000, President Clinton
and other members of his administration inducted twenty-two Asian American soldiers
into the Pentagon‘s Hall of Heroes and awarded them with America‘s highest military
honor, the Congressional Medal of Honor. Clinton remarked, ―It‘s long past time to
break the silence about their courage…rarely has a nation been so well-served by a
people it has so ill-treated.‖1 After almost two decades of political pressure, Japanese
Americans were finally able to receive much belated apologies and reparations for being
unfairly incarcerated during World War II. The political push also set forth an immense
effort to preserve and educate others about the experience of Japanese Americans during
the war. As a result, there was a renewed interest in the men who served and sacrificed in
100th
Infantry Battalion and 442nd
Combat Regimental Team which led to a reevaluation
of the heroic actions performed by these men throughout the course of the war. It was
discovered that twenty-two Asian Americans were worthy of the Medal of Honor, but
due to the racist tendencies of the time, they had received lesser awards. The ceremony
was conducted as a means to right an injustice. Interestingly enough, two of the twenty-
two men honored that day were not Japanese American. One was Filipino American
1 Rudi Williams, ―22 Asian Americans Inducted Into Hall of Heroes,‖ American Forces Press Service, June
28, 2000, accessed March 18, 2012, http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=45241.
viii
named Rudolph B. Davila, who was still alive to receive his well-deserved Medal of
Honor. The other was Captain Francis B. Wai, a Chinese Hawaiian officer who died in
action near Leyte in the Philippine Islands.
The posthumous medal bestowed to Francis Wai raises several major historical
and historiographic questions about the role of Chinese Americans during the Second
World War. In contrast to the well-documented Japanese American 100th
Infantry
Battalion and 442nd
Regimental Combat Team, little has been recorded about the military
experience of Chinese Americans. Captain Francis Wai, a man of Chinese descent,
fought in an army that was considered racially segregated. Were they, like the Japanese
Americans, forced to form their own units? Were Chinese Americans able to serve in
racially-mixed units during World War II or in any other major American war prior to
desegregation? If so, in what manner did they serve and did they encounter racism in the
course of their service? Francis Wai was a commissioned officer who was promoted
twice to the rank of captain. If he was an officer of a racially-mixed unit, which meant
that in America‘s supposed segregated army, a non-white officer was commanding white
men on the frontlines. Wai thus, upsets traditional historical understandings of race in an
army that was not ―desegregated‖ until 1947. What was particular about Chinese
Americans during World War II that appeared to make them more acceptable than
Japanese Americans and African Americans? How then did this contrast with the laws
ix
and beliefs that restricted rights of Chinese Americans as well as Japanese Americans
during the first half of the twentieth century?
These questions expose a sizable gap in American history. Professional historians
have only recently started researching Chinese American history in the twentieth century.
The goal of this project is to fill in this gap in history by discussing the agency and
determination of Chinese Americans in their struggle for full citizenship in the United
States through military service. The scattered evidence of Chinese Americans serving in
the military also reveals changes in mainstream racial attitudes of white Americans
toward the Chinese, both overseas and in America. However, racial attitudes toward
Japanese Americans took a turn to the worse as the threat of Imperial Japan loomed large
in the interwar period. This difference in racial attitude makes the Japanese American
experience a good point of comparison with that of the Chinese Americans because both
groups have endured the trials of restricted immigration, challenges over assimilation,
generational gaps, social and economic racism. Both groups have also been marginalized
by the black and white race dichotomy that has dominated American historical and
societal landscape. Additionally, both groups must also be analyzed in a transnational
setting where global politics and war play major roles in mainstream racial attitudes
toward Chinese Americans and Japanese American alike. This analysis aims, thus, to
x
uncover another layer of America‘s past and also to recover a piece of Chinese American
history.
E.P. Thompson, often considered the father of modern social history, famously
stated in The Making of the English Working Class, ―I am seeking to rescue the poor
stockinger, the Luddite cropper, the ‗obsolete‘ hand-loom weaver, the ‗utopian‘ artisan,
and even the deluded follower of Joanna Southcott, from the enormous condescension of
posterity.‖2 Thompson hoped to discover the forgotten and the lost causes hidden deep in
the past or ignored by previous historians. As opposed to retelling or readjusting the
same narratives over and over again, modern historians have followed in Thompson's
footsteps to ―present previously disregarded historical subjects, who could give access to
a multiplicity of pasts.‖3 The practice of history today, as taught and executed at the
tertiary level, revolves around questions of the past being answered through painstaking
research, compilation and analysis of data, and narrative writing. History is about a
process of discovering and rediscovering the past. Renowned Cold War historian John
Lewis Gaddis argues that historians have overwhelming chosen the narrative as the
means ―to simulate what transpired in the past.‖4 It is of the utmost importance that
students of history learn the process of communicating the past by writing narratives.
2 E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Pantheon Books, 1964), 12.
3 Catherine Gallagher, Practicing New Historicism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 55.
4 John Lewis Gaddis, The Landscape of History: How Historians Map the Past (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2004), 105.
xi
There is a major contrast in history education at the secondary and tertiary levels. Former
high school history teacher and University of Michigan professor Robert Bain keenly
observes, ―history at the university was a discipline…in high school, history was a
subject students took and teachers taught.‖5 Take, for example, the state of California‘s
history teaching standards. While the California State Standards for History-Social
Science outlines topical and informational knowledge requirements, it fails to define the
critical skills that students will need to become lifelong historical thinkers. Additionally,
since textbook publishers all align their texts to the state standards, the most popular and
easiest way to develop curriculum is to make the textbooks the central driving force for
teaching history. In the educational climate of high-stakes testing, the skills that students
develop in a history class are mostly limited to obtaining information through secondary
textbooks and interpreting primary sources directly associated with the content of the
textbook. Student knowledge at the secondary level is assessed through two primary
means. The first assessment method consists of written responses in short-answer form
5 Robert B. Bain, ―Into the Breach: Using Research and Theory to Shape History Instruction‖ in Knowing,
Teaching and Learning History: National and International Perspectives, ed., Peter N. Stearns et al. (New
York: New York University Press, 2000), 331.
xii
Who believed that in an ideal society the government should be controlled by a class of “philosopher kings”?
A. Muhammad B. Plato C. Lao-Tzu D. Thomas Aquinas
or essays. The second and most commonly-used
are multiple-choice exams which are often
unpredictable and often trivial in nature. In the
California state standards, students are asked to
―relate moral and ethical principles in ancient
Greek and Roman philosophy, in Judaism, and in
Christianity to the development of Western
political thought.‖6 Yet the standard is assessed by asking students to make out a Greek
name from an Arabic, Chinese, or English one (Figure 1). Unfortunately, this is the
preferred assessment method for teachers due to the ease of grading when compared to
stacks of written responses and for education bureaucrats who get tangible numbers to
process and report. New teachers have adopted the same methodology from their own
experiences as students, their observations of master teachers, and the often uninspiring
methods classes in their teachers‘ education courses and continue to structure their
courses around multiple choice testing and the textbook.
In direct contrast to history courses at the secondary level, professional historical
analysis is constructed through both primary and secondary source research and
presented through an argumentative narrative. These narratives are filtered through an
6 California Department of Education, ―History/Social Science Content Standards for California Public
Schools,‖ 50.
FIGURE 1: Sample question from the California Standards Test – Released Test Questions from 2003-2005
xiii
open dialogue within the scholarly community over the historical accuracy and feasibility
of the text. Professionals show that history is a richly-detailed and complex story that
results from interpretation and analysis, not the memorization of details, is the true core
of historical understanding. The challenge for history educators is to be able to create an
innovative curriculum that fosters and accurately assesses historical thinking in students.
Historian/educators like Sam Wineburg of the Stanford History Education Group, Robert
Bain of the University of Michigan, and famed history education author Dr. James W.
Loewen have led the way in pioneering new pedagogies for history education. This
project aims to build on this work by reconstructing pieces of historical research in
Chinese American history to formulate a narrative-writing process in a manner that is
usable in a classroom environment. By investigating historical questions within and
between the lines of the California state history standards, students will be able to gain a
richer and more complex understanding of history. The narrative assessment piece
proposed in this project (see Appendix) will, not only enrich a student‘s understanding of
the state standards, but also meets the writing criteria of the new Common Core
Standards. Furthermore, teachers will find their historical knowledge stretched by
utilizing the lesson and research models.
xiv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Preface ……………………………………………………………………………….… vii
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………. xvii
List of Figures …………………………………………………...…………………… xviii
Chapter
1. THE RAPID AND UNEVEN GROWTH OF ASIAN AMERICAN HISTORY …....1
Asian Americans in Immigration Politics and Sociology ...…….….......... 1
Asian American Studies and Ethnic Consciousness ...……………..……. 4
The New Social History and Agency ……………………...………......… 7
Internment and Oral History of Japanese American Service ……………10
Scarcity of Chinese American Works and Oral Histories …………....... 16
2. THE CHANGING FACE OF THE YELLOW PERIL: HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE OF THE ASIAN AMERICAN MILITARY EXPERIENCE
IN THE WORLD WARS …...…………………………………………..……....…. 20
Methodology …………………………………………………..……..… 21
The Changing Face of the ―Yellow Peril‖ ……………………..…..…... 24
Asian Americans in the First World War ………………………....…… 29
The Interwar Period ……………………………………………………. 38
xv
The Prewar Draft ………………………………………...………..……. 40
Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans in World War II …....…... 44
Conclusions ……………………………………………………....…….. 53
3. DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF THE TEACHING APPLICATION …........ 55
Analyzing ―Macro-Events‖ through Textbooks and Historiography ...... 56
Historical Questions to Fill in Historical Gaps in the Curriculum …....... 59
From ―Macro-Events‖ to ―Micro-Processes‖ in Historical Narratives .... 62
Research and the Narrative – Teacher Workshops ……………..….…... 66
Appendix A ―Micro-Processes‖ within ―Macro-Events‖ ………………………...….… 71
Appendix B1 What Role did Chinese Americans Play in the U.S. Military during the
Two World Wars? (CCWW) – Primary 3-Day Lesson Plan……………...….……….... 73
Appendix B2 CCWW – Student Response Packet ………………….……………......... 79
Appendix B3 CCWW – Resource Packet ………………………………………............ 90
Appendix B4 CCWW – PowerPoint Presentation Slides ………………………….......104
Appendix B5 CCWW – Differentiated Assessment – Comic Strip .....……………..…107
Appendix B6 CCWW – Sample Timeline …………………….…………….…......…..108
Appendix B7 What Role did Chinese Americans Play in the U.S. Military during
the Two World Wars? (CCWW) – Alternate 1-Day Historiography Lesson Plan ….... 109
Appendix B8 CCWW – Alternate 1-Day Student Response Packet ……..……...…….112
xvi
Appendix B9 CCWW – Alternate 1-Day Resource Packet …….……….………..…....115
Appendix C1 What Effects did Internment have on Northern Californian Japanese
Americans? (NCJI) – Alternate 3-Day Lesson Plan .…………..………….….……......117
Appendix C2 NCJI – Student Response Packet ……………………….…………..…..122
Appendix C3 NCJI – Resource Packet ……………………………………………...... 133
Appendix C4 NCJI – PowerPoint Presentation Slides ……………….…………..…....141
Appendix D1 Comparing the Chinese American and Japanese American Military
Experience in the World Wars (CJCOMP) – Alternate 3-Day Lesson Plan ………..…143
Appendix D2 CJCOMP – Student Response Packet …….…………………………….149
Appendix D3 CJCOMP – Resource Packet ……………………………………....…....160
Appendix D4 CJCOMP – Differentiated Assessment – Comic Strip ……….….…......166
Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………….......167
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Sample Question from California Standards Test …………………….……….. xii
2. Full-page Spread of Chan Chong Yuen …………………..……..……………... 40
3. Melting Pot Soldier ……………………………………..………..………..…… 41
4. The Recruit of the Day ……………………………….…...….…...……………. 46
xviii
LIST OF TABLES
1. Inclusion and Exclusion Guide ……………………………..…………..…….... 61
1
CHAPTER ONE
THE RAPID AND UNEVEN GROWTH OF ASIAN AMERICAN HISTORY
Once a subject ignored by the American academic community, the study of Asian
Americans has grown immensely in both history and the social sciences since the 1980s.
Modern-day researchers of Asian American have delved into popular topics such as
gender roles, generational conflicts, immigration experiences, class cleavages,
transnational identities, and military history. However, the growth of scholarship in
Asian American studies has been uneven. Not only were historians late in entering into
the field, much of the historical study of Asian Americans has been driven by civic action
and politics. This section traces the historiography of Asian American history and
addresses some of the remaining gaps in the scholarship that remain today, including the
role played by Chinese Americans in the military during the First and Second World
Wars.
ASIAN AMERICANS IN IMMIGRATION POLITICS AND SOCIOLOGY
While numerous pieces have been written about Asians in the United States, it
was not until the latter part of the twentieth century that professional historians began to
write the history of Asian Americans. All of the earlier works swirled around the heated
Asian immigration issue that was debated at the turn of the century. ―In general, the
highly charged polemics against the presence of Asians in America appeared in
pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, popular novels, and…legislative documents and
government reports, while apologias for continuing…immigration…were usually well-
2
reasoned, but biased books.‖1 The first to write about Asians in America were
politicians, diplomats, missionaries or sociologists. Mary Roberts Coolidge, a sociology
professor from Stanford, wrote an impassioned defense of the Chinese and railed against
opponents of immigration in her book, Chinese Immigration (1909). Coolidge portrayed
the Chinese as victims, stating ―the Chinaman, predestined by helplessness to be the
convenient puppet of politics, had become, to the ignorant and antipathetic Workingmen
of California, the obvious causes of all his grievances.‖2 California politicians responded
by describing Coolidge‘s work as ―a mosaic of falsehood and misrepresentation‖3 and
forced the book‘s publisher, Henry Holt & Company to be withdrawn from circulation.
With the passage of restrictive immigration policies in the 1920s, social scientists
shifted the focal point of study from the immigrants to the second generation of Asian
Americans. The foundational study of this period was led by sociologist Robert Park
whose University of Chicago group conducted a Race Relation Survey of Asian
Americans on the West Coast. By gathering oral histories from over six hundred
Chinese, Japanese, Filipino and Indians between 1924 and 1926, Park and his researchers
formulated a widely-accepted theory of race relations based on the ―notion of the cycle of
contacts, competition, accommodation, and eventual assimilation‖ and concluded that
Asian Americans ―did not fit into this paradigm.‖4 Park and his team hoped to explain
why immigrants from Asia had a difficult time assimilating into American society.
However, most of these researchers did not speak the languages of their research subjects
1 L. Ling-Chi Wang, ―Asian American Studies,‖ in American Quarterly, Vol.33, No.3 (1981), 341.
2 Mary Roberts Coolidge, Chinese Immigration (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1909), 125-126.
3 ―Book Charging Anti-Chinese Injustice is Withdrawn,‖ New York Times, 16 October 1909, p.9.
4 Wang, 345.
3
and had to rely on translators. Park and his contemporaries solved this issue by training
Chinese American and Japanese Americans to become the experts in the study of their
heritage through Park‘s framework. As the ―only scholars studying Asian communities
in America at the time, their work has had an impact far beyond what their small numbers
would suggest…the coherent language and definitions that these sociologists espoused
dominated scholarly discourse about Asian in America for decades.‖5
Two of the foremost Asian American scholars to come out of the Chicago School
were Rose Kum Lee and Frank Miyamoto. Both authors wrote primarily about the
interactions and social organizations within the Asian American communities. Rose
Kum Lee‘s two primary works, The Growth and Decline of Chinese Communities in the
Rocky Mountain Region in 1947 and The Chinese in the U.S.A. in 1960, ―remain among
the most insightful writings on the Chinese in the United States‖6 in describing various
aspects of Chinese American life from a sociological perspective. Similarly, Miyamoto‘s
Social Solidarity among the Japanese in Seattle (1941) explores the process of
assimilation of the Japanese in America but also the ―subtle means by which the
Japanese…retained their cultural integrity.‖7 When Roosevelt‘s Japanese internment
orders were issued the following year, Miyamoto responded by ―suppressing his anger
5 Henry Yu, ―The ‗Oriental Problem‘ in America‖ in Claiming America: Constructing Chinese American
Identities during the Exclusion Era, K. Scott Wong and Sucheng Chan, ed. (Philadelphia: Temple
University Press, 1998), 196. 6 Wang, ―Asian American Studies,‖ 345-346.
7 Richard T. LaPiere, ―Social Solidarity among the Japanese in Seattle‖ in American Journal of Sociology,
Vol.46, No.4 (Jan., 1941). 635.
4
and shock…[and] tried to look at it as a grand sociological experiment.‖8 Fortunately,
Miyamoto was recruited by UC Berkeley professor of sociology, Dorothy S. Thomas and
given special permission to join her research team. Thomas, co-authored with Richard S.
Nishimoto and The Spoilage (1946) which analyzed the ―social demography of forced
mass migration and voluntary resettlement, with special reference to the dislocation of
habits and changes of attitudes produced by experience‖9 seen at the camps in Tule Lake,
Poston and Minidoka. The Spoilage and its follow-up, The Salvage, are two examples of
the dozens of sociological studies of the Japanese struggle within the camps in the
postwar period. However, in alignment with Park‘s assimilationist logic, most of these
postwar books tended to defend rather than criticize the government‘s internment
policies.
ASIAN AMERICAN STUDIES AND ETHNIC CONSCIOUSNESS
Professional historians finally began to write Asian American histories in sizable
numbers after the Second World War. Many of these histories adopt ―more moderate
perspectives…emphasizing the contributions made by Asians to American history and
society…[but] their contributionist stance helped to keep old assimilationist assumptions
alive‖10
Betty Lee Sung‘s synthesis of the Chinese American experience in Mountain of
Gold (1967) and its revision, The Story of the Chinese in America (1971), are illustrative
8 Tom Griffin, ―The Stolen Years: Part Two,‖ The University of Washington Alumni Magazine, March
2006, accessed Feburary 27, 2012,
http://www.washington.edu/alumni/columns/march06/content/view/13/1/. 9 Dorothy Swaine Thomas and Richard S. Nishimoto, The Spoilage: Japanese-American Evacuation and
Resettlement During World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1946), v. 10
Sucheng Chan, ―Asian American Historiography‖ in Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 65, No.3 (Aug.,
1996), 370-371.
5
of the moderate consensus perspective of this historiographic phase. Sung describes the
arduous Chinese emigration experience from Guangdong province in Southern China to
the struggles of life in America as the Chinese dealt with issues such as discriminatory
legislation, gender imbalances, social racism and economic survival. Sung argues that,
with the closure of China by the Communists, the Chinese in America actively embarked
on ways to integrate into mainstream society. Sung tellingly concludes The Story of the
Chinese in America by describing a number of economically and socially successful
Chinese Americans, many of whom followed the path of being ―thrifty, hardworking,
eager for knowledge, ambitious, devoted to the rights of the average man and eminently
successful in climbing the ladder of opportunity.‖11
S.W. Kung‘s Chinese in American
Life: Some Aspects of Their History, Problems, and Contributions (1962) follows a
similar thread in recapping the history of the Chinese in America and then stating
contributions made by specific Chinese Americans.
A similar approach was used by historians of Japanese American history. Bill
Hosokawa was wrote the first full-length narrative of the Japanese experience in America
in his groundbreaking historical synthesis, Nisei: The Quiet Americans (1969).
Hosokawa aimed to ―tell the inspiring tale of the Japanese community‘s social ascension,
despite the exceptional level of exclusion and discrimination its members had faced
relative to other immigrants.‖12
At the same time, University of California, Los Angeles
professor and internment camp survivor Harry Kitano wrote a hybrid historical and
11
Betty Lee Sung, The Story of the Chinese in America (New York: Collier Books, 1971), 239. 12
Greg Robinson, After Camp: Portraits in Midcentury Japanese American Life and Politics (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2012), 241.
6
sociological monograph, Japanese Americans: The Evolution of a Subculture. Kitano
pays particular attention to the interactions and differences between each Japanese
generation as they navigated through a long history of racial and legal discrimination.
Both Hosokawa and Kitano conclude their narratives by lauding the successful economic
assimilation of the Japanese Americans, stating that the Japanese have made tremendous
progress in terms of middle-class standards ―for a group who came to the wrong country
and the wrong state (California) at the wrong time…with the wrong race and skin
color.‖13
Authors like Sung, Kung, Hosokawa, Kitano and other early Asian American
historians such as Him Mark Lai, Harry Kitano and Francis Hsu, penned historical
narratives that ―reclaimed contributions of the Chinese [and Japanese] to American
socioeconomic life;‖ their ethnic background helped them to attain a stronger measure of
legitimacy than ―European American scholars [who] remained wedded to the unbalanced
perspectives of the past.‖14
Most of these early landmark historical works became the
primary texts used in the new Asian Americans studies courses being created at major
universities. However, these early histories would also set the foundation for the ―model
minority‖ stereotype that would be used to marginalize Asians who do not fit this
representation and to place blame on other minorities who have not attained the same
level of socioeconomic success.
13
Harry H.L. Kitano, Japanese Americans: The Evolution of a Subculture (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice
Hall, Inc., 1969), 70. 14
Benson Tong, ―Reclaiming the Chinese American Past,‖ in Journal of American Ethnic History, Vol.16,
No.3 (Spring, 1997), 122.
7
THE NEW SOCIAL HISTORY AND AGENCY
The meteoric growth of Asian American social history in the 1980s developed
dozens of subtopics as a result of the adaptation of two conceptual frameworks: the anti-
assimilationist approach which challenged earlier assumptions of the normative path of
assimilation, and scholarship which emphasized the importance of individual agency. In
her review of Asian American historiography, University of California, Berkeley
professor Sucheng Chan argues that the assimilationist model of the postwar consensus
era was difficult to break because Americans have been steadfast in the ideology that all
immigrants can and should adapt to the mainstream where Asian Americans stand as the
―model minority.‖ Chan states that:
The facile assumption that all immigrants can and should transform
themselves overlooks the fact that people of color have encountered
enormous hurdles—legal, political, social, and economic—whenever they
have tried to enter mainstream society. Thus, before the assimilation
model can be dismantled, scholars must demonstrate convincingly that
American society has never been the egalitarian paradise it is said to be.15
In challenging the assimilationist model, several notable historians actively sought
to illustrate the systemic racism rooted in American society that helped to define the
character of the varied Asian experiences in the United States. Historian Roger Daniels
was one of the leading advocates for Asian Americans and two of his early works, The
Politics of Prejudice (1962) and Concentration Camp USA (1971) convincingly show the
insurmountable racial and legal barriers faced by Japanese Americans. In Politics of
Prejudice, Daniels traces the long history of anti-Japanese sentiment at the turn of the
twentieth century, revealing that ―the generators of much of California‘s antidemocratic
15
Chan, ―Asian American Historiography,‖ 371-372.
8
energy were those groups supposedly dedicated to democracy: the labor unions, the
progressives, and other left groups.‖16
According to Daniels, Japanese Americans could
not assimilate under any circumstances because of the overwhelming legal barriers and
popular hatred brought about by white exclusionists. Concentration Camp USA was the
first full-scale historical narrative of the Japanese American internment camps. In this
text, Daniels rejects ―earlier, monocausal explanations for the decision to evacuate‖ and
argues that the decision to intern Japanese Americans was based upon ―political decisions
by civilians, in and out of uniform…and a racist ideology.‖17
Daniel‘s contemporaries also began to analyze the pivotal role of racism in
denying full citizenship to Chinese Americans. Columbia University‘s Stuart Creighton
Miller‘s The Unwelcome Immigrant (1969) argues that Sinophobia was complete and
widespread in the United States and particularly in California. Miller states that the
mainstream image of the Chinese by the end of the nineteenth century was of ―deceit,
cunning, idolatry, despotism, xenophobia, cruelty, infanticide, and intellectual and sexual
perversity‖18
and this became the national attitude which was instrumental in the Chinese
Exclusion Acts and also of the negative treatment received by Chinese Americans.
Likewise, historian Robert McClellan analyzes the predominant role of racial attitudes
toward the Chinese, but instead focuses on the post-exclusion period in his book, The
Heathen Chinee (1971). McClellan argues that there was actually a ―decrease in anti-
16
Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle
for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962), viii. 17
Roger Daniels, ―American Historians and East Asian Immigrants,‖ in Pacific Historical Review, Vol.43,
No.4 (Nov., 1974), 468. 18
Stuart Creighton Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant: The American Image of the Chinese, 1785-1882
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 201.
9
Chinese feeling and…increase in expressions of sympathy‖19
due to the effectiveness of
exclusion legislation which calmed the America‘s ethnocentric fears of an incoming
horde of a Chinese immigrants. In both cases, McClellan and Miller explore the
centrality of racial construction and attitude in the struggles of the Chinese in America.
As historians were breaking down the assimilationist model of the consensus
period, the new social history of the 1980s gave rise to a multiplicity of new Asian
American historical research, primarily based on a growing reservoir of oral histories.
From the numerous testimonies of Asian Americans, particularly Japanese Americans,
historians were able to move from general histories to writing about the agency of
individuals who were ―capable of weighing alternatives, making choices, asserting
control over the circumstances they face, and helping to change the world in which they
live.‖20
Asian American Studies programs that were started in the 1960s and 1970s
around the nation began to bear academic fruit in the 1980s and onward as numerous
graduate theses and doctoral dissertations expanded into hundreds of monographic
studies and syntheses. These histories explore, not just the history of immigration and
race, but topics relating to class, labor, women, gender, and transnationalism.
Furthermore, scholars also began to explore the American experiences of other
previously-ignored Asian groups such as Koreans, Filipinos and Vietnamese. The size
and scope of Asian American history continues to grow at a rapid pace and is too
expansive to be surveyed here.
19
Robert McClellan, The Heathen Chinee: A Study of American Attitudes toward China, 1890-1905
(Columbia: Ohio State University Press, 1971), 112. 20
Chan, ―Asian American Historiography,‖ 375.
10
INTERNMENT AND ORAL HISTORY OF JAPANESE AMERICAN SERVICE
One of the primary subsets of Asian American social history revolves around
Japanese American experience in World War II relating to both internment and the Nisei
war record as made possible by a wealth of oral histories collected in the last four
decades. For almost all Japanese Americans who endured the internment camps or
fought in the military during World War II, there were cultural, traumatic, personal, or
religious reasons why they chose not to recollect those past experiences. It was not until
Edison Uno, assistant dean and co-creator of the ethnic studies curriculum at the
California State University, San Francisco, introduced a resolution in 1970 for
government redress over internment did Japanese American start talking about their
experiences during the war. One observer called it ―a quiet birth of what would become
the single most burning issue in the Japanese American community.‖21
The drive to
collect oral evidence to take a case to Congress meant that growing numbers of oral
histories were accumulated, not just to secure redress but also for historians to write a
variety of narratives surrounding the Japanese American controversies of World War II.
Occurring at the same time as historians were breaking out of the assimilationist models
and the rise of social histories, most of these narratives aimed to show that Japanese
Americans were not mere victims of a set of unjust government policies, but were active
agents of their own fate during dire circumstances. Following Roger Daniel‘s seminal
Concentration Camps USA and his subsequent book, The Decision to Relocate the
Japanese (1975), on the military and political choices that led to internment, dozens of
21
John Tateishi, ―The Japanese American Citizens League and the Struggle for Redress,‖ in Japanese
Americans: from Relocation to Redress (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1986), 191.
11
new narratives from amateur and professional historians and compilations of oral
histories have been published in the last three decades.
Unlike the sorrowful and controversial accounts the internment camps, the story
of the 442nd
Regimental Combat Team has emerged as a popular mainstream tale of
loyalty and bravery that was covered extensively by war reporters during and writers
after the war. Major narratives of the 442nd
‘s experience came out immediately after the
war, the first one being Orville C. Shirey‘s Americans, the Story of the 442nd
Combat
Team (1946), followed by Thomas D. Murphy‘s history of the 100th
Infantry Battalion
Separate in Ambassador in Arms (1955). The most famous mainstream account of the
Nisei soldiers came, not in a book, but in the motion picture Go for Broke (1951), written
by Oscar-winner Robert Pirosh, which focused on a racist white officer who was assigned
to command a company of Nisei and has a change of heart as he experiences the devotion
and valor of the Japanese American men in combat. Shirey, Murphy and Pirosh‘s
narratives followed the traditional themes of military history by chronologically tracing
combat actions and evaluating decisions made by officers as the primary means of telling
the tale of the 100th
/442nd
.
The fight for redress not only uncovered a vast array of narratives and debates
over internment, it revived and brought forth many new and untold stories of the famed
Japanese American 442nd
Regimental Combat Team and other major contributions made
by Japanese Americans during World War II. One of the first of the new wave of texts
came from an amateur historian and former chief petty officer in the U.S. Navy, Joseph
Harrington. When Harrington discovered the story of the Japanese Americans serving
12
with the Military Intelligence Service (MIS) Language School, he found the topic
intriguing and was inspired to fill ―this hole in American history.‖22
Yankee Samurai
(1979) was primarily based on oral histories obtained by Harrington and his friend
Shigeya Kihara, a Japanese American pediatrician. Together, they ―coaxed, cajoled,
harassed, nagged, persuade and…threatened aging graduates of the Military Intelligence
Service Language School until these normally-reticent Nisei told…their stories.‖23
While
Harrington‘s narrative is disjointed and unpolished, his research helped many former
enlisted soldiers to start speaking about their experiences in the war. One such Japanese
American who boldly spoke up about his experiences in World War II was James Oda, a
Kibei (Japan-educated American-born individual) who served as a lieutenant in Military
Intelligence Service. Oda‘s Heroic Struggles of Japanese Americans (1980) is a rare,
unabashed autobiographical account of his experiences as an enlisted language instructor
with the MIS. Oda combines personal narrative, opinions, essays and newspaper
editorials to ―emphasize the Nisei soldier as a positive contributor to Japanese-American
rights‖ and to tell the story of what he calls a ―self-righteous and self-sacrificing breed of
people.‖24
The volume of oral histories produced since the 1970s gave social historians in
the following three decades the means to analyze the impact and relations across
categories of race, regions, nations, and class through the experiences of the Japanese
American soldiers. Masayo Umezawa Duus, an expert in Japan-U.S. relations, wrote a
22
Joseph D. Harrington, Yankee Samurai: The Secret Role of Nisei in America’s Pacific Victory (Detroit:
Pettigrew Enterprises, 1979), 7. 23
Harrington, 6. 24
James Oda, Heroic Struggles of Japanese Americans: Partisan Fighters from America’s Concentration
Camps (Los Angeles: KNI, Inc., 1980), i.
13
series of articles in Bungei shunju, a literary magazine in 1982. These articles led to the
publication and translation of the English version of Unlikely Liberators in 1983. Instead
of following the military triumphs of the 442nd
, Duus utilizes hundreds of interviews with
Nisei veterans to document the tales of individuals. Through their stories, Duus depicts
Japanese Americans as both ―the symbol and victim of [the U.S.-Japan] relationship‖25
and that the efforts made by individuals in the 442nd
helped to secure equality for future
generations. She credits the men of the 442nd
for the postwar political and economic
achievements of the Japanese Americans because their service ensured that ―they would
never again put up with being treated as second-class citizens.‖26
Thelma Chang, who was honored by the Hawaii State Legislature for her work in
preserving the history of the Japanese American men who served in World War II, wrote
a similar narrative based on oral histories. Chang‘s I Can Never Forget (1991) weaves
together interviews and accounts of the memories of the men who served with the 100th
Battalion and the 442nd
Regimental Combat Team. She sorts through the ―various voices
and perspectives‖ ranging from the ―philosophical,‖ the ―matter-of-fact,‖ to the ―long
held feelings‖ of anger over the war and its injustices to create a narrative of the Nisei
men at war.27
Through the tales of the Japanese American soldiers, Chang ―is
particularly good at describing the relationship between men from Hawaii and the
mainland‖ when the two culturally differentiated groups joined together to form the
442nd
. Her book is ―especially noteworthy…for its frank discussion of racism against
25
Masayo Umezawa Duus, Unlikely Liberators: The Men of the 110th and 442
nd (Tokyo: Bungeishunjusha,
1983), x. 26
Duus, 234. 27
Thelma Chang, I Can Never Forget: Men of the 100th
/442nd
(Tuscan: University of Arizona, 1991), 20.
14
Japanese Americans before, during, and after the war‖ and the race relations the Japanese
American men had with their officers, blacks in the South, and with the French villagers
that they liberated.28
By the 2000s, the sheer number of narratives of the Japanese Americans in
military service during World War II not only grew more plentiful, they also became
much more nuanced. One such example is No Sword to Bury (2004) by Franklin Odo,
the acclaimed professor of Occidental College and founding director of the Smithsonian‘s
Asian Pacific American Program. Odo writes about a small group of Japanese Hawaiians
who volunteered for service after Pearl Harbor but were deemed ―unfit‖ by the
government. Despite this setback, these men formed the 169-member body called the
Varsity Victory Volunteers (VVV) and offered to perform manual labor instead until they
were finally allowed to join the 442nd
and MIS. Although this was a very small group,
Odo uses the VVV as a ―case study of cultures in conflict and …to call into question
simplistic notions of ethnic culture, identity and acculturation.‖29
Assimilation and
agency have been the two primary analytical themes used in the historical construction of
Japanese Americans during the Second World War. Through his narrative of the VVV,
Odo criticizes the ways that the Japanese American narrative during the war was used as
the ―incubation period for the contemporary model-minority myth…that other minorities
still mired in poverty had only themselves or their cultures to blame.‖30
Even though
much has been said about the Japanese American military contributions in World War II,
28
Alice Yang Murray, ―Whispered Silences: Japanese Americans and World War II‖ in Journal of
American Ethnic History, Vol.17, No.4 (Summer, 1998), 103. 29
Franklin Odo, No Sword to Bury: Japanese Americans in Hawai’i during World War II (Philadelphia:
Temple University Press, 2004), 4. 30
Odo, 5.
15
No Sword to Bury shows that there are still select groups with a story tell that could
―spark reconsideration of Japanese history…[by] bringing in new data and concepts‖31
to
the overarching narrative.
The vast corpus of historical literature of internment and the Japanese American
soldiers at war is only one piece of the growing collective memory of the Japanese
American experience during World War II. The JACL and other civic groups have
organized and developed numerous educational exhibits, both virtually through websites
and oral history databases and physically through the sites of the former camps and in
local museums. Additionally, the public and academic attention drawn by the quest for
redress has helped to embed the Japanese American experience into state history
education standards. For example, the eleventh-grade California History-Social Science
Content Standards specifically calls for students to ―identify the…unique contributions of
special fighting forces…[such as] the 442nd
Regimental Combat team…[and] discuss the
constitutional issues and impact of events on the U.S. home front, including internment of
Japanese Americans.‖32
In contrast, Chinese Americans are not specifically mentioned in
the eleventh grade U.S. History standards and are discussed generally within the category
of ―Asian American.‖
31
Roger Daniels, ―No Sword to Bury: Japanese Americans in Hawai‘i during World War II‖ in Journal of
American Ethnic History, Vol.24, No.2 (Winter, 2005), 133. 32
California Department of Education, 50.
16
SCARCITY OF CHINESE AMERICAN WORKS AND ORAL HISTORIES
In major Asian American historical syntheses, the experiences of Chinese
Americans and Japanese Americans in World War II are pigeonholed by historians into
two major themes: historians of Chinese Americans have focused on the war efforts made
on the homefront by the Chinese in Chinatowns and the political debate over the Chinese
Exclusion Acts, while Japanese American narratives have centered on the struggle and
controversy over internment and the combat experience of the segregated 100th
Infantry
Battalion, 442nd
Combat Regimental Team and the members of special Military
Intelligence Service. Take for instance, Roger Daniels‘ chapter on the Chinese American
and Japanese American experiences in World War II in his groundbreaking synthesis,
Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States. Daniels calls the war ―a
crucial turning point in the history of each community…Japanese America was simply
destroyed…Chinese America, although less obvious and less dramatic, was perhaps as
decisive.‖33
Despite its pivotal importance, Daniels says little about efforts made by
Chinese Americans in aiding the American war effort or even in repealing Chinese
Exclusion legislation. According to Daniels, Chinese gains during the 1930s and 1940s
were brought about by people like Pearl Buck, who was instrumental in ―reshaping…the
American image of the Chinese,‖34
and her husband Richard Walsh, who with other
white Americans headed the Citizens Committee to Repeal Chinese Exclusion and Place
Immigration on a Quota Basis. Chinese Americans, therefore, are represented as passive
33
Roger Daniels, Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850 (Seattle:
University of Washington Press, 1988), 187. 34
Daniels, Asian America, 188.
17
recipients of goodwill from mainstream America. In contrast, Daniels depicts the
Japanese Americans fighting for the survival of their communities and details the work of
the Japanese American Citizens League and dozens of other individuals who strove to
fight for their rights within the internment camps, in the courts and also overseas with the
Military Intelligence Service. Prestigious scholar of history and ethnic studies Ronald
Takaki‘s Strangers from a Different Shore provides a much more balanced view of the
contributions of Chinese Americans during World War II. According to Takaki, Chinese
Americans initiated local bond drives, served in the war industries and even highlighted
the fact that ―altogether 13,499 Chinese were drafted or enlisted in the U.S. Armed
Forces—22 percent of all Chinese adult males.‖35
However, Takaki does not mention
specific individuals nor does he describe any major contributions made by Chinese
Americans in armed service during the war.
Despite numbering enough to fill an American army division, little formal history
has been written about the Chinese American military experience during World War II.
There are several reasons for this. Firstly, controversy is a magnet for historians. The
debate over internment and the right of Japanese Americans to serve in the military were
two controversies that have attracted researchers and readers alike. The major
controversy for Chinese Americans during the war revolved around the Exclusion Acts
but they were enlisted and drafted alongside the general population. Secondly, the
unfortunate order to racially-segregate the Japanese into the 100th
Battalion and 442nd
Combat Regimental Team aided future research by creating a base of military documents
35
Daniel Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York: Penguin
Books, 1989), 373-374.
18
and records. Other than the non-combat 407th
Air Service Squadron, most Chinese
Americans were dispersed into various racially-mixed units. Lastly, powerful civic
organizations such as the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) have been
instrumental in documenting and creating oral histories of the lives of Japanese
Americans who had undergone the challenges of the Second World War. Chinese
American groups are smaller in number and have not been as active in politics as their
Japanese American counterparts.
However, there have been a few localized efforts to document the Chinese
American war experience. Christina and Sheldon Lim, children of 407th
Air Service
Squadron veteran Harry Lim, privately published In the Shadow of the Tiger (1993), a
book of the all-Chinese unit. This book includes a short narrative of the unit‘s history
and a collection of primary documents including photographs and copies of the unit‘s
newsletters. Another effort to document the Chinese American military experience came
from the Chinese Historical Society of Southern California in 1998. University of
California, Los Angeles librarian Marjorie Lee and Chinese American Museum curator
Suellen Cheng published a historical scrapbook called Duty and Honor, which includes a
compilation of photos, biographical sketches and news articles of the Southern California
Chinese American war veterans. So far, the only major historical work on the Chinese
American military experience during World War II was written by Williams College
professor K. Scott Wong. In Americans First, Wong warns, ―this almost exclusive focus
on [Japanese Americans] has narrowed the subsequent memory of the war to a bipolar
discourse of injustice and achievement, ignoring the complex experiences of other groups
19
of Asian Americans during this period of…social transformation.‖36
Thus, Wong
demonstrates through his narrative that ―Chinese Americans contributed to all aspects of
the war effort and suffered and benefited as much as anyone from the deprivations and
changes wrought by the war.‖37
There is still much left unsaid and undiscovered about
Chinese Americans during World War II. The primary goal of the following chapter is to
provide a small entry into this particular gap in history by discussing the role played by
Chinese Americans in military service from the First World War to the Second World
War through the framework of racial attitudes of mainstream American toward Asian
Americans.
36
K. Scott Wong, Americans First: Chinese Americans and the Second World War (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 2005), 3. 37
Wong, Americans First, 4.
20
CHAPTER TWO
THE CHANGING FACE OF THE YELLOW PERIL: HISTORICAL NARRATIVE OF
THE ASIAN AMERICAN MILITARY EXPERIENCE IN THE WORLD WARS
When the United States passed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, it not only
prohibited immigration on the basis of race for the first time, it reinforced the growing
notion of whiteness and made race the primary mode of denying rights to immigrants and
barring the entry of classes of foreigners. The American press and general public viewed
the Chinese specifically as barbaric invaders who would come in hordes to overrun
Western civilization. ―In many ways, Chinese immigrants became the models against
which other [foreigners] were measured,‖1 and the virulent racial hatred applied to the
Chinese was often duplicated and used against other newcomers, including the Japanese.
In his analysis of racial attitude in American policymaking, historian John Dower,
describes the Second World War as ―a race war…[which] exposed raw prejudices and
was fueled by racial pride, arrogance, and rage on many sides.‖2 Thus, in interactions
between the United States, China, and Japan, racial attitudes were a principal factor in the
development of government policies and actions in the first half of the twentieth century.
Racial hatred between Americans and the Japanese resulted in a cruel and savage war in
the Pacific and also served as the primary rationale for specific American policies such as
the segregation of Japanese Americans into concentration camps and segregated military
units. On the other hand, with greater American sympathies toward China in the interwar
1 Erika Lee, At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882-1943 (Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 46. 2 John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (Pantheon Books: New York,
1986), 5.
21
period and the Sino-American alliance during the Second World War, Chinese
Americans were generally treated with less racial contempt than their Japanese
counterparts. Americans of Chinese descent were more freely recruited and were given
greater opportunities to serve in the U.S. military in racially diverse units whereas the
Japanese Americans were purposefully placed in segregated units under white
commanders and were forced to demonstrate loyalty to the nation of their birth by serving
extraordinarily in combat. Comparative analysis of the Chinese American and Japanese
American experiences in the military from World War I to the end of the Second World
War allows us to see how racial assumptions and representations can change over time to
fit political needs and also how both sets of Asian Americans actively pursued and
defended their rights to citizenship.
METHODOLOGY
Growing out of the new social history, Asian American history has developed
rapidly since the 1980s and has primarily3 concentrated on the long struggles over labor,
immigration, and citizenship of Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans.3
Coinciding with the fiftieth anniversary of the Second World War, new research on Asian
American legal and political history has resulted in an enormous corpus of works in the
last two decades on Japanese internment and the military experience of Nisei (second-
generation Japanese Americans) soldiers during World War II by both historians and
vibrant Japanese American civil rights groups. In contrast, without influential groups
3 Sucheng Chan, ―Asian American Historiography,‖ in Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 65, No. 3 (Aug.,
1996), 363.
22
such as the Japanese American Citizens League, powerful men like Daniel Inouye, or
national media controversies such as the debate over internment reparations, little public
or academic attention has been paid to the comparable number of Chinese American men
who served in the Second World War.
From the arming of blacks in the Civil War to Truman‘s integration order in 1948,
history has shown that the American military has been consistently at the forefront of
changing American race relations. However, the narrative of race relations in the
American armed forces is dominated by the struggle of both African Americans and
Japanese Americans to prove their worth in segregated units. It is widely believed that
the American armed forces were not racially integrated, until Truman‘s Executive Order
9981 officially started the process of integrating the military in 1948. What the
traditional story excludes are the experiences of other non-white groups such as Latinos
and Chinese Americans who served in integrated units prior to Truman‘s order. Like the
celebrated Japanese American soldiers in the 442nd
and Military Intelligence Service,
Chinese Americans served loyally and valiantly in the armed services. Yet unlike their
Japanese counterparts, the Chinese were given the opportunity to peaceably serve
alongside, and even in some cases to command white troops, and serve as officers in the
what amounted to a partially-integrated American military. The differential treatment of
the Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans in terms of military service signifies the
extent to which American racial attitudes are often shifting and inconsistent. This chapter
explores how dominant American conceptions of race took form alongside changing
23
political sentiments that shaped government policies toward China and Japan and were
expressed by a national press determined to meet the ―ideal of objectivity.‖4
American racial attitude can be analyzed by examining the writing of national
press organs, mainly widely-circulated magazines and major metropolitan newspapers.
While it has been suggested that newspapers and national magazines helped to create the
hostile environment and exaggerated fears of a Japanese invasion which led to
internment, prominent Asian American scholars Gary Okihiro and Julie Sly argue that
―the role of the press in society [is that] they are reflectors and not creators of public
opinion.‖5 Okihiro and Sly discovered that large audience newspapers like the San
Francisco Chronicle, Los Angeles Times, and the New York Times demonstrated both
tolerance and hostility at differing times toward Japanese Americans during World War
II—this ―shift in editorial opinion reflected a similar shift in the public opinion.‖6 In
other words, these newspapers gained readership by truthfully writing what they saw to
accommodate a consumer public that wanted papers that reflected their own opinions.
This was consistent with the new professionalism of major newspapers like the New York
Times following World War I, which showed that ―a high-class paper could build a large
circulation merely by being a good newspaper…[with] full and trustworthy coverage of
governmental and political news.‖7 True objectivity, however, is impossible. In the
attempt to just ―report the facts,‖ the press of the early 20th
century dealt with an
4 Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers (Basic Books: New
York, 1978), 120. 5 Gary Y. Okihiro and Julie Sly, ―The Press, Japanese Americans, and the Concentration Camps,‖ in
Phylon, Vol.44, No. 1 (1st Qtr., 1983), 71.
6 Okihiro and Sly, 71.
7 Frank Luther Mott, American Journalism (New York : MacMillan Company, 1962), 549-551.
24
assortment of challenges. Many news stories, as much as ―60 percent…in the New York
Times‖ in the early 1930s, were written by government-influenced press agents or public
relations groups as opposed to professional journalists.8 Additionally, the growing
political and economic complexity of news events meant that news could not just simply
be recorded, but had to be interpreted by columnists. Thus, the major newspapers of the
time exhibited the tension between the objectively-minded daily reporters, government
publicists and opining editorialists, each attempting to convince both middle and working
class readers of the truth. Recognizing this tension within the national press can be useful
for finding a middle-ground between the distorted racial images found in yellow
journalism, government propaganda, and the popular media, when read alongside the
experiential evidence found in oral history accounts.
THE CHANGING FACE OF THE ―YELLOW PERIL‖
One of the primary portraits of white American racism toward Asian Americans
was embodied in author Sax Rohmer‘s famous villain, Dr. Fu-Manchu. In both popular
text and movies of the early twentieth century, Rohmer‘s fictitious Fu-Manchu was an
evil mastermind who treacherously plotted global domination with an inexhaustible horde
of Asians at his disposal. The press called Fu-Manchu ―the most exotic and diabolic of
contemporary villains in the annals of crime‖9 and the character‘s enormous popularity
helped to reinforce the popular image of Asians as the ―yellow peril‖ threatening to
destroy white civilization. Although the Fu-Manchu‘s persona was originally Chinese,
8 Schudson, 144.
9 ―Specialists in Crime,‖ Vanity Fair, September 1930, 56.
25
his character was liberally applied to all peoples of Asian origin. With China consumed
by internal turmoil in the early twentieth century and most Chinese immigration shut off
by the Exclusion Acts, the face of the sinister Fu-Manchu began to look more and more
Japanese as Japan‘s industrial modernization made it the strongest nation in the Pacific.
In the 1930s, America‘s ―sympathetic media coverage of China‘s resistance to the
Japanese created an even greater surge of pro-Chinese sentiment after Pearl Harbor,‖
leaving the Japanese alone as the Oriental menace to Western civilization.10
Racism
toward the peoples of Asia was already deeply entrenched within the American psyche
prior to the Second World War and played a major role, not just in the nature of the war,
but also in the treatment of Americans of both Chinese and Japanese descent in the period
leading up to and during the Second World War.
The success of Rohmer‘s Dr. Fu-Manchu series demonstrates the long-standing
popular acceptance of an Oriental ―yellow peril‖ for the better part of the early twentieth
century. As Japan modernized into an industrial power and China continued its rapid
decline into international political obscurity at the turn of the century, Americans began
to make greater racial distinctions between the Japanese and the Chinese. Whereas the
American press portrayed China, mostly due to its immense population, as an economic
peril, the Japanese threat loomed as a military aggressor. Even the conservative New
York Times advised Americans to not just ―talk vaguely about the ‗yellow peril‘‖ but to
―give themselves the trouble of first ascertaining and then declaring which yellow peril it
10
Dower, 159.
26
is that they mean.‖11
Fear of a Japanese threat grew with Japan‘s victory in the Russo-
Japanese War of 1904-05. The American public was further exposed to Japan‘s rapidly
expanding industrial capacity during the 1910s and 1920s by the ever-expanding foreign
coverage in the national press. In 1915 George Bronson Rea, the editor of the Shanghai-
based Far Eastern Review and a nationally-published China specialist, warned of a
Japanese threat that was ―feverishly arming, laboring night and day in the ceaseless work
of enlarging, strengthening and polishing her already ponderous military machine against
the inevitable day of conflict…and America sleeps.‖12
In subsequent articles, Rea went
on to indict Japanese Americans as ―acting as agents to conceal with malicious intent
from American eyes actual facts about Japan and thus proving…[Japanese Americans] as
traitors to wherein [they] reside.‖13
While America started to fear the growth of Japanese imperialism in the Pacific,
American attitudes toward the Chinese became both more paternalistic. Once the
primary target of American anti-Asian movements in the nineteenth century, many
Americans became more sympathetic with the plight of China and the ensuing chaos after
the fall of the Qing Dynasty. Due to the concessions made after the Boxer Rebellion and
the subsequent Revolution of 1911, western political and religious ideas were able to
flow freely and penetrate into China. Americans politicians, armed forces and
missionaries were also able to experience and influence the Chinese first-hand and their
reports became more compassionate to the plight of the Chinese peoples. The New York
11
―Japan and China,‖ New York Times, 17 February 1904, 8. 12
―Japan and ‗The Yellow Peril,‘‖ Los Angeles Times, 28 August 1915, II2. 13
Toyokichi Iyenaga, ―Forward,‖ Japan’s Real Attitude toward America: A Reply to Mr. George Bronson
Rea’s ―Japan’s Place in the Sun—the Menace to America‖ (New York: The Knickerbocker Press, 1916),
iii.
27
Times published an exposé of famed sociologist and race theorist Professor Edward A.
Ross‘s prolonged tour of China. Ross proclaimed that the Chinese were ―equal mentally
and superior in vitality to the White Race, and predict[ed] a great future for the
Chinese…[and that] their destiny is that of the white race.‖ The Chinese potential, he
argued, had been limited by the medieval backwardness of Imperial China and that with
the introduction of Western politics and Christianity, the world would soon witness the
―renaissance of a quarter of the human family.‖14
The experiences and writings of Ross
and authors such as Pearl Buck helped to formulate a new Chinese racial type as a
reasonable and stoic Confucian farmer who perseveres despite the environmental
difficulties surrounding him rather than ―the Mongolian octopus‖15
that had threatened to
overrun white America just decades prior. At the same time, Ross juxtaposed the
Chinese soldier as a peasant who was ―unaggressive‖ and ―mild‖ to the Japanese peasant
who had the ―bold air of the soldier.‖16
By the 1920s, it was clearly the Japanese who fit
perfectly into the image of Dr. Fu-Manchu‘s ―Asiatic horde‖ in place of the Chinese.
The belief in a looming Japanese threat helped exacerbate racial tensions between
white Americans and Japanese Americans and altered the perception of the latter by the
former. While Chinese exclusion and anti-Chinese work and residency laws kept the
declining population of Chinese Americans confined within urban ethnic enclaves, the
Japanese American population steadily increased in the early 1900s with the birth of the
Nisei, causing alarm and unrest from nativists and white supremacists on the West Coast.
14
―The Chinaman‘s Destiny is that of the White Man,‖ New York Times, 29 October 1911, SM2. 15
―Chinese Invasion.‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 21 July 1878, 5. 16
―The Chinaman‘s Destiny is that of the White Man,‖ New York Times, 29 October 1911, SM2.
28
In 1915, California Senator John D. Works hoped to raise a 200,000-man permanent
reserve army to defend his state against a possible Japanese invasion. Works stated that
―there are 30,000 Japanese Reserves in California and that they may rise up at any time‖
to overwhelm the 8,000 regular and 5,000 American reservists on the entire West Coast.17
Considering there were just over 40,000 Japanese Americans in California in 1910,
Works apparently assumed that the entire Japanese American male population of
California was part of a trained Japanese army what would automatically turn against
America in time of war.18
Works would later address the Senate to demand an army and
navy on the Pacific Coast and the exclusion of the Japanese ―as an act of self-
preservation...of the white race.‖19
Similarly, the Japanese Hawaiians were seen as the
primary threat to that territory in 1923. After a visit to the Pacific Islands, Senator Irvine
Lenroot of Wisconsin declared that ―within ten years the Japanese voters, by right of their
birth there, will far outnumber the natives and Americans, thus gaining control of the
Territory…[and] charged that…Japanese children attending Japanese schools…are taught
allegiance to the land of Mikado rather than the United States.‖20
American newspaper
readers were regularly exposed to the argument, and many believed that the danger posed
by the Japanese came both from abroad and from the Japanese Americans within.
17
―Asks 200,000 for California Guard,‖ New York Times, 17 December 1915, 8. 18
U.S. Census Bureau, Thirteenth Census of the United States: 1910-, ―Population—California: Table 17 –
Indian, Chinese, and Japanese Population, by Counties,‖ Washington DC: Bureau of the Census, 1911. 19
―Wants Japanese Shut Out,‖ New York Times, 15 July 1916, 14. 20
―Fears Japan in Hawaii,‖ New York Times, 12 May 1923, 17.
29
ASIAN AMERICANS IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR
The growth of anti-Japanese and pro-Chinese sentiment coincided with America‘s
involvement in the First World War, which brought about the first military draft since the
Civil War. Performing combat service for one‘s country has historically been seen as the
consummate civic duty and a defining element of citizenship in the modern nation-state
but major legal barriers made it an unequal experience in the United States. For instance,
Jim Crow and other anti-black laws meant that many who were called to service were
treated as second-class citizens with partial rights. Chinese exclusion laws and the
Gentlemen‘s Agreement with Japan meant that there existed a population of legal aliens
who were eligible for military service but not citizenship. Additionally, that American-
born Chinese and Japanese were not classified as ―white‖ and were barred from voluntary
service raised questions as to the legitimacy of their citizenship. Still, many non-white
men, despite the racial barriers placed before them, patriotically volunteered for military
service during World War I as a means to prove their loyalty to their country.
Americans of both Japanese and Chinese descent attempted to volunteer for
military service and the response given to them by local recruitment officials was often
disappointing. Ah Fong, a Chinese merchant who lost land and resources to Pancho
Villa‘s uprising in Mexico, convinced his four sons to answer the recruitment call to join
General John Pershing‘s expedition across the Mexican border in 1916. However, the
regional recruiting officer decided that ―the nationality of Fong‘s boys was a bar to their
enlistment‖ and rejected their applications.21
This setback did not dim the enthusiasm of
21
―Four Chinese Boys Anxious to Fight,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 16 April 1916, 43.
30
many young Chinese men who continued to offer up their services to the war effort. A
civic organization, the Chinese American Citizens‘ Alliance (CACA), organized an effort
to create a segregated Chinese regiment for the United States Army immediately after the
declaration of war in April of 1917. Columbia University student and member of the
Officers‘ Reserve Corps, Tien Tow Liu led the effort to recruit other Chinese Americans,
many of whom were students or graduates of Harvard, Yale, and Columbia into this
special unit. The proposed Chinese unit would even include many Chinese businessmen
who fought in the revolutionary struggles in China in the past years. Liu explained in a
letter to President Woodrow Wilson that his regiment, unlike many of the inexperienced
white citizen soldiers being recruited, could be ―fitted for action…on short notice…[as]
many of the men have had instruction in military schools and colleges, while many are
hardened warriors, veterans of various uprisings in China.‖ Liu and the CACA were
able to recruit 600 native-born men within the first month to show that the
―Chinese…who are citizens of this country will always fight for democracy against
militarism.‖22
Unfortunately, President Wilson ignored the request. Liu himself never
entered into the service and finished his degree at Columbia in the spring of 1918.23
Some Japanese Americans showed a similar determination to demonstrate their loyalty
by volunteering for service. Kiichi Kanzaki, General Secretary of Japanese Association
of America, wrote in a special feature in the San Francisco Chronicle in 1919, of a young
Japanese American friend who saw it as ―his duty to fight for the country which gave him
shelter and education‖ but was turned down by recruitment officials. Kanzaki stated that
22
―600 Ready to Form Regiment,‖ New York Times, 30 April 1917, 7. 23
―List of Degrees Given to Columbia Students,‖ New York Times, 6 June 1918, 8.
31
this was ―merely a typical case‖ and that Japanese American volunteers were turned
down all over the country.24
Conscription of Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans was another matter.
Since Chinese and Japanese nationals were aliens and could not legally obtain citizenship
in the United States, they were given draft exemptions. Not surprisingly, many of them
chose to waive these exemptions and entered the draft. In June of 1917 the San
Francisco Chronicle reported that although half of all the young men from Stockton,
California who registered with Selective Services requested some form of exemption, all
of the Chinese Americans in the city waived their exemptions to enter into the draft.25
Five hundred Chinese Americans from Los Angeles, described by the president of the
Chinese Chamber of Commerce as ―willing to shoulder a rifle and…will fight as
valiantly as any‖ also waived exemptions and willfully registered for the draft.26
Many
Japanese Americans also waived their exemptions and entered military service during
World War I. The first American-born Japanese to begin active duty declared, ―It is an
honor…I will do my very best and when duty calls me I will lay down my life for the
cause of humanity and democracy. I will pledge that I will bring no dishonor either to the
land of my birth nor to the country of my forefathers.‖27
By January 1918, 280 out of the
7,170 Chinese Americans registered and 554 of the 15,336 Japanese Americans
registered had waived their exemptions and were accepted for service.28
24
―American-Born Japanese Loyal to United States,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 16 June 1918, 19. 25
―Registration in State Exceeds Total Forecast,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 6 June 1917, 2. 26
―Young Chinese to Register for Draft,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 2 June 1917, 2. 27
―American-Born Japanese Loyal to the United States,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 16 January 1918, 19. 28
―First Complete Official Record of Draft,‖ New York Times, 20 January 1918, 43.
32
While the draft lottery was indiscriminate in whose number was called into the
military, American racial ideology of white supremacy meant that the new Selective
Services and the U.S. War Department had to create a policy to cope with the racial
diversity of the draft. With larger numbers drafted into service, the American military
chose to segregate black and Hispanic men into separate maintenance and support units
that were kept away from frontline combat duty. However, with numbers too
insignificant to be formed into special segregated units, Chinese and Japanese who were
drafted were thus integrated into service alongside whites. Kaytaro Tsukamoto was one
of the initial draftees and joined D Company of the 263rd
Infantry Division. Tsukamoto,
who later fought in the Meuse-Argonne offensive in 1918,29
stated at the time of his
assignment, ―he is glad to be the first Japanese to report at the camp…[and] glad of the
opportunity to fight for Uncle Sam.‖30
A number of Chinese Americans also found
themselves in racially-integrated units that fought on the frontlines in Europe. A
detachment of Chinese American soldiers from the Army 90th
Division training in Camp
Travis, Texas, was specifically singled out as a ―pleasant surprise‖ and demonstrated a
―fine sense of duty and discipline…in training.‖ The 90th
would see frontline combat in
both the St. Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne offensives in 1918. Chinese Americans
were similarly regarded in a glowing report at the New York-based Camp Upton, the
training site of the renowned 77th
Division, which became the famous ―Lost Battalion.‖31
29
―Center Has Active Legionnaire Group,‖ Tanforan Totalizer, 20 June 1942, 6. – Although Tsukamoto
was one of the first to be drafted and served combat duty in Europe, he was interned at the Tanforan
Racetrack in San Francisco and the Topaz Internment Camp in Utah. 30
John Condon, ―San Francisco Japanese Glad to Fight in National Army,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 19
September 1917, 3. 31
―Army and Navy Notes,‖ New York Times, 9 June 1918, 47.
33
The New York Times described the 77th
as a ―melting pot‖ and nicknamed it the
―cosmopolitan division‖ for its racially diverse makeup of men from all over
metropolitan New York.32
In describing the heroism of one of the 77th
‘s Chinese
American soldiers, unit historian Captain Julius Adler proudly, that ―it was only one
more evidence of the fact that in the cosmopolitan composition of the Division lay its
strength.‖33
Chinese American soldiers, like Henry Chinn of 305th
Infantry Battalion,
77th
Division not only fought courageously but died in the line of duty alongside white
soldiers.34
Many others were honored, both in print and also with medals for their
achievements in combat.
The American press specifically singled out Chinese Americans for their service
to the United States. The most famous Chinese American soldier of World War I was
Sing Kee, a California resident who fought with the 77th
Division‘s 306th
Infantry
Battalion. Kee was the first Chinese American to be decorated for bravery and was
eventually promoted to sergeant, the highest rank obtained by any Chinese American
during the First World War. The U.S. War Department honored Kee with the following
citation describing his heroics in France:
Private Sing Kee, although seriously gassed during a terrible shelling by
both high explosives and gas shells, refused to be evacuated and continued
practically single-handed to operate the regimental message center relay
station during August 14, 15 and 16, 1918. Throughout this critical period
he showed extraordinary heroism, high courage and persistent devotion to
32
―Cosmopolitan Heroes,‖ New York Times, 4 May 1919, 49. 33
Julius O. Adler, ed., History of the Seventy Seventh Division: August 25th
, 1917, November 11th
, 1918
(New York: Wynkoop Haldenbeck Crawford Company, 1919), 44. 34
―Names of the 1,646 Officers and Men of the 77th
Division Who Perished Overseas,‖ New York Times,
27 April 1919, 19.
34
duty by his determination and coolness materially aiding the regimental
commander in communicating with the front line.35
Not only was Kee recognized by his home country, but he was presented with the Croix
de Guerre by the French government for ―extraordinary heroism and constant
devotion.‖36
It was not just medal recipients who were highlighted by the press; other Chinese
American soldiers were mentioned for their bravery. The Los Angeles Times reported the
courage of Chew Lung Sit, one of the first Chinese soldiers to waive his draft exemption,
while in combat with the American 4th
Division. Commanding officer General John
Hines stated that Sit and a few other soldiers ―stuck to the guns…under extremely heavy
shell fire‖ for over a week and a half of action. Sit was later wounded in action and
hospitalized. The San Francisco Chronicle reported on the procession and burial of
―Chinese War Hero‖ Hong Chow Lee, who had fought and died in the Argonne Forest.
Lee was honored by the American Legion as a ―soldier and citizen.‖37
Neither Sit nor
Lee were from prominent families and nor were their heroic actions honored with a
medal or citation. Yet their particular stories and Chinese identities were specifically
singled out amongst thousands of feats of gallantry by the American doughboys in
Europe.38
These stories suggest how the American press represented Chinese Americans,
though few in number, as capable soldiers who fought bravely and valiantly like their
white counterparts. In contrast, the major newspapers were relatively silent about the
35
―Chinese Hero Slips into City Like a Civilian,‖ San Francisco Chronicle 14 June 1919, 6. 36
―France Decorates Chinese Boy Hero of American Army,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 19 July 1919, 5. 37
―Chinese Hero Buried with Honors,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 21 January 1921, 2. 38
―Cited for Bravery,‖ Los Angeles Times, 1 January 1919, II8.
35
contributions made during World War I by the larger group of Japanese Americans who
served in the armed forces. Rather, most news regarding the Japanese addressed possible
threats posed by further Japanese immigration and the rise of Japanese military and
international power. Fear over the Japanese ―yellow peril‖ seeped into the debate over
the claims to citizenship through armed service by Japanese Americans.
The First World War was not the first instance in which Asian Americans who
had served loyally in combat requested naturalization as citizens. In 1857 Edward Day
Cahota (originally Sing-Loo from Shanghai39
), was adopted by Sargent S. Day, a captain
who sailed out from Gloucester, Massachusetts. On a journey to China, Captain Day
adopted the eight-year old, full-blooded Chinese cabin boy and returned home with him.
At the age of 15, Cahota enlisted with the Massachusetts 23rd
Infantry Regiment and
served in Grant‘s Grand Army of the Republic. He is credited with evacuating a
wounded man from the brutal battlefield during the Battle of Cold Harbor in 1864.
Cahota continued his career in the regular army for a total of 30 years before retiring to
Nebraska where he desired to take on a homestead.40
However, while filing the
paperwork, government officials found that Cahota was not a citizen and thus was not
eligible to receive and own property. Congressman Moses Kinkaid appealed for a special
act of Congress before the House of Representatives on behalf of Cahota in 1912, but one
was never granted.41
Cahota died in 1935 without ever obtaining citizenship in the
country he served for over three decades.
39
―Age No Barrier to Enjoying Thrills,‖ The Pittsburgh Press, 7 April 1929, 8. 40
―Civil War Veteran, Only Chinese Enlisted Visits Boyhood Home,‖ Cumberland Evening Times, 33
August 1928, 7. 41
―Veteran is Not a Citizen,‖ Oelwein Daily Register, 16 January 1913, 3.
36
Like Cahota, other Asian Americans hoped to obtain citizenship through military
service. Under the immigration statutes passed through the wartime Naturalization Act
of May 9, 1918, aliens who served the U.S. armed forces during America‘s involvement
in World War I were for the first time given the privilege of naturalization. Several
hundred aliens of Chinese, Japanese and Korean descent who had served in the U.S.
military applied for citizenship. Men like Sassunoka Tokunaga, a former personal valet
to Admiral George Dewey and naval serviceman in the Portsmouth, New Hampshire
naval yard, applied for citizenship and was naturalized less than a year after the 1918 law
was passed.42
At the same time, scores of veterans of Chinese and Japanese descent from
the Hawaiian Army Reserves applied for and obtained citizenship. As naturalized
citizens, many immediately set off for the U.S. mainland to exercise their newfound right
to purchase property which alarmed many nativists on the West Coast. Other states,
however, would continue the debate over granting citizenship to Asian American war
veterans. Unlike a court decision in Hawaii that upheld the 1918 Naturalization Act,
courts in Oregon and Texas refused to grant citizenship to Asian Americans. When a
Korean American member of the company stationed in San Francisco‘s Presidio and a
Chinese American veteran wounded at Verdun applied for citizenship in Northern
California, Judge Frank H. Rudkin complied with the May 9, 1918 Act. However,
Rudkin himself was unsure of the decision and stated that if ―the Government is not
satisfied, it can obtain legal redress.‖43
42
―Japanese and Chinese are Made Citizens,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 30 March 1919, W4. 43
―2 Asiatics Who Fought in Army made Citizens,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 20 May 1919, 8.
37
As anti-Japanese sentiment grew in the Interwar period, decisive action was taken
by some white Americans to revoke the veterans‘ citizenship earned through military
service. California Senator James Phelan led the charge against the naturalization of
veterans of Asian descent based in fear of the Japanese ―yellow peril.‖ In 1919, Phelan
described the citizenship request made by Japanese Americans veterans in Hawaii as a
―form of deception…to control legislation and hold all the municipal offices.‖44
A year
later, Phelan explained that Japanese naturalization ―would give [the Japanese] not only
control of the land, but also a dangerous political power…The Japanese invasion has
taken the form of land purchase…[and a] studied plan of increasing their numbers.‖45
In
the decades prior to World War I, the ―grave and impending danger of an overwhelming
invasion‖46
was believed to come from the massive hordes of Chinese coolies. However,
with the fall of Imperial China and the Chinese Exclusion Acts in full effect, the Japanese
had become the new ―yellow peril‖ that would overrun white Western society. In the
eyes of Phelan and other advocates of racial homogeneity, the Japanese, not the Chinese,
were the primary target of Asian exclusion. The conflicting bureaucratic and judicial
decisions by state and federal courts led to a final appeal to U.S. Supreme Court in 1925.
In the case Toyota Hidemitsu v. U.S., the court decided that while the Naturalization Act
of May 9, 1918 could grant citizenship for World War I veterans, it could not naturalize
non-white aliens. Thus the citizenship earned by all Asian American veterans in service
44
―Phelan Bares Japanese Plot,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 30 July 1919, 2. 45
―Fear Citizenship of Japanese Here,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 23 November 1920, 11. 46
―A Chinese Invasion,‖ San Francisco Chronicle, 18 April 1892, 4.
38
to their adopted country was revoked and would not be reinstated until a decade later by
the passage of the Ney-Lea Bill in 1935.
THE INTERWAR PERIOD
After the First World War, most American citizen soldiers returned to civilian life
and the U.S. military dwindled to its miniscule pre-war size. Most of the Asian
Americans who remained in the regular army after the war were stationed in Hawaii with
the territory‘s multiracial National Guard. In 1929, a total of 191 Japanese Americans
and 170 Chinese Americans served alongside ―fifty different nationalities or combination
of nationalities‖ including Puerto Ricans, Portuguese, Filipino, native Hawaiian and
whites.47
The Hawaiian Guard also produced the first Asian American officer,
Lieutenant Kinichi Sakai, who was commissioned in 1917 in Oahu‘s Schofield Barracks
and was promoted to the rank of captain by the end of the war.48
However, questions
over the loyalty of Japanese Americans brought about strict limitations on the number of
Issei (first generation Japanese Americans) and Nisei men who could enroll in the
National Guard during the interwar period. Furthermore, continued enrollment of
Japanese Americans into officer training programs was highly discouraged. Major
General Charles G. Morton, commander of the Hawaii department, ―opposed giving
either training or responsibility to a people that might join the invaders‖ and stated, ―no
individual of Japanese blood should be permitted under any circumstances to obtain [a]
47
―Hawaii National Guard is Cosmopolitan,‖ New York Times, 15 December 1929, SM10. 48
―Japanese is Officer in American Army,‖ New York Times, 12 December 1917, 11.
39
commission or to enlist in…the Army of the United States.‖49
Despite Morton‘s protest,
the necessity of keeping a fully-staffed reserve regiment gave way to further Japanese
American enlistment to the armed forces in Hawaii.
Disdain of the Japanese increased with Japan‘s invasion of Manchuria and China
outright in the 1930s, again resulting in a relatively greater sense of sympathy for the
Chinese peoples in the mainstream American press. Historian John Dower states that by
this time, ―missionaries and popular writers…had helped create a countervailing tide of
respect for the long-suffering common people of China.‖50
Newsreels and images were
captured from the Second Sino-Japanese War and relayed back to the United States,
illustrating the horrors of war and excessively brutal treatment of the Chinese at the hands
of the Japanese. Many American organizations, especially the U.S. Army Air Corps,
responded to aid the Chinese war effort. In anticipation of the oncoming Japanese threat,
China sent a number of pilots to the United States for aerial training during the 1930s.
The first to complete this was Chia-Mei Hu, a Chinese college graduate from Shantung
Province. Hu had originally come to the United States through a scholarship from the
Chinese government to attend South Carolina‘s Citadel Military Academy and then later
U.S. Army Infantry School at Fort Benning. Despite being a student in the Jim Crow
South, Hu and other Chinese students were not discriminated against because of the color
of their skin. When asked whether or not the Chinese cadets were treated differently,
Eleanor Pringle Hart, one of Hu‘s hosts in Charleston said, ―they were treated as white‖
49
Brian McAllister Linn, Guardians of Empire: The U.S. Army and the Pacific, 1902-1940 (Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 154. 50
Dower, 39.
40
and ―only poor whites, ignorant people might have treated them differently.‖ Hu even
enjoyed an adoptive mother-son relationship with a white woman, Laura Bragg, during
his stay in Charleston. 51
Chia-Mei Hu later completed the final year of his scholarship at
the U.S. Army Air Corps School of Advance Flying where ―Mr. Hu proved the peer of
the other members of his class‖ and scored ―unusually high…on the sheaf of instructors‘
reports.‖52
Other Chinese nationals would follow in Hu‘s footsteps and many came to the
United States to train as pilots to fight against the Japanese.
THE PREWAR DRAFT
As the prospects for war increased, the
United States Congress reinstated Selective
Services and issued the first peacetime draft in
American history. Both Chinese American and
Japanese Americans were called to duty with
little regard to their race and were placed in
integrated units alongside white draftees. In
October 1940, about 16,500,000 Americans
were called to register for the draft and 900,000
physically fit Americans were selected for the
armed forces later that month. Registered men
holding the number 158 were the first individuals randomly selected into the service.
51
Eleanor Pringle Hart, quoted from ―A History of the Chinese in Charleston,‖ Jian Li, The South Carolina
Magazine, Vol.99, No.1 (January 1998), 62. 52
―Chia-Mei Hu, Chinese Student, Has High Marks in Kelly Field Course,‖ New York Times, 14 December
1930, XX8
Figure 1- Full-page spread of Chan Chong Yuen at the shooting gallery after his draft selection
(Life Magazine, 11 November 1940, 35)
41
Chan Chong Yuen, a Chinese American laundryman was the first man on the 158 list in
New York City and became an instant celebrity for holding that status. Chan never held
back his enthusiasm to serve his country, stating that ―he wanted to fight Japan, [was]
ambitious to be a soldier and that his friends considered him a crack shot with a rifle.‖ In
a full page spread, Life magazine proudly displayed a picture of Chan holding a rifle in a
New York City shooting gallery and declared in the caption: ―Yuen Chong Chan, most
famous draftee, gets practice to defend his country.‖ Life and other major news sources
were eager to present a picture of American diversity represented by the randomized draft
drawing. Immediately following Chan‘s image in the November 11th
edition of Life was
a short pictorial essay titled ―Great Lottery
of the Draft Turns Up All Kinds of
Americans‖ which featured pictures of
excited and patriotic white men such as
meteorologists, factory workers, cooks,
janitors and newlyweds. Like never before,
a Chinese American man was inclusively
illustrated alongside mainstream white
Americans.53
The New York Times used the
term ―Men in All Walks‖ to describe the
composition of the first draft, including the ―two Chinese in No.1 draft district of New
York City and Chicago.‖54
Along similar lines, the Los Angeles Times featured a large
53
―Picture of the Week,‖ Life Magazine, 11 November 1940, 34-37.
Figure 2 - "Melting Pot Soldier" Chan Chong Yuen is sworn in by World War I hero, Sing Kee (Los Angeles
Times, 9 November 1940, 3)
42
photograph of Chan Chong Yuen being sworn in by Sing Kee, the decorated Chinese
American veteran of World War I and described Chan as a ―Melting Pot Soldier‖ directly
above an article about the first draft contingent reporting for duty.55
Unlike Japanese Americans, Chinese American draftees could also display their
loyalty toward their native country of China without compromising their American
identities. At the time of the July 1941 draft, Wong Yee Choy had just recently arrived
from England after escaping the Japanese assault on Hong Kong and Canton. Despite
having been in the United States for only a half year and being unable to speak the
English language, Wong was ―displayed to the press…[as] he posed holding an American
flag in one hand and a Chinese flag in the other.‖56
As long as China remained a
respected ally, dual American and Chinese identities were acceptable. In contrast, a dual
Japanese and American identity was not. Hideo Henry Wakimote and Hiromu Bud
Tsuboi, both of Chino, California, were seen off at the railway station in Ontario by a
large group of Japanese Issei and Nisei relatives and friends holding both American and
Japanese flags. The Los Angeles Times described the Japanese onlookers as ―exhibiting a
patriotism which might well put Americans of Anglo-Saxon descent to shame…[as] more
than 50…gathered…to bid farewell to two of their number departing for Army
training.‖57
Instead of the celebratory tone that was used in other reports of draftees
leaving for service, however, the Times writers chose to use the patriotism of the
54
―Men of All Walks Hold the First Number; Brothers Nos.1 and 2 Among 6,000 Called,‖ New York
Times, 30 October 1940, 13. Chan Chong Yuen was the one from New York; Eng Seong Hong, a waiter
who was unsure of his citizenship status, was the one from Chicago. 55
―Draft Instructions Will Go to Registrants Next Week,‖ Los Angeles Times, 9 November 1940, 3. 56
―First in Board 1 is Wong Yee Choy,‖ New York Times, 18 July 1941, 9. 57
―Japanese Alone Present to Bid Draft men Farewell,‖ Los Angeles Times, 20 February 1941, A3.
43
Japanese to shame white Americans to be more supportive of white draftees. Likewise,
an editorial by respected writer Tom Treanor denounced the first-generation Japanese
Issei at the sendoff of lacking ―the psychology of the situation‖ by ―waving...not only the
American, but also the ―JAPANESE‖ flag (emphasis original.)58
Although Japanese
Americans were also drafted into the armed forces by the prewar lotteries like all other
white and Chinese Americans, they left home without the similar public fanfare and were
looked upon by the press with wary and suspicious eyes.
Fortunately, as Japanese draftees and enlistees entered into the training phase of
their pre-war service they were often treated with greater respect. Minoru Tsubota
voluntarily enlisted for service in the U.S. Army in March 1941 and was assigned, with a
few other Nisei, to the 160th
Infantry Regiment. Determined to remain in the infantry
despite his struggles to keep up with the rigors of training, Tsubota found an outlet with
the regimental band, which was composed of professional musicians who were drafted
into service. Although he was both a Japanese American and an amateur musician,
Tsubota stated that the white musicians ―treated me real, real good…rather than to
discriminate me as some other band members would have…they were top people with
top quality and they just accepted me on that basis.‖59
George Matsui was one of the
original draftees from Washington who served most of the war as a Japanese linguist and
would later win the Silver Star in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Matsui was initially
deployed with the racially-mixed 40th
Division in California before the war where he first
58
Tom Treanor, ―The Homefront,‖ Los Angeles Times, 29 March 1941, 3. Treanor would leave the
homefront to become a war correspondent in Europe. He would lose his life in the brief Battle of Paris,
1944. 59
Minoru Tsobota, interview by Tom Ideka and Tetsuden Kashima, August 18, 2003, Segment 22,
transcript, http://archive.densho.org/main.aspx [accessed November 11, 2011].
44
encountered white boys from Texas and rattlesnakes; fortunately for Matsui, the ―couple
of guys from Texas [are] good friends and they know where the rattlesnakes [are]
hiding.‖ Matsui recalls another instance in which he was leading a reconnaissance squad
and got lost. Matsui‘s squad was out of water when they sought refuge in a farmhouse
where a kind white woman provided kindly breakfast for the entire squad.60
Harry
Umeda, one of the original draft class members of the Military Intelligence Service, was
also conscripted before the war. While in training at Camp Savage near Minneapolis,
Umeda and other Niseis entered into a bar for cold drinks when the bartender informed
them that he did not serve Indians. However, when Umeda informed him that he and his
comrades were Japanese, the bartender laughed and congratulated them for serving in the
army. Umeda recalls that the bartender was ―so proud, so proud that the Japanese
Americans [were] in uniform and served in the United States [army.]‖ Harry Umeda was
especially complementary of the people of Minneapolis for their kindness and
understanding during a time of pervasive racism against Japanese Americans.61
CHINESE AMERICANS AND JAPANESE AMERICANS IN WORLD WAR II
Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, anti-Japanese sentiment
intensified and resulted in Executive Order 9066 and other major changes in military
policy toward Japanese Americans. Most Japanese Americans were reclassified from the
draft status of 1-A (draft eligible) to 4-C (enemy aliens) and thus, Japanese Americans
were denied the opportunity to enlist in the military and were once again, exempted from
60
Takashi Matsui, interview by Marvin Uratsu, December 11, 1997, Segments 3-4, transcript,
http://archive.densho.org/main.aspx [accessed November 11, 2011]. 61
Harry Umeda, interview by Tom Ikeda, June 18, 2009, Segment 9, transcript,
http://archive.densho.org/main.aspx [accessed November 11, 2011].
45
the draft. Additionally, both military authorities and other soldiers began to view the
prewar enlistees and draftees of Japanese descent with greater suspicion and the process
of segregating the Japanese Americans from their original racially-mixed units began.
Ben Kuroki, one of the few Japanese Americans who remained with his original Air
Force detachment remembered the change in attitude among white Americans, ―it seemed
like everyone was cold,‖ and recalled other soldiers staring at him glumly and being
isolated in a barracks corner away from all of the white servicemen.62
In an attempt to
move all Japanese American servicemen away from the West Coast, most were
transferred away from their original units and were assigned noncombat roles in menial,
quartermaster or medical duties further inland. Minoru Tsubota recounts being moved
with other Niseis and Kibeis (American-born Japanese who were mostly educated in
Japan) to Fort Bliss, Texas. Tsubota recalls that when Japanese American men were
placed on guard duty, many white draftees within the camp said, ―We‘re fighting the
Japs…but we‘re being guarded by Japs and we can‘t sleep.‖ So the Japanese American
guards were disarmed and given police sticks instead. Tsubota agreed that
―discrimination was there and…all these new people…have never seen Japanese before
and so they just picture us as people from Japan on the same ‗enemy alien‘ basis…and so
it made it a little tough.‖63
Most Japanese Americans who were not attached to special
linguistic or intelligence units would remain isolated in noncombat roles for most of
62
Army & Navy – HEROES: Ben Kuroki, American,‖ Time, 7 February 1944. Ben Kuroki would fly
numerous missions in a B-24 bomber crew over Europe and was later given special permission to fly in a
B-29 flight crew in the Pacific Theater, making him the only Japanese American to fight in both theaters of
operations. 63
Minoru Tsobota, interview by Tom Ideka and Tetsuden Kashima, August 18, 2003, Segment 24,
transcript, http://archive.densho.org/main.aspx [accessed November 11, 2011].
46
1942. It was not until January 28, 1943 when Secretary of War Henry Stimson declared,
―it is the right of every faithful citizen, regardless of ancestry to bear arms in the nation‘s
battle‖ and moved to create ―a special unit of the Army in which [Japanese Americans]
could have their share in the fight against the nation‘s enemies.‖64
Even then, Japanese
Americans were not able to serve in the U.S. Navy because ―their presence would ‗create
collateral racial problems of a complex nature which cannot be handled adequately under
war conditions‖ and few were allowed into the Army Air Force.65
While the prospect for Japanese Americans to prove their loyalty through military
service was diminished in 1942, more opportunities
were opened up to Chinese Americans than ever
before. Not only was the service of Chinese
Americans in the armed forces celebrated in the
mainstream press, they were also allowed to enlist
in the other major branches of the armed forces.
Donald Poy was an aeronautical student who was
accepted by the Army Air Corps to become an
army mechanic in early 1942. The Chicago Daily
Tribune made the 21-year old Chinese American
the ―Recruit of the Day‖ and even included a large photograph of Poy along with the
article.66
Another ―Recruit of the Day‖ was pilot Tom You Quon, a 34-year old who had
64
―Army Opens Ranks to Japanese Units,‖ New York Times, 29 January 1943, 9. 65
―Navy Reiterates Ban on U.S. Japanese,‖ New York Times, 21 August 1944, 17. 66
―The Recruit of the Day,‖ Chicago Daily Tribune, 18 January 1942, 12.
Figure 3 - "The Recruit of the Day" section featuring Donald Poy (Chicago Daily
Tribune, 18 January 1942, 12)
47
previously fought in China against the Japanese before moving to the United States.
Quon, who had just learned that his wife and three children had been killed by the
Japanese, declared that he ―shall be happy to get into action.‖67
The ability to become a pilot in the U.S. Army Air Force was especially
significant because an officer‘s commission was given upon graduation from flight
school, allowing Chinese Americans to become officers in the armed services. In 1940,
Wah Kau Kong became the first commissioned Chinese American officer in the U.S.
military services when he graduated from the ROTC program at the University of
Hawaii. Kong was the first and only Chinese American pilot to be stationed in Europe in
1943. When asked about this particular circumstance by a reporter, Kong jokingly
responded by saying he was the ―handsomest Chinese fighter pilot in the European
Theater of Operations.‖ Kong received national attention when he became the subject of
a Time magazine article that recounted Kong‘s first ―kill‖ over a German FW-190
aircraft. Sadly, Kong never saw his name in print as he was killed in combat after
downing another enemy plane, one week prior to the magazine article‘s publication.68
Other Chinese Americans would continue Kong‘s legacy. First Lieutenant Stanley Lau
from Hawaii flew P-38 fighter-bombers in the Southern European Theater with the 27th
Fighter Squadron. In fifty missions in the Mediterranean, he endured numerous bombing
67
―Recruit of the Day,‖ Chicago Daily Tribune, 27 January 1942, 9. 68
―AIR: Kong Gets a German,‖ Time, 28 February 1944.
48
missions over the dangerous Ploesti Oil Refinery in Romania and was credited with
shooting down four enemy aircraft.69
A few Chinese Americans left distinctive marks as commanding officers in the
U.S. Army. Francis Wai was born to a Chinese father and a Hawaiian mother. Wai
briefly attended Sacramento Junior College before becoming a scholar athlete in at
University of California, Los Angeles. After college, Wai joined the Hawaii National
Guard. After graduating from Officer Candidate School, Wai earned a commission as a
lieutenant, becoming one of the ―few Asian Americans…assigned to combat leadership
roles.‖70
In 1943, Wai fought with the 34th
Regiment of the 24th
Division and was
promoted to captain. After a campaign in New Guinea, the 24th
Division was one of the
first to assault the beachhead at Leyte in the Philippines in 1944. When ―finding the first
four wave of American soldiers leaderless, disorganized, and pinned down…[Captain
Wai] immediately assumed command…the men, inspired by his cool demeanor and
heroic example, rose from their positions and followed him‖71
in the assault of fortified
enemy positions. Unfortunately, Francis Wai died in the attack of the final Japanese
entrenchment. The Chinese American army officer was posthumously awarded the
Distinguished Service Cross, which was later upgraded to a Congressional Medal of
Honor in 1996. Similarly, First Lieutenant Robert Chinn was a platoon leader in the 30th
Infantry Battalion. For bravery in combat in North Africa, Chinn was awarded two
69
K. Scott Wong, Americans First: Chinese Americans and the Second World War (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 2005), 155-156. Stanley Lau would go on to become a Lieutenant Colonel in the U.S. Air
Force before retiring to become an educator and administrator back in his home state of Hawaii. 70
James H. Willbanks, ed., America’s Heroes: Medal of Honor Recipients from the Civil War to
Afghanistan (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011), 345. 71
―Medal of Honor Recipients, World War II, T-Z,‖ Center of Military History, U.S. Army,
http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/wwII-t-z.html [accessed November 12, 2011].
49
Bronze Stars. He died leading an attack during landing operations in Sicily in 1943.72
Both Robert Chinn and Francis Wai earned the distinction of being one of the few, Asian
American officers given the opportunity to lead a racially-mixed unit into combat.
Many Japanese American men also bravely and sacrificially fought for their
country, but in a segregated combat unit led mostly by white officers. In 1942, many
Americans continued to doubt the loyalty of the Japanese Americans on the mainland.
The New York Times defended Executive Order 9066 by stating it was easy to
―understand why [Japanese Americans]…had to be removed from Pacific coastal areas
and…why there has been hesitation about enlisting them into the army…[since the Nisei]
still look Japanese…it was hard to tell whether or not they still thought Japanese.‖73
Most Japanese Americans already in uniform were men of the 298th
and 290th
Regiments
of the Hawaiian National Guard. After a brief debate by the leading military
commanders, the Hawaiian Japanese were sent to Wisconsin and trained as the
segregated 100th
Infantry Battalion. In contrast to the anti-Japanese fervor that was
raging on the West Coast, the people of Wisconsin were ―curious at first…then grew to
admire them, and invited them to their homes for meals and music and conversation.‖74
Many of these friendships would live on after the war. A number of Wisconsin whites
came to the aid of Nisei soldiers as many returned to the United States jobless and broke.
It was not until the late summer of 1943 before the 100th
Infantry was shipped out to the
72
Marjorie Lee, ed., Duty & Honor: A Tribute to Chinese American World War II Veterans of Southern
California (Los Angeles: Chinese Historical Society of Southern California, 1998), 86. 73
―Japanese-American ‗Yanks‘,‖ New York Times, 30 January 1943, 14. 74
Lyn Crost, Trial by Fire: Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific, (Novato: Presidio Press,
1994), 16.
50
Mediterranean. In the meantime, officials from both the U.S. Army and the Federal
Bureau of Investigation watched the Nisei men closely as they trained.
Even before the Nisei of the 100th
had the chance to prove their loyalty through
combat, many other Japanese Americans had already put themselves in harm‘s way for
their country in the Military Intelligence Service (MIS). Ironically, Nisei who were
devalued by both white Americans for their race and by the Japanese for their birthplace,
were desperately needed for their dual language skills. Many prewar draftees who were
bilingual ended up with transfer orders to the MIS. Richard Sakakida was already
assigned as a counterintelligence officer in the Philippines when the Japanese struck at
Pearl Harbor. In the first year of the war alone, he was accused and acquitted of being a
Japanese spy, worked to decipher Japanese radio codes, broadcasted radio propaganda
messages to invading Japanese troops, and interrogated Japanese prisoners of war. After
he was captured by the Japanese in 1942, Sakakida was tortured for information by the
Japanese military police and then was used by Japanese Army as an interpreter. At
enormous risk to himself, Sakakida passed on important Japanese messages from the
Japanese 14th
Army Headquarters, including troop movement and shipping records, to
Filipino rebels and eventually, to American intelligence officials until the end of the war.
In recognition of Sakakida‘s bravery and service, the American military drew up records
―of his commission as an officer in the U.S. Army…if he survived‖ his imprisonment in
Japanese captivity.75
Honoring Sakakida in 1996, Senator Akaka argued, it was the
75
Lyn Crost, Honor by Fire, 25-30. Sakakida would continue to send messages to American intelligence
until 1945. Despite being sick with dysentery and malaria and wounded by Japanese artillery while trying
to escape, he made it back to American lines and was eventually awarded the Bronze Star for exceptional
bravery.
51
bravery shown by the Sakakida and other members of the MIS ―that helped to pave the
way for the thousands of other Japanese-Americans who would make their own
contributions to the war effort as members of the famed 100th/442d Regimental Combat
Team.‖76
Most Nisei and Kibei who entered service as part of the 442nd
knew the scrutiny
that they would endure as the most visible sign of Japanese American allegiance to the
United States. Despite early favorable reports of Japanese American serving in both the
Mediterranean and the Pacific, questions over the loyalty of Japanese Americans
remained and the War Department continued to refrain from drafting Nisei men into
service. When the Senate Military Affairs Committee finally made the recommendation
for Japanese American men to be drafted in July 1943, it came with a caveat. Since most
Americans still believed that some Japanese Americans were disloyal, the New York
Times assured its readers by explaining that the ―Army has way[s] to screen out ‗bad
ones.‘‖77
The drafting of Nisei men was reported as something that was born more out of
necessity than for reasons of justice. When the Pasadena Draft Board finally allowed
1,100 interned Japanese American draftees and volunteers to enter military service, draft
chairman J.A. Byrne stated that it was because the Draft Board was ―‗scraping the
bottom‘ of the barrel‖78
of available manpower. As the men of the 442nd
knew and the
New York Times acknowledged the Japanese Americans ―have perhaps more at stake than
the average soldier.‖ One Nisei stated that he was ―anxious to show what real lovers of
76
Senator D. Akaka (HI), ―Tribute to the Late Lt. Col. Richard Sakakida,‖ Congressional Record 142,
Issue 12 (30 January 1996), S548. 77
―Asks Draft of Japanese,‖ New York Times, 17 July 1943, 6. 78
―Draft of Japanese Americans to Give Pasadena Dads Delay,‖ Los Angeles Times, 22 January 1944, 1.
52
American democracy will do to preserve it [and that] our actions will speak for us more
than words.‖79
The actions of the 442nd
Regimental Combat Team clearly demonstrated to the
American public the loyalty of Japanese Americans. The men lived true to the motto of
the 442nd
, ―Go for Broke,‖ by earning 9,486 Purple Hearts, 21 Medals of Honor and an
unmatched eight Presidential Unit Citations while in combat in Italy, Southern France
and Germany. The 442nd
received high praise from Allied commanders, their white
officers, and war correspondents alike. Major Casper Clough Jr. of the 100th
Battalion,
described the Japanese Americans under his command as ―exceptionally good…the best
soldiers [he had] ever seen.‖80
By the last year of the war, the 442nd
had won the
admiration of the press. It was one of the few regiments that received constant coverage
from war correspondents and received universal praise for being unrelenting, disciplined,
and cool under fire. In describing the postwar dilemma over the nation‘s treatment of
Japanese Americans, one New York Times writer stated, ―thus far [the Japanese
Americans] have won every fight they have been in. But their hardest fight is still
ahead…the fight against prejudice roused by skin and slant of eye. It is easy to admire
them while they are still in uniform. It would be kinder to remember and reward them
when the battle is over.‖81
79
―Japanese Excel in U.S. Combat Unit,‖ New York Times, 6 June 1943, 33. 80
―U.S. Japanese Win Praise at Cassino,‖ New York Times, 26 February 1944, 3. 81
―Action in Italy,‖ New York Times, 11 April 1945, 22.
53
CONCLUSIONS
Although Japanese Americans had won favor with the major press corps, racism
that was encouraged by wartime propaganda remained in the hearts and minds of many
Americans after World War II. As internment orders were revoked and the government
focused on restoring citizenship of Japanese Americans, the press continued to applaud
the service of Nisei soldiers as they returned home. Lieutenant Willie Kiyota, winner of a
battlefield commission and a bronze star, was called a ―Nisei Hero…[who] was too
modest to explain his promotion or his decorations and ribbons‖82
so his white comrades
had to expound on Kiyota‘s heroics. Similarly, Nisei who served in the Pacific with the
MIS and the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section were described as ―worthy, as
individuals and as a group, for the highest possible praise for their invaluable contribution
to the success of Allied arms.‖83
Although many Japanese Americans continued to
encounter racial discrimination, especially in housing and employment, the attention
garnered to Nisei soldiers by the American press helped to positively reshape the public
image of the Japanese Americans.
By the war‘s end, the Chinese in the United States were not only seen by the
public as more American, but they finally felt like citizens as well. Charles Leong, editor
of the Chinese Press recalls, ―the pride of the time in feeling that the Chinese
American—who frankly, wore the garb of inferiority—was a part of the great patriotic
U.S. war machine out to do battle with the enemy.‖ Not only did Chinese Americans
feel like citizens, they also attained the legal right of naturalization. Despite the U.S.
82
―Nisei Hero Lauded by Comrades Here,‖ New York Times, 12 September 1945, 8. 83
Associated Press, ―U.S. Bares Exploits of Nisei in Pacific,‖ 14 October 1945, 9.
54
government‘s show of support for China, the Chinese government reasonably ―decried
the humiliation of being allied to a country which deemed them unfit for citizenship.‖ 84
The patriotism demonstrated by Chinese Americans in combat and on the home front,
combined with the pressures from the Chinese government, led to renewed debate over
the infamous Chinese exclusion acts. Finally, on October 21, 1943 the Magnuson Act
was passed by the House of Representatives to eliminate the exclusion acts and to
provide the right of naturalization for Chinese Americans. The following day, the New
York Times declared ―that about fifteen acts…directed against that mythical creature the
‗Heathen Chinee‘ are scheduled to disappear…the modern Chinese, a people innately
democratic…courageous enough to stand up for more than six years against an
enemy…as tough as he is brutal, will be admitted…like other nationals.‖85
It is
significant that the Times juxtaposed the ―mythical creature‖ seen in past images of the
―yellow peril‖ and ―Dr. Fu-Manchu‖ with the new public image of the Chinese as a
people who are ―modern,‖ ―democratic‖ and ―courageous.‖ In other words, the press
now saw them as distinctively American. Although many challenges in the pursuit of
equality remained for Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans alike, the honorable
service of its men in the armed forces helped to reshape the public perception of Asian
Americans.
84
Dower, 5. 85
―A Vote for Free China,‖ New York Times, 22 October 1943, p.16.
55
CHAPTER THREE
DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF THE TEACHING APPLICATION
Gaps in our understanding of history exist because of a combination of deficient
evidence, an absence of interest and a lack of perceived significance. The recent works
produced by Christina and Sheldon Lim, the Marjorie Lee, Suellen Cheng, and K. Scott
Wong demonstrate that there is evidence, interest and significance in the Chinese
American military experience. Their works have produced stories of men, like Stanley
Lau and Robert Chinn, who defied racial stereotypes and the norms of their time to
become commanding officers in racially-mixed units. Such accomplishments are
significant stories that deserve historical attention and further academic research.
However, the scope of most social histories is often too narrow and will most
likely be omitted from the curriculum or standards of a general high school U.S. history
course. After all, what significance do Chinese Americans, making up only one-tenth of
one percent of the sixteen million men who served during World War II, have on the
overarching history of the war and American society such that it needs to be included in a
year-long, high school curriculum? Similar questions can be asked about Ella Baker‘s
role in the Civil Rights Movement, the unionization of Mexican American women in
California canneries and gender relations in colonial Virginia.1 However, historians have
proven to us time and time again the lived experience of individuals formulate the
building blocks of the political, economic and social societies that help us to form the big
1 In reference to Barbara Ransby‘s Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement, Vicky Ruiz‘s Cannery
Row, Cannery Lives, and Kathleen Brown‘s Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs,
respectively.
56
pictures of history. Carlo Ginzburg skillfully demonstrates in The Cheese and the
Worms, the power of examining individuals as a means to gain an understanding of the
past in his narrative of a sixteenth century miller. Ginzburg explains that ―consequently,
an investigation initially pivoting on an individual, moreover an apparently unusual one,
ended by developing into a general hypothesis on the popular culture…of preindustrial
Europe, in the age marked by the spread of printing and the Protestant Reformation—
and by the repression of the latter in Catholic countries.‖2 Famed historian John Lewis
Gaddis concurs arguing that that the ―great macro-events—the decline of Rome, the
Mongol invasions, the European conquest of North and South America—can‘t be
satisfactorily explained apart from the workings of micro-processes we‘ve only come to
understand in the last hundred years.‖3 Thus, it is important for teachers to teach and
students to learn the ―macro-events‖ through the examination and analysis of the ―micro-
processes.‖ [Appendix A: list of ―micro-processes‖ for each major ―macro-event‖ for the
California State History/Social Science Standards]
ANALYZING ―MACRO-EVENTS‖ THROUGH TEXTBOOKS AND
HISTORIOGRAPHY
Textbooks have been unfairly criticized because they do not contain all of the
information that we expect they should possess. Minority groups are upset because they
do not receive the attention that the groups deserve. Many balk at how little women are
mentioned and, if they are mentioned, it is usually through the ―special‖ pages and insets
2 Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: the Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller (Baltimore: The
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), xii. 3 John Lewis Gaddis, The Landscape of History: How Historians Map the Past (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2004), 25.
57
that most students (and teachers) skip as they blaze through the curriculum. In all
fairness, the textbook is like any other historical narrative—it is necessarily limited in
size and scope. Textbooks, in fact, accomplish what John Gaddis argues are the essential
tools historians rely on to produce narrative: ―select from a cacophony of events what
they think is really important; they can be at several times and several places at once;
they can zoom in and out between macroscopic and microscopic levels of analysis.‖4 Our
criticism is that textbooks do not ―zoom in and out‖ as far as we would like on some
topics. Their limitations in size and scope mean that our expectation as teachers for a
comprehensive text needs to change. Just because it is the only text provided by school
administrators does not mean that it is exhaustive and that it possesses all that teachers
need to engage students in history. The textbook is simply one historical representation
that is readily available to teachers to depict a version of history that can and should be
challenged. It is extremely useful as a tool that can be used to set the stage for more in-
depth historical work by students.
Textbooks remain a very effective way of providing historical context for students
because they chronicle history in a logical fashion using specified themes and follow a
chronological structure. The California state standards that most current textbooks are
derived from are written with macro-events and major historical themes in mind. For
example, the California History-Social Science Content Standards exhorts students to
perform tasks such as to ―trace the rise of the United States to its role as a world power in
4 Gaddis, 22.
58
the twentieth century‖5 or to ―analyze the economic boom and social transformation of
post-World War II America.‖6 These major themes create a framework of study that
provides a chronological beginning-middle-end, thus enabling students to study
conceptual topics, such as American imperialism or postwar conformity, while analyzing
change over time. Few other academically-reviewed sources provide the breadth of
information that will allow students to create timelines that focus on a particular theme
and a set beginning and end time. Without a textbook, primary documents will thus
―appear to students as a string of disconnected facts, without a coherent‖7 chronology.
James Loewen suggests using different editions of the same textbook as an
―inexpensive introduction to historiography.‖8 Shifts in national and regional values are
often reflected through the content of textbooks. Take, for instance, the case of John
Brown in one of the best-selling textbooks in the 1960s and 1970s, Rise of the American
Nation. Loewen noted that in the 1961 edition, John Brown‘s raid of Harper‘s Ferry was
called a ―wild idea, certain to fail,‖ but in the 1986 edition, the raid was described as ―a
bold idea‖ instead. This particular sample demonstrates how the Civil Rights Movement
and other similar social changes can alter how history is studied and written. Modern-
day political and social cleavages over the rights of homosexual persons, the teaching of
evolution and immigration will inevitable spill over into the realm of textbook writing.
Thus, most state standards are controversial because they are formulated, not only by
5 California State Board of Education, ―California History-Social Science Content Standards,‖ 41.
6 California State Board of Education, 43.
7 Robert B. Bain, ―Into the Breach: Using Research and Theory to Shape History Instruction‖ in Knowing,
Teaching and Learning History: National and International Perspectives, ed., Peter N. Stearns et al. (New
York: New York University Press, 2000), 341. 8 James W. Loewen, Teaching What Really Happened: How to Avoid the Tyranny of Textbooks and Get
Students Excited About Doing History (New York: Teachers College Press, 2010), 71.
59
historians and teachers, but also by politicians and special pressure groups. While the
debate over what should be taught will most likely continue indefinitely, it gives the
students a glimpse of how the study of history changes over time. Once students
recognize that the textbook is just one version of history, they are free to make value-
judgments on the validity of the textbooks, the topics chosen (and not chosen) to be in the
state standards and the importance of primary sources in recording history. Loewen
states, ―critiquing offers an easy way in to doing history, because the storyline situation
has already been structured by the work being examined.‖ (See the ―Historiography
Exercise‖ in both Appendix B3 and C3 – Resource Packet)
HISTORICAL QUESTIONS TO FILL IN HISTORICAL GAPS IN THE
CURRICULUM
Analyzing someone else‘s interpretation of history is, however, only be the
starting point. The process of learning history should also include developing and
utilizing skills to discover new knowledge of the past. Teachers are frequently evaluated
by district administrators on their application of standards as a means of building higher-
order thinking skills. Knowledge is seen as a rigid foundation used to build levels of
understanding upward along the vaunted Bloom‘s Taxonomy pyramid. Noted experts in
the field of history education Sam Wineburg and Jack Schneider believe that the famed
Bloom‘s Taxonomy pyramid should be flipped upside-down when applied to the history
classroom. Wineburg and Schneider argue the by placing ―knowledge at the base implies
that the world of ideas is fully known and that critical thinking involves gathering known
facts to cast judgment.‖ Instead, the complexity, scope and mystery of human beings
60
over time mean that there is always an unknown to be solved and an expanse of
knowledge to be discovered.
Thus, one major unintended consequence of content-based standards is that it
presupposes a fixed set of historical knowledge. Examine the following example
regarding Americans in military service during World War II. According to the
California state standards:
The American military was segregated during World War II (Standard
11.10.1)
Minorities fought in the war in ―special fighting forces‖ (Standard 11.7.3)
Japanese Americans fought in the separate 442nd
Combat Regimental Team
(Standard 11.7.3)
Native Americans served as Navajo Code Talkers (Standard 11.7.3)
African Americans served as Tuskegee Airmen (Standard 11.7.3)
State standards are useful because they help to narrow down a vast range of history into a
reasonable number of topics that have been chosen with thoughtful consideration and
debate. But predictably, many different sub-groups are left out of the master historical
narrative as defined by the standards. However, with a strong understanding of
historiography, teachers and students can take advantage of this by asking strong
questions about inclusion (What was the significance of the Navajo Code Talkers in
World War II?) and exclusion (Why were the Navajo singled out? What about other
Native American tribes?) to lead to further historical investigation. Furthermore, students
61
can use the following graphic organizer (Table 1) to discover missing narratives
according to the standards and what they have read about in the textbook.
TABLE 1: INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION GUIDE
Figure A: Template GENDER RACE CLASS AGE REGION
Men White Wealthy Children New England
Women Black Middle Class Teenagers South
Latino Working Class Young Adults Midwest
Japanese Poor Middle-Age Southwest
Native American Elderly Northwest
Chinese
Figure B: Americans in Military Service During World War II GENDER RACE CLASS AGE REGION
Men White Wealthy Children New England
Women Black Middle Class Teenagers South
Latino Working Class Young Adults Midwest
Japanese Poor Middle-Age Southwest
Native American Elderly Northwest
Chinese
Working with the chart we are able to pose several major questions about missing
narratives that would help to create a clearer picture of the ―roles and sacrifices of
individual soldiers.‖9 Did women play a role in military service? Were American
soldiers of all classes? Did either teenagers or elders find their way onto the battlefield?
If America‘s military was segregated, where did Latino Americans fit into the racial
picture? What about the Chinese Americans? Since these topics are not mentioned in
most standards-based textbooks, they become an excellent opportunity for both teachers
and students to deepen their understanding of the ―macro-event‖ by creating narratives,
essays or research reports [see Appendix A] of each ―micro-process‖ to help students
9 California State Board of Education, 42.
62
generate a stronger understanding of the roles race, gender, class, age, and region play in
American society. Even if there is not enough time to undertake the proposed assessment
tools provided in the appendix, the exercise will demonstrate to students that historical
knowledge is an ongoing process of change and discovery in which they can actively play
a part. The study of history, therefore, ought not to begin with a series of factual fixed
goals, but to start with an evaluation of primary documents used to frame ―questions that
would help [the historian] understand the fullness of the historical moment.‖10
FROM ―MACRO-EVENTS‖ TO ―MICRO-PROCESSES‖ IN HISTORICAL
NARRATIVES
One of the major trappings of history at the K-12 level is the overgeneralization of
ideas and characteristics. Teachers are often guilty of making universal generalizations—
Puritans were pious prudes, Native Americans are solemn and brave, progressive women
were quiet activist, Communists were heartless oppressors and Germans are ruthlessly
efficient—in order to make a historical point in a short amount of time. While
generalizations are often partially true and even ―dangerous, these concepts are
indispensable…and of central importance to the history curriculum…we cannot avoid
and should not seek to avoid all generic statements.‖11
Generalizations are useful
because they help people to find what was typical of a time in history. George Lukas, a
literary critic, who sought to use ―the concept of typicality as a key analytical
tool…wrote ‗a character is typical…when his innermost being is determined by objective
10
Sam Wineburg and Jake Schneider, ―Was Bloom‘s Taxonomy Pointed in the Wrong Direction?‖ in The
Phi Delta Kappan, No.4 (Dec.,2009-Jan.2010), 61. 11
Gordon Geoffrey Partington, ―Historical Generalization‖ in The History Teacher, Vol.13, No.3 (May,
1980), 392-393.
63
forces at work in society.‘‖12
It is enormously helpful for students to understand the
Industrial Revolution by knowing the various challenges—dangerous working
environments, low pay, challenges to unionization, squalid homes—of a ―typical worker‖
during this time. However, those useful generalizations that fit so perfectly in textbook
tables or PowerPoint charts, do not tell of the complexity of society that existed in urban
England and America during the late nineteenth century. Similarly, while there are
general terms that can be used to describe ―the roles and sacrifices of American
soldiers‖13
in World War II, these generalizations are not as effective as knowing there
the ―typical‖ experience of American servicemen varied drastically depending on his
ethnicity, military branch, and theater of operation.
One way that we can both utilize generalizations and demonstrate historical
complexity is through the construction of historical narratives. Historians
―embed…generalizations…within…narratives…to show how past processes have
produced present structures.‖14
In other words, ―macro-events,‖ concepts and eras like
the Industrial Revolution and the Progressive Movement are derived from historians
tracking ―multiple interrelated [micro] processes over time‖15
through numerous
historical narratives. Historians, teachers, and students can gain a stronger understanding
of the ―roles and sacrifices of American soldiers‖ if they can trace the stories of multiple
groups of soldiers. We can thus give depth and meaning to generalizations set by the state
12
Partington, 393. 13
California State Board of Education, 57. 14
Gaddis, 62. 15
Gaddis, 69.
64
history standards by creating lesson plans and assessment tools that engages students in
investigating and creating narratives associated with those generalizations.
Formulating historical narratives require skills that are useful in the real world.
According to Gaddis, narratives are,
…reconstructions, assembled within the virtual laboratories of our minds,
of the processes that produced whatever structure it is we‘re seeking to
explain. They vary in their purposes, but not in their methods. For in
them, we ask ourselves: ‗How could this have happened?‘ Then we
proceed to try to answer the question in such a way as to achieve the
closest possible fit between representation and reality.16
In other words, to reconstruct the past, a student/historian must create and defend an
argument, tell a story by utilizing historical skills such as understanding bias,
interpretation of sources, tracing chronology, and placing the narrative within the scope
of historiography. This method meets the proposed Common Core Standards which
seeks to promote stronger writing skills to prepare students for college by defining
expectations for each year of study. The two major expectations for high school students
are to ―write arguments focused on discipline-specific content‖ and to ―write
informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events.‖17
The
Common Core Standards aims to address the primary weakness of traditional analytical
essays by including historical chronology and sequencing. The historical narrative
doesn‘t just ask what the causes and effects were in a historical moment, but require a
16
Gaddis, 105. 17
California‘s Common Core Content Standards for English Language Arts & Literacy in History/Social
Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects, 54-55.
65
student to demonstrate cause and effect by reconstructing the past through their
understanding of primary and secondary source documents.
The primary lesson plan (see Appendix B1) proposed by this project,
demonstrates how the ―micro-process‖ of Chinese American experience in the U.S.
military can be used to enhance student understanding of the ―macro-event‖ of World
War II and how race relations changed over time. Through this lesson, students will
evaluate historiography of Chinese Americans by examining how different textbooks
describe the experience of the Chinese in America (see Appendix B3). This will
reinforce the notion that their textbooks are a useful but not the only tool that should be
used in doing history. The greatest benefit of history textbooks is that they are extremely
useful in providing concise descriptions of hundreds of events and is a practical source
for students to acquire historical context. Students will use the textbooks to generate a
timeline (see Appendix B6 for a sample timeline that students will produce) to provide
historical and chronological context to the primary source documents (see Appendix B3)
that they will analyze. After interpreting and evaluating a series of primary source
documents (see Appendix B2), students will be assessed on their understanding of the
Chinese American experience in the U.S. military in the World Wars by writing a
historical narrative. This narrative will not only trace the little-known Chinese
Americans contributions in war, but also demonstrate the big-picture changes in
American racial attitudes through the progression of time.
66
RESEARCH AND THE NARRATIVE – TEACHER WORKSHOPS
The foundation of most historical narratives is based on thorough primary source
research and analysis. Since we are teaching ourselves and students to become
―historians, not novelists…we‘re obliged to tie our narratives as closely as possible to the
evidence that has survived.‖18
However, as all professional historians know, constructing
a major research narrative is an arduous and difficult process that involves time and
resources is not readily available to most students in a traditional history classroom
setting. Thus, it is up to teachers to investigate the ―micro-processes,‖ draw connections
with the ―macro-event‖ and find the associated primary sources that students will explore
in the classroom. This takes, not only time and effort, but it requires teachers who
understand the modern approaches to historical research and analysis.
Unfortunately, many credentialed teachers of social studies may be unprepared to
prepare lessons on historical narratives because they either do not possess a degree in
history or have never engaged in primary source research in their undergraduate
experience. The U.S. Department of Education‘s National Center for Education Statistics
found in 1998 that in grades 9-12, ―49.4 percent of those who teach two or more classes
of history or world civilization do not have a history major or minor.‖19
Research
professor of education Diane Ravitch explains that the immensely-high rate of out-of-
field teaching in history is due to ―the popular view that anyone can teach history…that
teaching history requires no special skills beyond the ability to stay a few pages ahead of
18
Gaddis, 107. 19
Cited from Diane Ravitch, ―The Educational Background of History Teachers‖ in in Knowing, Teaching
and Learning History: National and International Perspectives, ed., Peter N. Stearns et al. (New York:
New York University Press, 2000), 148.
67
the students in the textbook‖ and that ―state certification requirements…favor
pedagogical preparation and courses in social studies education rather than history
degrees.‖20
Many excellent teachers are able to mask their content-knowledge
deficiencies through pedagogical skills. However, only a fraction of credential teachers of
history and social studies know much more beyond what they themselves have read in the
same history textbooks that they offer to their students. Even for the teachers who have
already attained an undergraduate degree in history, most have not flexed their historical
investigation muscles in years.
It is suggested that every few years, school districts provide the funding for
history teachers to enroll in semester or quarter-long classes at the local university and
engage with professors, both in learning and relearning history and in discussing
pedagogy as fellow educators. It might even be beneficial for districts or a cooperative of
districts to conduct their own classes focused on bringing depth-of-knowledge to teachers
based solely on the content standards. For example, World History teachers are asked to
teach ―students compare and contrast the Glorious Revolution of England, the American
Revolution, and the French Revolution and their enduring effects worldwide on the
political expectations for self-government and individual liberty.‖21
While teachers are
probably knowledgeable regarding the American Revolution, few possess an intensive
understanding of ―macro-events‖ such as the English Glorious Revolution or the French
Revolution. By gaining a depth of knowledge through academic classes, teachers may be
20
Ravitch, 148-49. 21
California State Board of Education, 42.
68
inspired to create a ―micro-process‖ less based on the various subsequent worldwide
liberal revolutions in the Caribbean, Latin America and Europe.
This project addresses these issues in history education in several ways. The
lesson provided is not just a series of activities to engage students in primary and
secondary source analysis and narrative writing, but also a research template for teachers.
Many history teachers enter into the profession with their own personal historical
interests. Unfortunately, in the textbook-centric curriculum, a teacher‘s personal passion
may never see the light of day in the classroom. This project, as presented through a
series of workshops, provides methodology for teachers to develop their own ―micro-
process‖ lesson plan based on their subjects of interest that applies to the state history
standards and is aligned to the new Common Core Standards (see Appendix E for
template material). In instructional workshops and teacher workdays, history teachers
will utilize both web resources such as the vast search databases such as Cambridge
Information Group‘s ProQuest, Google Books, and the Time and Life Magazine archives
along with local university and oral history databases to conduct primary source research.
For many teachers, this may be the first time that they have conducted their own primary
source research so it may be beneficial for them to work in cooperative teams or guided
by local researchers or history professors. Once primary sources are selected and
abridged, they can be integrated into the lesson template for use in the classroom (the
lessons provided in Appendix C-D employs the same template format through a different
body of primary sources.)
69
Famed historian Fernand Braudel once stated that in writing his extensive history
of the Mediterranean world, ―to draw a boundary around anything is to define, analyse
and reconstruct it.‖22
For teachers, the bounds of history have been set by the authors of
state history standards and history textbooks and thus, history is presented as having been
analyzed and constructed for teachers. In creating their own lessons on historical ―micro-
processes‖ and conducting their own research, teachers will be able to reshape the
boundaries of teaching history and exercise their abilities to define, analyze and
reconstruct history. More importantly, this project provides a process by which both
teachers and students are actively ―doing‖ history together.
22
Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, Volume 1
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 18.
70
APPENDICES
All the pages in the appendices are meant to be reproduced and utilized by instructors and
students at the full 8.5 inches by 11 inch format. Therefore, follow pages have been
resized to fit this bound edition. Please contact the author for full-sized copies.
71
Appendix A
―Micro-Processes‖ within ―Macro-Events‖
Table 2: ―Micro-Processes‖ in ―Macro-Events‖ using the 11th
Grade California State
History/Social Science Standards
Std.# Content Standard: The
Macro-Events Micro-Processes
11.1 Students analyze the significant
events in the founding of the
nation and its attempts to
realize the philosophy of
government described in the
Declaration of Independence.
The Founding Fathers and slavery
Changes and Continuities in how the Civil
War in American public memory
11.2 Students analyze the
relationship among the rise of
industrialization, large-scale
rural-to-urban migration, and
massive immigration from
Southern and Eastern Europe.
Comparison of living conditions in the
cities and suburbs
Immigration experience of Italian, Greek,
and Slavic Americans
Case study on the political machines
Changes in neighborhood demographics
(e.g., various New York Boroughs) during
the Industrial Revolution
Changing attitudes toward a specific
corporation
11.3 Students analyze the role
religion played in the founding
of America, its lasting moral,
social, and political impacts,
and issues regarding religious
liberty.
The rise of the Social Gospel movement
Changing sentiments of the Catholicism in
America
Role of women in Protestant America
11.4 Students trace the rise of the
United States to its role as a
world power in the twentieth
century.
Treatment of Filipinos and Filipino
Americans
Comparison of newspapers during the
Spanish-American war
Attitudes toward German Americans
before, during and after the First World
War
11.5 Students analyze the major
political, social, economic, African American in transition during the
1920s (Migration, Harlem Renaissance,
“Historians have the capacity for selectivity, simultaneity, and the shift of scale: they can select from the cacophony of events what they think is really
important; they can be in several times and places at once; and they can zoom in and out between macroscopic and microscopic levels of analysis…” (John
Lewis Gaddis, The Landscape of History: How Historians Map the Past, 22)
72
technological, and cultural
developments of the 1920s.
Washington vs. DuBois, etc…)
Temperance, prohibition and ideas over
drinking
Rise of American popular culture
11.6 Students analyze the different
explanations for the Great
Depression and how the New
Deal fundamentally changed
the role of the federal
government.
Struggles of minority groups during the
Great Depression
Mexican American women in the cannery
industry
American viewpoints on ―big‖ government
11.7 Students analyze America's
participation in World War II. Military experience of Chinese, Latinos,
Japanese, Native Americans, and African
Americans
Experiences in the Bracero and other labor
movements from Mexico
Comparison of the Isseis and Niseis during
Japanese internment
11.8 Students analyze the economic
boom and social transformation
of post-World War II America.
Racial integration of schools across regions
and over time
Racial attitudes towards Mexicans and
Mexican Americans in California
Post-internment experience of Japanese
Americans
11.9 Students analyze U.S. foreign
policy since World War II. Change and continuity over time along the
Mexican-American border
Attitudes toward Socialism and
Communism in American history
Communism and the film industry
Integrated armed forces in Korea and
Vietnam
11.10 Students analyze the
development of federal civil
rights and voting rights.
Racial attitudes in baseball towards blacks
and Latinos
Accounts of the ―foot soldiers‖ of the Civil
Rights Movement
Changing views of the role of women in
American history
Viewpoints of the ―model minority‖
stereotype
11.11 Students analyze the major
social problems and domestic
policy issues in contemporary
American society.
American experience for new immigrant
groups (Southeast Asia, Middle East, Sub-
Saharan Africa, South Asia, South
America)
Women in American politics
Changes in urban America
73
Appendix B1
What Role did Chinese Americans Play in the U.S. Military during the Two World Wars?
(CCWW) – Primary 3-Day Lesson Plan
PART I: ASSOCIATED STANDARDS
California State History/Social Science Standards:
Std. Standard Description Justification
11.2.2 Describe the changing landscape, including the growth of
cities linked by industry and trade, and the development of
cities divided according to race, ethnicity, and class
This lesson investigates the role of
economics, race and ethnicity used as
justification for Chinese exclusion
11.7.3 Students analyze America‘s participation in World War II
and identify the roles and sacrifices of individual
American soldiers, as well as unique contributions of the
special fighting force s (e.g., the Tuskegee Airmen, the
442nd Regimental Combat team, the Navajo Code Talkers)
Students will write a narrative
illustrating the role of Chinese
Americans in war, both in the First and
Second World Wars and discuss the
historiography of the World War II
California Common Core State Standards:
Std. Standard Description Justification
1 Write arguments focused on discipline-specific
content. (Including developing claims, counterclaims,
supplying evidence, clarifying relationships between
claims, establishing a formal style, and a concluding
statement)
The final assessment piece for this lesson
involves the writing of a historical narrative
that creates an argument, supports claims by
supplying evidence from primary and
secondary source documents through a formal
writing style (the narrative).
2 Write informative/explanatory texts, including the
narration of historical events
The final assessment will be a short, formal
historical narrative.
4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the
development, organization, and style are appropriate
to task, purpose, and audience.
The historical narrative will be a formal
writing assessment that utilizes the narrative
format based on the concept of change and
continuity over time.
8 Gather relevant information from multiple
authoritative print and digital sources (primary and
secondary), using advanced searches effectively;
assess the strengths and limitations of each source in
terms of the specific task, purpose, and audience;
integrate information into the text selectively to
maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding plagiarism and
overreliance on any one source and following a
standard format for citation.
Students will analyze at least fourteen
primary and secondary source documents and
determine the documents that they will use in
order to create a historical narrative that
follows a chronological timeline.
9 Draw evidence from informational texts to support
analysis, reflection, and research.
Students will utilizes multiple primary
documents and their textbooks to research,
organize into graphics and write a historical
narrative.
PART II: LESSON ABSTRACT In addition to learning the contributions made by Chinese Americans during the First and Second World Wars, this
lesson seeks to teach students the skills of historiographical analysis and the basics of organizing and writing historical
narratives. Through this three-day lesson, students will develop their own historical narrative based on the history of
Chinese Americans and their contributions in both World Wars. Students will utilize both the textbook (the most-
readily available secondary source) and analyze thirteen primary source documents to create a narrative timeline. Then
they will use the evidence from the sources and the timeline to write a brief historical narrative that demonstrates the
Chinese American experience in the military during the World Wars.
74
PART III: LESSON PLAN
Time Required: Three 60-minute class periods (with 90-minute block option), preferably after the completion of the
World War II unit.
Materials Required:
1. Holt‘s American Anthem: Modern American History or another modern United States history textbook
2. Computer with Microsoft PowerPoint (or equivalent) installed
3. An overhead projector or an LCD projector
4. The document packet and related student documents
5. 11‖x14‖ paper (with timeline template printed, if possible) for each student
6. Scissors
7. Glue stick
8. Coloring material (optional)
Objectives:
To understand the racial attitudes towards and the contributions made by Chinese Americans in the World Wars by:
1. Creating a sequential timeline using a history textbook and a series of primary sources
2. Analyzing a series of primary source documents
3. Writing a short historical narrative that demonstrate change and continuity over time
Background Information:
(See historical narrative sample and PowerPoint presentation)
Lesson Overview:
DAY ONE: Historiography and Secondary Source Research TIME REQUIRED
Intro and How to Tell Chinese from a Jap/Race Relations Discussion 10
Historiography Exercise and finding the missing Chinese American narrative 15
Sample Narrative, PowerPoint, and Preliminary Thesis 25
Secondary Source Timeline Research – Introduction 10
Secondary Source Timeline Research and Timeline Construction Homework
DAY TWO: Primary Source Document Analysis TIME REQUIRED
Intro and Quoting Exercise – Using Political Cartoon (Document #2) 10
Narrative Document Set, Part I (#1-8) and Timeline Strips 50
Narrative Document Set, Part II (#9-13) Timeline Strips Homework
DAY THREE: Data Organization and Narrative Writing TIME REQUIRED
Intro and Quoting Exercise – Using Oral History (Document #13) 10
Chronology to Grouping 15
Revised Thesis and Narrative Outline 35
Assessment: Written Narrative Homework
Detailed Lesson Procedure:
DAY ONE: Historiography and Secondary Source Research
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to
class
Reviewed the material regarding World War
II as advised by the teacher
Place RESOURCE PACKET, the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET and the 11‖x17‖
TIMELINE paper in a location where the
students can pick up material as they enter into
the classroom.
00:00 –
02:00
Enter into the classroom and pick up the
RESOURCE PACKET, the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET and the 11‖x17‖
TIMELINE paper
Place Slide* ―How to Tell Japs from Chinese‖
on the screen
02:00 –
04:00
Observe the ―How to Tell Japs from Chinese‖
slide (also page 1 of the RESOURCE
PACKET) and think about responses to the
Inform the students they will respond orally
(through raised hands or called randomly at
teacher‘s discretion). Use time to take roll.
75
questions provided on the bottom of the page.
04:00 –
10:00
Discuss ―How to Tell Japs from Chinese‖
with the class through voluntary or forced
participation
Call on students and discuss the questions
provided on the slide or any other topics that
come to mind
10:00 –
25:00
Listen to the teacher talk about
historiography. Then read both accounts in
the ―Historiography Exercise‖ document
describing the immigration experience of
Chinese Americans during the nineteenth
century. Write down the answers in the
―Historiography Discussion Questions‖
portion of STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET,
PART I (page 1) and be ready to discuss with
the class when the teacher leads the
discussion.
Discuss with the class about what historiography
is and why it is important. The key point to get
across is that (1) textbooks change over time and
for varying purposes, (2) textbooks are just a
single interpretation of history and that there are
others, and (3) students can take on the role of
the historians and provide their own
interpretations using documents—thus, creating
their own historical narrative
25:00 –
35:00
Follow along on pages 2-3 in the RESOURCE
PACKET as the teacher presents the sample
narrative on ―The Chinese in America during
the Nineteenth Century.‖
Introduce the concept of the historical narrative
by demonstrating the sample narrative on p.2-3
of the RESOURCE PACKET. Present the
narrative using the images provided on the
―Sample Narrative‖ PowerPoint presentation.
35:00 –
40:00
Using the information from the sample
narrative and prior knowledge of both world
wars, students will write a preliminary thesis
(similar to a hypothesis) on the following
question: ―What role did Chinese Americans
play in the U.S. military during the world
wars?‖ on page 3 of the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET, PART III
Introduce the primary research question and have
the students write a preliminary thesis
hypothesizing the Chinese role in the world wars
based on what they have learned in the narratives
and from their prior knowledge. Remind
students that this is just a hypothesis and that
historians usually begin their research with a
preliminary thesis based on their prior
knowledge.
40:00 –
50:00
Take out textbooks and read the short passage
on ―Railroads expand‖ on p.150-151. Then
take bullet point notes on significant points in
the graphic organizer found in page 1 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET, PART II.
Discuss the necessity of using secondary sources
like the textbook to gather background
knowledge and create context. Then have the
students turn to the short passage on ―Railroads
expand.‖ Lead them in creating bullet point
notes in the graphic organizer found on page 1 of
the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET.
50:00 –
60:00
Using the 11‖x14‖ TIMELINE paper, draw a
line from left-to-right about 4 inches from the
top. Label 1850 as the starting date and 1950
as the end date. Then using the ―Railroads
expands‖ sample, students will place the first
two events, the ―Gold Rush‖ and ―Building
the Transcontinental Railroad‖ and a
descriptive sentence of each onto the timeline.
Using the SAMPLE TIMELINE provided,
demonstrate to the students how to create the
SECONDARY SOURCE TIMELINE.
Additional information can be found on page 6
of the RESOURCE PACKET. Afterwards, go
around the classroom to ensure students are
doing the work correctly. Allow students who
have completed the placing ―The Gold Rush‖
and ―Building the Transcontinental Railroad‖ to
pack up the material.
HOME
(60:00-
90:00)**
They will continue this process at home for
homework and in preparation for the
document analysis the next day.
*Can be done using the overhead transparency, PowerPoint through LCD projector, or electronic document camera
**In 90-minute block classes, the last half hour can be used to accomplish the task assigned for homework. This will
allow students to get help from classmates and the teacher as they complete the requirements for the historical narrative
DAY TWO: Primary Source Document Analysis
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to
class
For homework, students should have completed
the pages 1 and 2 on the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET and the top-half of the TIMELINE. As
Pre-select students to work in groups of 2-3,
based on ability level. Before class place the
TIMELINE STRIP handout (found on page
76
they enter into the classroom, pick up the
TIMELINE STRIP handout (found on page 11 of
the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET.)
11 of the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET)
in a location where the students can pick up
material as they enter into the classroom.
00:00-
10:00
Turn page 9 of the RESOURCE PACKET. Then
participate in the discussion explaining the
significance and historical context of the political
cartoon. On page 3 of the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET, find QUOTING EXERCISE A and fill
in the blanks provided using the ―Chinese
Question‖ political cartoon by quoting specific
parts of the cartoon and also writing a short
explanation of the significance of the quotes.
Place the slide QUOTING EXERCISE, found
on page 7 of the RESOURCE PACKET on
the screen and direct the students to the
image. Explain to the students the
importance of quoting sources in an essay or
narrative. Then discuss with the students the
significance and historical context of the
political cartoon. Direct them to page 3 of
the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET and
have the students fill in the blacks in
―Quoting Exercise A.‖ As they spend 2-3
minutes selecting quotes and writing a short
analysis of the quotes, take roll and go around
the classroom to check that homework was
adequately completed by stamping the box
located on page 3 of the STUDENT
RESOURCE PACKET to indicate work done
on-time.
10:00 –
15:00
Turn to page 8 of the RESOURCE PACKET and
page 3 of the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET.
Then they will listen for directions on how to
perform the document analysis before moving.
Students will join their assigned groups.
Have them turn to page 8 of the
RESOURCES PACKET and remain on page
3 of the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET.
Then, either orally or through a graphic,
inform the students that they will be working
in groups of 2-3. Instruct them on the process
of analyzing the documents and summarizing
each document on the TIMELINE STRIP.
15:00 –
60:00
Begin analyzing the PRIMARY DOCUMENT
SET using the questions provided in the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKETS and
summarizing each document on the TIMELINE
STRIP. They will complete Documents #1-8 by
the end of the class period. If they complete
Documents #1-8, then they will move on to
Documents #9-13.
Make sure that students are seated together so
that they can help one another. Then go
around the classroom to answer any
questions, keep the class focused and to
provide ideas and clarifications for students.
Prior to the end of the period, allow students
who have finished the first eight documents
to pack up.
HOME
(60:00-
90:00)**
Students should have all documents analyzed
before class the following day and have their
TIMELINE STRIPS glued onto the bottom half of
their TIMELINES.
**In 90-minute block classes, the last half hour can be used to accomplish the task assigned for homework. This will
allow students to get help from classmates and the teacher as they complete the requirements for the historical narrative
DAY THREE: Data Organization and Narrative Writing
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to
class
For homework, students should have completed
the pages 3-8 (minus the ―Quoting Exercise B‖
box on page 8) in the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET and have all of the TIMELINE
STRIPS placed on the bottom half of their
TIMELINES.
00:00-
10:00
Turn page 14 of the RESOURCE PACKET.
Then participate in the discussion explaining
the significance of oral histories. On page 6 of
the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET, find
―Quoting Exercise B‖ and fill in the blanks
Place the slide QUOTING EXERCISE, found on
page 7 of the RESOURCE PACKET on the
screen and direct the students to the oral history.
Explain the positives and negatives of using oral
histories as primary sources. Repeat to the
77
provided using the ―Thomas W. Chinn: A
Historian‘s Reflections on Chinese American
Life in San Francisco‖ oral history by quoting
specific parts of the document and also writing
a short explanation of the significance of the
quotes.
students the importance of quoting sources in an
essay or narrative. Direct them to page 6 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET and have the
students fill in the blacks in ―Quoting Exercise
B.‖ As they spend 2-3 minutes selecting quotes
and writing a short analysis of the quotes, take
roll and go around the classroom to check that
homework was adequately completed by
stamping the box located on page 6 of the
STUDENT RESOURCE PACKET to indicate
work done on-time.
10:00 –
25:00
Turn to page 7 of the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET and find PART IV: FROM
CHRONOLOGY TO GROUPING. Observe
the timeline and find the best possible way to
divide the content into three distinct time
periods—a ―beginning,‖ ―middle,‖ and ―end‖
in order to demonstrate change and continuity
over time. Fill out the graphic organizer by
listing the dates, placing the Document
numbers, and a descriptive sentence of each
time period in the appropriate boxes.
Using the SAMPLE TIMELINE demonstrate
possible ways to divide the content into three
distinct time periods—a ―beginning,‖ ―middle,‖
and ―end‖ in order to demonstrate change and
continuity over time. Then aid the students in
filling out their GROUPING graphic organizer.
25:00-
30:00
Using the information assembled, write a thesis
statement that answers the question: ―What role
did Chinese Americans play in the U.S.
military during two World Wars?‖
Aid the students in writing their thesis statements
by using their GROUPING graphic organizers.
Remind them that the thesis statement should
address change and continuity over time.
30:00-
60:00
Utilizing the SAMPLE NARRATIVE and the
GROUPING NARRATIVE, students will
complete the NARRATIVE OUTLINE
provided on pages 7 and 8 of the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET. Once students have
completed the NARRATIVE OUTLINE, then
they will start writing their HISTORICAL
NARRATIVES.
Have the students turn to pages 7 and 8 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET. Have the
student begin writing their NARRATIVE
OUTLINES. Go around the classroom to aid
students in the writing packets. Gather students
who need more help in forming their thesis
and/or grouping into small groups. Provide
sample theses and groupings, if necessary.
HOME
(60:00-
90:00)**
Complete writing the HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE.
**In 90-minute block classes, the last half hour can be used to accomplish the task assigned for homework. This will
allow students to get help from classmates and the teacher as they complete the requirements for the historical narrative
Assessment:
(See Historical Narrative above)
Digital Education Component:
1. PowerPoint Attachment: Teachers will be all
2. Documents will be available in .pdf and .mobi formats for e-readers
PART IV: DIFFERENTIATION For students who have not attained the necessary writing skills and will require a differentiated assessment piece, an
alternate option has been developed. The lesson plan for this assessment differentiation will remain the same during
the first two days of instruction. However, the lesson‘s third day will be altered to incorporate the differentiation
strategy.
DAY THREE: Alternate Differentiation Strategy – Comic Strip
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to
class
For homework, students should have completed
the pages 3-8 (minus the QUOTING EXERCISE
B box on page 8) in the STUDENT RESPONSE
Before class place the ALTERNATE
DIFFERENTIATION-COMIC STRIP
handout in a location where the students can
78
PACKET and have all of the TIMELINE STRIPS
placed on the bottom half of their TIMELINES.
As they enter into the classroom, pick up the
ALTERNATE DIFFERENTIATION-COMIC
STRIP handout.
pick up material as they enter into the
classroom.
00:00-
10:00
Turn page 13 of the RESOURCE PACKET.
Then participate in the discussion explaining the
significance and historical context of the political
cartoon. On page 6 of the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET, find QUOTING
EXERCISE B and fill in the blanks provided
using the ―Thomas W. Chinn: A Historian‘s
Reflections on Chinese American Life in San
Francisco‖ oral history by quoting specific parts
of the document and also writing a short
explanation of the significance of the quotes.
Place the slide QUOTING EXERCISE,
found on page 6 of the RESOURCE
PACKET on the screen and direct the
students to the image. Repeat to the students
the importance of quoting sources in an essay
or narrative. Direct them to page 6 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET and have
the students fill in the blacks in QUOTING
EXERCISE B. As they spend 2-3 minutes
selecting quotes and writing a short analysis
of the quotes, take roll and go around the
classroom to check that homework was
adequately completed by stamping the box
located on page 6 of the STUDENT
RESOURCE PACKET to indicate work done
on-time.
10:00-
25:00
Students will be called upon or volunteer to state
their answers from their TIMELINE STRIP. If
they did not complete or did not understand a
particular document, then this is a good time for
them to input a statement onto their TIMELINE
STRIP.
Review the responses to the TIMELINE
STRIP with the students using the
TIMELINE STRIP – SAMPLE KEY. Ask
for student volunteers or call on students for
responses. Remind the students that the
answers provided on the answer key is not
the only answer and that their responses are
probably valid.
25:00-
45:00
Students will now do the preliminary work for the
comic strip using the ALTERNATE
DIFFERENTIATION-COMIC STRIP handout.
Have the students observe the completed
TIMELINE. Then select SIX primary documents
from the DOCUMENT PACKET that closely
relates in time and also subject matter to the
secondary source event provided in the graphic
organizer. Then write a ―Connection Statement‖
that connects both the secondary source event
together with the primary document in the third
column of the handout. If necessary, students
may work on this in the groups assigned during
the previous day.
Instruct students to prepare their comic strips
by using the ALTERNATE
DIFFERENTIATION-COMIC STRIP
handout. Use the COMIC STRIP SAMPLE
to instruct the students on how to form
―Connection Statements.‖ The sample
utilizes Document #2 and the
―Transcontinental Railroad Joined‖ event to
construct a comic strip slide. If necessary,
allow students may work on this in the
groups assigned during the previous day.
45:00 –
60:00
Using the ―Connection Statements‖ formed,
create a chronological comic strip using the back
side of the ALTERNATE DIFFERENTIATION-
COMIC STRIP handout. Students will use the
remainder of the class period to complete this
assessment individually.
Leave the COMIC STRIP SAMPLE
projected on the screen for students to use as
a reference point. Walk around the
classroom to aid students and to ensure they
are working individually on their comic
strips.
79
Appendix B2
CCWW – Student Response Packet
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
Appendix B3
CCWW – Resource Packet
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
Appendix B4
CCWW – PowerPoint Presentation Slides
105
106
107
Appendix B5
CCWW – Differentiated Assessment – Comic Strip
108
Appendix B6
CCWW – Sample Timeline
109
Appendix B7
What Role did Chinese Americans Play in the U.S. Military during the Two World Wars?
(CCWW) – Alternate 1-Day Historiography Lesson Plan
PART I: ASSOCIATED STANDARDS California State History/Social Science Standards:
Std. Standard Description Justification
11.2.2 Describe the changing landscape, including the growth of
cities linked by industry and trade, and the development of
cities divided according to race, ethnicity, and class
This lesson investigates the role of
economics, race and ethnicity used as
justification for Chinese exclusion
11.7.3 Students analyze America‘s participation in World War II
and identify the roles and sacrifices of individual American
soldiers, as well as unique contributions of the special
fighting force s (e.g., the Tuskegee Airmen, the 442nd
Regimental Combat team, the Navajo Code Talkers)
Students will write a narrative
illustrating the role of Chinese
Americans in war, both in the First and
Second World Wars and discuss the
historiography of the World War II
California Common Core State Standards:
Std. Standard Description Justification
1 Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.
(Including developing claims, counterclaims, supplying
evidence, clarifying relationships between claims,
establishing a formal style, and a concluding statement)
The final assessment piece for this lesson
involves a written addition to the Holt
textbook on the contributions of minorities
in the Second World War.
2 Write informative/explanatory texts, including the
narration of historical events
The final assessment will be a short, formal
historical summary of the contributions of
Chinese Americans in World War II.
4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the
development, organization, and style are appropriate to
task, purpose, and audience.
The historical summary will mirror the
omniscient narration of the textbook.
8 Gather relevant information from multiple authoritative
print and digital sources (primary and secondary), using
advanced searches effectively; assess the strengths and
limitations of each source in terms of the specific task,
purpose, and audience; integrate information into the
text selectively to maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding
plagiarism and overreliance on any one source and
following a standard format for citation.
Students will analyze at least nine primary
source documents and will summarize the
documents into a concise textbook-style
narrative.
9 Draw evidence from informational texts to support
analysis, reflection, and research.
Students will utilizes multiple primary
documents and their textbooks to research,
organize into graphics and write a historical
narrative.
PART II: LESSON ABSTRACT
In addition to learning the contributions made by Chinese Americans during the Second World War, this lesson seeks
to teach students the skills of historiographical analysis and the basics of organizing and writing historical narratives.
Through this brief one-day lesson, students will develop their own historical narrative based on the history of Chinese
Americans and their contributions in World War II. Students will utilize both the textbook (the most-readily available
secondary source) and analyze nine primary source documents to create a narrative summary of the Chinese American
experience in the military during the war.
PART III: LESSON PLAN
Time Required: One 60-minute class period (with 90-minute block option), preferably after the completion of the World War II unit.
110
Materials Required:
1. Holt‘s American Anthem: Modern American History or another modern United States history textbook
2. An overhead projector or an LCD projector
3. The document packet and related student documents
Objectives:
To understand the racial attitudes towards and the contributions made by Chinese Americans in the World Wars by:
1. Creating a sequential timeline using a history textbook and a series of primary sources
2. Analyzing a series of primary source documents
3. Writing a short historical narrative that demonstrate change and continuity over time
Background Information:
(See historical narrative sample and PowerPoint presentation)
Lesson Overview:
DAY ONE: Historiography and Primary Source Analysis TIME REQUIRED
Intro and How to Tell Chinese from a Jap/Race Relations Discussion 10
Historiography Exercise and finding the missing Chinese American narrative 15
Partial Document Set (#5-13) 30
Adding the Chinese American Narrative to the Textbook – Introduction 10
Adding the Chinese American Narrative to the Textbook Homework
Detailed Lesson Procedure:
DAY ONE: Historiography and Secondary Source Research
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to
class
Review reading in the textbook on Japanese
Internment.
Place RESOURCE PACKET, the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET and
the 11‖x17‖ TIMELINE paper in a
location where the students can pick up
material as they enter into the classroom.
00:00 –
02:00
Enter into the classroom and pick up the
RESOURCE PACKET and the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET
Place Slide* ―How to Tell Japs from
Chinese‖ on the screen
02:00 –
04:00
Observe the ―How to Tell Japs from Chinese‖
slide (also page 1 of the RESOURCE PACKET)
and think about responses to the questions
provided on the bottom of the page.
Inform the students they will respond
orally (through raised hands or called
randomly at teacher‘s discretion). Use
time to take roll.
04:00 –
10:00
Discuss ―How to Tell Japs from Chinese‖ with the
class through voluntary or forced participation
Call on students and discuss the questions
provided on the slide or any other topics
that come to mind
10:00 –
25:00
Listen to the teacher talk about historiography.
Then read both accounts in the ―Historiography
Exercise‖ document describing the immigration
experience of Chinese Americans during the
nineteenth century. Write down the answers in the
―Historiography Discussion Questions‖ portion of
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET, PART I (page
1) and be ready to discuss with the class when the
teacher leads the discussion.
Discuss with the class about what
historiography is and why it is important.
The key point to get across is that (1)
textbooks change over time and for
varying purposes, (2) textbooks are just a
single interpretation of history and that
there are others, and (3) students can take
on the role of the historians and provide
their own interpretations using
documents—thus, creating their own
historical narrative
25:00 –
55:00
Begin analyzing the PRIMARY DOCUMENT
SET using the questions provided in the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKETS. They will
complete Documents #5-13 by the end of the class
period.
Make sure that students are seated
together so that they can help one another.
Then go around the classroom to answer
any questions, keep the class focused and
to provide ideas and clarifications for
students.
111
55:00 –
60:00
After examining the primary source documents in
the RESOURCE PACKET, write a brief summary
of the Chinese American military contributions on
page 3 of the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET
by comparing and contrasting it to the Japanese
American experience in the preceding section.
Then using Document #10 on page 13 of the
RESOURCE PACKET, write a short biographic
sketch of Wau Kau Kong.
Introduce the writing assignment. Remind
the students they are making an addition
to the textbook. This means they should
write from the omniscient third-person
point-of-view and utilize the same tone
found in the textbook. Once this is
understood, allow the students to pack up.
HOME
(60:00-
90:00)**
Complete page 3 of the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET in the remaining time or at home.
*Can be done using the overhead transparency, PowerPoint through LCD projector, or electronic document camera
**In 90-minute block classes, the last half hour can be used to accomplish the task assigned for homework. This will
allow students to get help from classmates and the teacher as they complete the requirements for the historical narrative
Assessment:
(See Historical Narrative above)
Digital Education Component:
1. Documents will be available in .pdf and .mobi formats for e-readers
112
Appendix B8
CCWW – Alternate 1-Day Student Response Packet
113
114
115
Appendix B9
CCWW – Alternate 1-Day Resource Packet
Only pages #8-9 of the Alternate 1-Day Resource Packet are different than the Primary 3-Day
Resource Packet
116
117
Appendix C1
What Effects did Internment have on Northern Californian Japanese Americans? (NCJI)
– Alternate 3-Day Lesson Plan
PART I: ASSOCIATED STANDARDS
California State History/Social Science Standards:
Std. Standard Description Justification
11.2.2 Describe the changing landscape, including the growth of
cities linked by industry and trade, and the development of
cities divided according to race, ethnicity, and class
This lesson investigates the role of
economics, race and ethnicity used as
justification for Chinese exclusion
11.7.3 Students analyze America‘s participation in World War II
and identify the roles and sacrifices of individual American
soldiers, as well as unique contributions of the special
fighting force s (e.g., the Tuskegee Airmen, the 442nd
Regimental Combat team, the Navajo Code Talkers)
Students will write a narrative illustrating
the role of Chinese Americans in war,
both in the First and Second World Wars
and discuss the historiography of the
World War II
California Common Core State Standards:
Std. Standard Description Justification
1 Write arguments focused on discipline-specific
content. (Including developing claims,
counterclaims, supplying evidence, clarifying
relationships between claims, establishing a formal
style, and a concluding statement)
The final assessment piece for this lesson involves
the writing of a historical narrative that creates an
argument, supports claims by supplying evidence
from primary and secondary source documents
through a formal writing style (the narrative).
2 Write informative/explanatory texts, including the
narration of historical events
The final assessment will be a short, formal
historical narrative.
4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the
development, organization, and style are
appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.
The historical narrative will be a formal writing
assessment that utilizes the narrative format based
on the concept of change and continuity over time.
8 Gather relevant information from multiple
authoritative print and digital sources (primary and
secondary), using advanced searches effectively;
assess the strengths and limitations of each source
in terms of the specific task, purpose, and
audience; integrate information into the text
selectively to maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding
plagiarism and overreliance on any one source and
following a standard format for citation.
Students will analyze at least fourteen primary and
secondary source documents and determine the
documents that they will use in order to create a
historical narrative that follows a chronological
timeline.
9 Draw evidence from informational texts to support
analysis, reflection, and research.
Students will utilizes multiple primary documents
and their textbooks to research, organize into
graphics and write a historical narrative.
PART II: LESSON ABSTRACT In addition to learning the hardships of Japanese Americans during World War II, this lesson seeks to teach students the
skills of historiographical analysis and the basics of organizing and writing historical narratives. Through this three-
day lesson, students will develop their own historical narrative based on the experience of local Japanese Americans
from Northern California. Students will utilize both the textbook (the most-readily available secondary source) and
analyze fourteen primary source documents to create a narrative timeline. Then they will use the evidence from the
sources and the timeline to write a brief historical narrative that describes the changes and continuities of the Japanese
American experience during the Second World War.
PART III: LESSON PLAN
Time Required: Three 60-minute class periods (with 90-minute block option), preferably after the completion of the
World War II unit.
118
Materials Required:
1. Holt‘s American Anthem: Modern American History or another modern United States history textbook
2. Computer with Microsoft PowerPoint (or equivalent) installed
3. An overhead projector or an LCD projector
4. The document packet and related student documents
5. 11‖x14‖ paper (with timeline template printed, if possible) for each student
6. Scissors
7. Glue stick
8. Coloring material (optional)
Objectives:
To understand the racial attitudes towards and the contributions made by Chinese Americans in the World Wars by:
1. Creating a sequential timeline using a history textbook and a series of primary sources
2. Analyzing a series of primary source documents
3. Writing a short historical narrative that demonstrate change and continuity over time
Background Information:
(See historical narrative sample and PowerPoint presentation)
Lesson Overview:
DAY ONE: Historiography and Secondary Source Research TIME REQUIRED
Intro and How to Tell Chinese from a Jap/Race Relations Discussion 10
Historiography Exercise and finding the missing Chinese American narrative 15
PowerPoint and Preliminary Thesis 25
Secondary Source Timeline Research – Introduction 10
Secondary Source Timeline Research and Timeline Construction Homework
DAY TWO: Primary Source Document Analysis TIME REQUIRED
Intro and Quoting Exercise – Using Oral History (Document #6) 10
Narrative Document Set, Part I (#1-8) and Timeline Strips 50
Narrative Document Set, Part II (#9-14) Timeline Strips Homework
DAY THREE: Data Organization and Narrative Writing TIME REQUIRED
Intro and Quoting Exercise – Using Oral History (Document #14) 10
Chronology to Grouping 15
Revised Thesis and Narrative Outline 35
Assessment: Written Narrative Homework
Detailed Lesson Procedure:
DAY ONE: Historiography and Secondary Source Research
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to
class
Reviewed the Holt textbook‘s narrative of the
Japanese American experience during World
War II on pages 445-446 (or a similar textbook‘s
equivalent)
Place RESOURCE PACKET, the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET, LECTURE TIMELINE
(OPTIONAL) and the 11‖x17‖ TIMELINE
paper in a location where the students can pick
up material as they enter into the classroom.
00:00 –
02:00
Enter into the classroom and pick up the
RESOURCE PACKET, the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET, LECTURE TIMELINE
(OPTIONAL) and the 11‖x17‖ TIMELINE
paper
Place Slide* ―How to Tell Japs from Chinese‖
on the screen
02:00 –
04:00
Observe the ―How to Tell Japs from Chinese‖
slide (also page 1 of the RESOURCE PACKET)
and think about responses to the questions
provided on the bottom of the page.
Inform the students they will respond orally
(through raised hands or called randomly at
teacher‘s discretion). Use time to take roll.
04:00 –
10:00
Discuss ―How to Tell Japs from Chinese‖ with
the class through voluntary or forced
participation
Call on students and discuss the questions
provided on the slide or any other topics that
come to mind
10:00 – Listen to the teacher talk about historiography. Discuss with the class about what
119
25:00 Then read both accounts in the ―Historiography
Exercise‖ document found on page 2 of the
RESOURCE PACKET describing the internment
experience of Japanese Americans during World
War II. Write down the answers in the
―Historiography Discussion Questions‖ portion
of STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET, PART I
found on page 1 and be ready to discuss with the
class when the teacher leads the discussion.
historiography is and why it is important. The
key point to get across is that (1) textbooks
change over time and for varying purposes, (2)
textbooks are just a single interpretation of
history and that there are others, and (3)
students can take on the role of the historians
and provide their own interpretations using
documents—thus, creating their own historical
narrative
25:00 –
40:00
Take notes using the LECTURE TIMELINE
(OPTIONAL) handout, on a separate sheet of
paper using the traditional outline form or listen
intently.
Using the EXCLUDED AND INTERNED
PowerPoint Lecture, present the background
information on the Chinese American and
Japanese American experience in the U.S.
between 1850-1950.
40:00 –
45:00
Using the information from the lecture and prior
knowledge on World War II, students will write
a preliminary thesis (similar to a hypothesis) on
the following question: ―What effect did
Japanese Internment have on Japanese
Americans from Northern California?‖ on page 3
of the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET, PART
III
Introduce the primary research question and
have the students write a preliminary thesis
hypothesizing the effect of internment on
Japanese Americans based on what they have
learned in the lecture and from their prior
knowledge. Remind students that this is just a
hypothesis and that historians usually begin
their research with a preliminary thesis based
on their prior knowledge.
45:00 –
55:00
Take out textbooks and read the short passage on
―Chinese settlers‖ on p.147. Then take bullet
point notes on significant points in the graphic
organizer found in page 1 of the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET, PART II.
Discuss the necessity of using secondary
sources like the textbook to gather background
knowledge and create context. Then have the
students turn to the short passage on ―Chinese
settlers.‖ Lead them in creating bullet point
notes in the graphic organizer found on page 1
of the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET,
PART II.
55:00 –
60:00
Using the 11‖x14‖ TIMELINE paper, draw a line
from left-to-right about 4 inches from the top.
Label 1850 as the starting date and 1950 as the
end date. Then using the ―Chinese settlers‖
sample from the textbook, students will describe
the section as ―Chinese turn to farming‖ and
write descriptive sentence summarizing the
textbook information onto the timeline. See page
Using the SAMPLE TIMELINE provided,
demonstrate to the students how to create the
SECONDARY SOURCE TIMELINE.
Additional information can be found on page 6
of the RESOURCE PACKET. Afterwards, go
around the classroom to ensure students are
doing the work correctly. Allow students who
have completed this first event pack up.
HOME
(60:00-
90:00)**
They will continue this process at home for
homework and in preparation for the document
analysis the next day.
*Can be done using the overhead transparency, PowerPoint through LCD projector, or electronic document camera
**In 90-minute block classes, the last half hour can be used to accomplish the task assigned for homework. This
will allow students to get help from classmates and the teacher as they complete the requirements for the historical
narrative
DAY TWO: Primary Source Document Analysis
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to
class
For homework, students should have completed
the pages 1 and 2 on the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET and the top-half of the TIMELINE. As
they enter into the classroom, pick up the
TIMELINE STRIP handout.
Pre-select students to work in groups of 2-3,
based on ability level. Before class place the
TIMELINE STRIP handout in a location
where the students can pick up material as
they enter into the classroom.
00:00-
10:00
Turn page 6 of the RESOURCE PACKET. Then
participate in the discussion explaining the
significance and point-of-view. On page 4 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET, find
Place the slide QUOTING EXERCISE, found
on page 7 of the RESOURCE PACKET on the
screen and direct the students to the image.
Explain to the students the importance of
120
QUOTING EXERCISE A and fill in the blanks
provided using the Frank Kageta oral history by
quoting specific parts of the document and also
writing a short explanation of the significance of
the quotes.
quoting sources in an essay or narrative. Then
discuss with the students the significance,
point-of-view, historical context, and language
used in the oral history. Direct them to page 4
of the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET and
have the students fill in the blacks in ―Quoting
Exercise A.‖ As they spend 2-3 minutes
selecting quotes and writing a short analysis of
the quotes, take roll and go around the
classroom to check that homework was
adequately completed by stamping the box
located on page 3 of the STUDENT
RESOURCE PACKET to indicate work done
on-time.
10:00 –
15:00
Turn to page 8 of the RESOURCE PACKET and
page 3 of the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET.
Then they will listen for directions on how to
perform the document analysis before moving.
They will analyze all 14 documents and create
summaries of 10 of the 14 documents provided on
their TIMELINE STRIPS. Not all dates are
provide so students will need to pay attention to
the historical context of each document to gauge
the time being discussed in each oral history.
Students will complete as much as they can in
their assigned groups.
Have them turn to page 8 of the RESOURCES
PACKET and remain on page 3 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET. Then,
either orally or through a graphic, inform the
students that they will be working in groups of
2-3. Instruct them on the process of analyzing
the documents and summarizing each selected
document on the TIMELINE STRIP.
15:00 –
60:00
Begin analyzing the PRIMARY DOCUMENT
SET using the questions provided in the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKETS and
summarizing each document on the TIMELINE
STRIP. They will complete Documents #1-8 by
the end of the class period. If they complete
Documents #1-8, then they will move on to
Documents #9-14.
Make sure that students are seated together so
that they can help one another. Then go
around the classroom to answer any questions,
keep the class focused and to provide ideas
and clarifications for students. Prior to the end
of the period, allow students who have
finished the first eight documents to pack up.
HOME
(60:00-
90:00)**
Students should have all documents analyzed
before class the following day and have their
TIMELINE STRIPS glued onto the bottom half of
their TIMELINES.
**In 90-minute block classes, the last half hour can be used to accomplish the task assigned for homework. This will
allow students to get help from classmates and the teacher as they complete the requirements for the historical
narrative
DAY THREE: Data Organization and Narrative Writing
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to
class
For homework, students should have completed the
pages 3-9 (minus the ―Quoting Exercise B‖ box on
page 8 and the ―Chronology to Grouping‖ chart on
page 9) in the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET
and have all of the TIMELINE STRIPS placed on
the bottom half of their TIMELINES.
00:00-
10:00
Turn page 14 of the RESOURCE PACKET. Then
participate in the discussion explaining the
significance of oral histories. On page 6 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET, find ―Quoting
Exercise B‖ and fill in the blanks provided using
the Document #14 oral history by quoting specific
parts of the document and also writing a short
explanation of the significance of the quotes.
Place the slide QUOTING EXERCISE, found
on page 7 of the RESOURCE PACKET on
the screen and direct the students to the oral
history. Explain the positives and negatives
of using oral histories as primary sources.
Repeat to the students the importance of
quoting sources in an essay or narrative.
Direct them to page 7 of the STUDENT
121
RESPONSE PACKET and have the students
fill in the blacks in ―Quoting Exercise B.‖ As
they spend 2-3 minutes selecting quotes and
writing a short analysis of the quotes, take
roll and go check that homework was
adequately completed by stamping the box
located on page 6 of the STUDENT
RESOURCE PACKET to indicate work done
on-time.
10:00 –
25:00
Turn to page 7 of the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET and find PART IV: FROM
CHRONOLOGY TO GROUPING. Observe the
timeline and find the best possible way to divide
the content into three distinct time periods—a
―beginning,‖ ―middle,‖ and ―end‖ in order to
demonstrate change and continuity over time. Fill
out the graphic organizer by listing the dates,
placing the Document numbers, and a descriptive
sentence of each time period in the appropriate
boxes.
Using the SAMPLE TIMELINE demonstrate
possible ways to divide the content into three
distinct time periods—a ―beginning,‖
―middle,‖ and ―end‖ in order to demonstrate
change and continuity over time. For
example, Pre-WWII, WWII Internment, and
Post-Internment could be used, respectively
for ―beginning,‖ ―middle,‖ and ―end.‖ Then
aid the students in filling out their
GROUPING graphic organizer.
25:00-
30:00
Using the information assembled, write a thesis
statement that answers the question: ―What effect
did Japanese Internment have on Japanese
Americans from Northern California?‖
Aid the students in writing their thesis
statements by using their GROUPING
graphic organizers. Remind them that the
thesis statement should address change and
continuity over time.
30:00-
60:00
Utilizing the SAMPLE NARRATIVE and the
GROUPING NARRATIVE, students will
complete the NARRATIVE OUTLINE provided
on pages 8 and 9 of the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET. Once students have completed the
NARRATIVE OUTLINE, then they will start
writing their HISTORICAL NARRATIVES,
starting on page 10 of the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET. Refer to pages 3-4 in the RESOURCE
PACKET for samples.
Have the students turn to pages 8 and 9 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET. Have the
student begin writing their NARRATIVE
OUTLINES. Go around the classroom to aid
students in the writing packets. Gather
students who need more help in forming their
thesis and/or grouping into small groups.
Provide sample theses and groupings, if
necessary.
HOME
(60:00-
90:00)**
Complete writing the HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE.
**In 90-minute block classes, the last half hour can be used to accomplish the task assigned for homework. This
will allow students to get help from classmates and the teacher as they complete the requirements for the historical
narrative
Assessment:
(See Historical Narrative above)
Digital Education Component:
1. PowerPoint Attachment: Excluded and Interned
2. Documents will be available in .pdf and .mobi formats for e-readers
122
Appendix C2
NCJI – Student Response Packet
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
Appendix C3
NCJI – Resource Packet
Only pages #2, 8-14 of the NCJI – Resource Packet are different from the Primary 3-Day
Resource Packet.
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
Appendix C4
NCJI – PowerPoint Presentation Slides
142
143
Appendix D1
Comparing the Chinese American and Japanese American Military Experience in the
World Wars (CJCOMP) – Alternate 3-Day Lesson Plan
PART I: ASSOCIATED STANDARDS
California State History/Social Science Standards:
Std. Standard Description Justification
11.2.2 Describe the changing landscape, including the growth of
cities linked by industry and trade, and the development of
cities divided according to race, ethnicity, and class
This lesson investigates the role of
economics, race and ethnicity used as
justification for Chinese exclusion
11.7.3 Students analyze America‘s participation in World War II
and identify the roles and sacrifices of individual American
soldiers, as well as unique contributions of the special
fighting force s (e.g., the Tuskegee Airmen, the 442nd
Regimental Combat team, the Navajo Code Talkers)
Students will write a narrative illustrating
the role of Chinese Americans in war,
both in the First and Second World Wars
and discuss the historiography of the
World War II
California Common Core State Standards:
Std. Standard Description Justification
1 Write arguments focused on discipline-specific
content. (Including developing claims,
counterclaims, supplying evidence, clarifying
relationships between claims, establishing a formal
style, and a concluding statement)
The final assessment piece for this lesson
involves the writing of a historical narrative that
creates an argument, supports claims by
supplying evidence from primary and secondary
source documents through a formal writing style
(the narrative).
2 Write informative/explanatory texts, including the
narration of historical events
The final assessment will be a short, formal
historical narrative.
4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the
development, organization, and style are appropriate
to task, purpose, and audience.
The historical narrative will be a formal writing
assessment that utilizes the narrative format
based on the concept of change and continuity
over time.
8 Gather relevant information from multiple
authoritative print and digital sources (primary and
secondary), using advanced searches effectively;
assess the strengths and limitations of each source in
terms of the specific task, purpose, and audience;
integrate information into the text selectively to
maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding plagiarism and
overreliance on any one source and following a
standard format for citation.
Students will analyze at least fourteen primary
and secondary source documents and determine
the documents that they will use in order to
create a historical narrative that follows a
chronological timeline.
9 Draw evidence from informational texts to support
analysis, reflection, and research.
Students will utilizes multiple primary
documents and their textbooks to research,
organize into graphics and write a historical
narrative.
PART II: LESSON ABSTRACT In addition to learning the contributions made by Chinese Americans during the First and Second World Wars, this
lesson seeks to teach students the skills of historiographical analysis and the basics of organizing and writing historical
narratives. Through this three-day lesson, students will develop their own historical narrative based on the history of
Chinese Americans and their contributions in both World Wars. Students will utilize both the textbook (the most-
readily available secondary source) and analyze thirteen primary source documents to create a narrative timeline. Then
they will use the evidence from the sources and the timeline to write a brief historical narrative that demonstrates the
Chinese American experience in the military during the World Wars.
144
PART III: LESSON PLAN
Time Required: Three 60-minute class periods (with 90-minute block option), preferably after the completion of the
World War II unit.
Materials Required:
1. Holt‘s American Anthem: Modern American History or another modern United States history textbook
2. Computer with Microsoft PowerPoint (or equivalent) installed
3. An overhead projector or an LCD projector
4. The document packet and related student documents
5. 11‖x14‖ paper (with timeline template printed, if possible) for each student
6. Scissors
7. Glue stick
8. Coloring material (optional)
Objectives:
To understand the racial attitudes towards and the contributions made by Chinese Americans in the World Wars by:
1. Creating a sequential timeline using a history textbook and a series of primary sources
2. Analyzing a series of primary source documents
3. Writing a short historical narrative that demonstrate change and continuity over time
Background Information:
(See historical narrative sample and PowerPoint presentation)
Lesson Overview:
DAY ONE: Historiography and Secondary Source Research TIME REQUIRED
Intro and How to Tell Chinese from a Jap/Race Relations Discussion 10
Historiography Exercise and finding the missing Chinese American narrative 15
Sample Narrative, PowerPoint, and Preliminary Thesis 25
Secondary Source Timeline Research – Introduction 10
Secondary Source Timeline Research and Timeline Construction Homework
DAY TWO: Primary Source Document Analysis TIME REQUIRED
Intro and Quoting Exercise – Using Political Cartoon (Document #2) 10
Narrative Document Set, Part I (#1-8) and Timeline Strips 50
Narrative Document Set, Part II (#9-13) Timeline Strips Homework
DAY THREE: Data Organization and Narrative Writing TIME REQUIRED
Intro and Quoting Exercise – Using Oral History (Document #13) 10
Chronology to Grouping 15
Revised Thesis and Narrative Outline 35
Assessment: Written Narrative Homework
Detailed Lesson Procedure:
DAY ONE: Historiography and Secondary Source Research
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to
class
Reviewed the material regarding World War II
as advised by the teacher
Place RESOURCE PACKET, the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET and the 11‖x17‖
TIMELINE paper in a location where the
students can pick up material as they enter into
the classroom.
00:00 –
02:00
Enter into the classroom and pick up the
RESOURCE PACKET, the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET and the 11‖x17‖
TIMELINE paper
Place Slide* ―How to Tell Japs from Chinese‖
on the screen
02:00 –
04:00
Observe the ―How to Tell Japs from Chinese‖
slide (also page 1 of the RESOURCE
PACKET) and think about responses to the
Inform the students they will respond orally
(through raised hands or called randomly at
teacher‘s discretion). Use time to take roll.
145
questions provided on the bottom of the page.
04:00 –
10:00
Discuss ―How to Tell Japs from Chinese‖ with
the class through voluntary or forced
participation
Call on students and discuss the questions
provided on the slide or any other topics that
come to mind
10:00 –
25:00
Listen to the teacher talk about historiography.
Then read both accounts in the ―Historiography
Exercise‖ document describing the immigration
experience of Chinese Americans during the
nineteenth century. Write down the answers in
the ―Historiography Discussion Questions‖
portion of STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET,
PART I (page 1) and be ready to discuss with
the class when the teacher leads the discussion.
Discuss with the class about what historiography
is and why it is important. The key point to get
across is that (1) textbooks change over time and
for varying purposes, (2) textbooks are just a
single interpretation of history and that there are
others, and (3) students can take on the role of
the historians and provide their own
interpretations using documents—thus, creating
their own historical narrative
25:00 –
35:00
Follow along on pages 2-3 in the RESOURCE
PACKET as the teacher presents the sample
narrative on ―The Chinese in America during
the Nineteenth Century.‖
Introduce the concept of the historical narrative
by demonstrating the sample narrative on p.2-3
of the RESOURCE PACKET. Present the
narrative using the images provided on the
―Sample Narrative‖ PowerPoint presentation.
35:00 –
40:00
Using the information from the sample
narrative and prior knowledge of both world
wars, students will write a preliminary thesis
(similar to a hypothesis) on the following
question: How did the experiences of Chinese
Americans and Japanese Americans in the U.S.
military change from World War I to World
War II?
on page 3 of the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET, PART III
Introduce the primary research question and have
the students write a preliminary thesis
hypothesizing the Chinese role in the world wars
based on what they have learned in the narratives
and from their prior knowledge. Remind
students that this is just a hypothesis and that
historians usually begin their research with a
preliminary thesis based on their prior
knowledge.
40:00 –
50:00
Take out textbooks and read the short passage
on ―Railroads expand‖ on p.150-151. Then
take bullet point notes on significant points in
the graphic organizer found in page 1 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET, PART II.
Discuss the necessity of using secondary sources
like the textbook to gather background
knowledge and create context. Then have the
students turn to the short passage on ―Railroads
expand.‖ Lead them in creating bullet point
notes in the graphic organizer found on page 1 of
the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET.
50:00 –
60:00
Using the 11‖x14‖ TIMELINE paper, draw a
line from left-to-right about 4 inches from the
top. Label 1850 as the starting date and 1950 as
the end date. Then using the ―Railroads
expands‖ sample, students will place the first
two events, the ―Gold Rush‖ and ―Building the
Transcontinental Railroad‖ and a descriptive
sentence of each onto the timeline.
Using the SAMPLE TIMELINE provided,
demonstrate to the students how to create the
SECONDARY SOURCE TIMELINE.
Additional information can be found on page 6
of the RESOURCE PACKET. Afterwards, go
around the classroom to ensure students are
doing the work correctly. Allow students who
have completed the placing ―The Gold Rush‖
and ―Building the Transcontinental Railroad‖ to
pack up the material.
HOME
(60:00-
90:00)**
They will continue this process at home for
homework and in preparation for the document
analysis the next day.
*Can be done using the overhead transparency, PowerPoint through LCD projector, or electronic document camera
**In 90-minute block classes, the last half hour can be used to accomplish the task assigned for homework. This will
allow students to get help from classmates and the teacher as they complete the requirements for the historical
narrative
DAY TWO: Primary Source Document Analysis
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to
class
For homework, students should have completed
the pages 1 and 2 on the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET and the top-half of the TIMELINE. As
Pre-select students to work in groups of 2-3,
based on ability level. Before class place the
TIMELINE STRIP handout in a location
146
they enter into the classroom, pick up the
TIMELINE STRIP handout.
where the students can pick up material as
they enter into the classroom.
00:00-
10:00
Turn page 9 of the RESOURCE PACKET. Then
participate in the discussion explaining the
significance and historical context of the political
cartoon. On page 3 of the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET, find QUOTING
EXERCISE A and fill in the blanks provided
using ―The Chinese Question‖ political cartoon by
quoting specific parts of the cartoon and also
writing a short explanation of the significance of
the quotes.
Place the slide QUOTING EXERCISE, found
on page 7 of the RESOURCE PACKET on the
screen and direct the students to the image.
Explain to the students the importance of
quoting sources in an essay or narrative. Then
discuss with the students the significance and
historical context of the political cartoon.
Direct them to page 3 of the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET and have the students
fill in the blacks in ―Quoting Exercise A.‖ As
they spend 2-3 minutes selecting quotes and
writing a short analysis of the quotes, take roll
and go around the classroom to check that
homework was adequately completed by
stamping the box located on page 3 of the
STUDENT RESOURCE PACKET to indicate
work done on-time.
10:00 –
15:00
Turn to page 8 of the RESOURCE PACKET and
page 3 of the STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET.
Then they will listen for directions on how to
perform the document analysis before moving.
Students will join their assigned groups.
Have them turn to page 8 of the RESOURCES
PACKET and remain on page 3 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET. Then,
either orally or through a graphic, inform the
students that they will be working in groups of
2-3. Instruct them on the process of analyzing
the documents and summarizing each
document on the TIMELINE STRIP.
15:00 –
60:00
Begin analyzing the PRIMARY DOCUMENT
SET using the questions provided in the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKETS and
summarizing each document on the TIMELINE
STRIP. They will complete Documents #1-8 by
the end of the class period. If they complete
Documents #1-8, then they will move on to
Documents #9-14.
Make sure that students are seated together so
that they can help one another. Then go
around the classroom to answer any questions,
keep the class focused and to provide ideas
and clarifications for students. Prior to the end
of the period, allow students who have
finished the first eight documents to pack up.
HOME
(60:00-
90:00)**
Students should have all documents analyzed
before class the following day and have their
TIMELINE STRIPS glued onto the bottom half of
their TIMELINES.
**In 90-minute block classes, the last half hour can be used to accomplish the task assigned for homework. This will
allow students to get help from classmates and the teacher as they complete the requirements for the historical
narrative
DAY THREE: Data Organization and Narrative Writing
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to
class
For homework, students should have completed the
pages 3-7 (minus the ―Quoting Exercise B‖ box on
page 7 and the ―Chronology to Grouping‖ graphic
organizer on page 8) in the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET and have all of the
TIMELINE STRIPS placed on the bottom half of
their TIMELINES.
00:00-
10:00
Turn page 14 of the RESOURCE PACKET. Then
participate in the discussion explaining the
significance of oral histories. On page 6 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET, find ―Quoting
Exercise B‖ and fill in the blanks provided using
The New York Times ―Union Limits Nisei to Ex-
Place the slide QUOTING EXERCISE, found
on page 7 of the RESOURCE PACKET on
the screen and direct the students to the oral
history. Explain the positives and negatives
of using oral histories as primary sources.
Repeat to the students the importance of
147
Service Men‖ by quoting specific parts of the
document and also writing a short explanation of
the significance of the quotes.
quoting sources in an essay or narrative.
Direct them to page 6 of the STUDENT
RESPONSE PACKET and have the students
fill in the blacks in ―Quoting Exercise B.‖ As
they spend 2-3 minutes selecting quotes and
writing a short analysis of the quotes, take
roll and go around the classroom to check that
homework was adequately completed by
stamping the box located on page 6 of the
STUDENT RESOURCE PACKET to
indicate work done on-time.
10:00 –
25:00
Turn to page 7 of the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET and find PART IV: FROM
CHRONOLOGY TO GROUPING. Observe the
timeline and find the best possible way to divide
the content into three distinct time periods—a
―beginning,‖ ―middle,‖ and ―end‖ in order to
demonstrate change and continuity over time. Fill
out the graphic organizer by listing the dates,
placing the Document numbers, and a descriptive
sentence of each time period in the appropriate
boxes.
Using the SAMPLE TIMELINE demonstrate
possible ways to divide the content into three
distinct time periods—a ―beginning,‖
―middle,‖ and ―end‖ in order to demonstrate
change and continuity over time. Then aid
the students in filling out their GROUPING
graphic organizer.
25:00-
30:00
Using the information assembled, write a thesis
statement that answers the question: ―How did the
experiences of Chinese Americans and Japanese
Americans in the U.S. military change from World
War I to World War II?‖
Aid the students in writing their thesis
statements by using their GROUPING
graphic organizers. Remind them that the
thesis statement should address change and
continuity over time.
30:00-
60:00
Utilizing the SAMPLE NARRATIVE and the
GROUPING NARRATIVE, students will
complete the NARRATIVE OUTLINE provided
on pages 8 and 9 of the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET. Once students have completed the
NARRATIVE OUTLINE, then they will start
writing their HISTORICAL NARRATIVES.
Have the students turn to pages 7 and 8 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET. Have the
student begin writing their NARRATIVE
OUTLINES. Go around the classroom to aid
students in the writing packets. Gather
students who need more help in forming their
thesis and/or grouping into small groups.
Provide sample theses and groupings, if
necessary.
HOME
(60:00-
90:00)**
Complete writing the HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE.
**In 90-minute block classes, the last half hour can be used to accomplish the task assigned for homework. This will
allow students to get help from classmates and the teacher as they complete the requirements for the historical
narrative
Assessment:
(See Historical Narrative above)
Digital Education Component:
1. PowerPoint Attachment on the Nineteenth Century Chinese American experience narrative
2. Documents will be available in .pdf and .mobi formats for e-readers
PART IV: DIFFERENTIATION
For students who have not attained the necessary writing skills and will require a differentiated assessment piece, an
alternate option has been developed. The lesson plan for this assessment differentiation will remain the same during
the first two days of instruction. However, the lesson‘s third day will be altered to incorporate the differentiation
strategy.
DAY THREE: Alternate Differentiation Strategy – Comic Strip
Minutes Student Action Teacher Action
Prior to For homework, students should have completed Before class place the ALTERNATE
148
class the pages 3-8 (minus the QUOTING EXERCISE B
box on page 8) in the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET and have all of the TIMELINE STRIPS
placed on the bottom half of their TIMELINES.
As they enter into the classroom, pick up the
ALTERNATE DIFFERENTIATION-COMIC
STRIP handout.
DIFFERENTIATION-COMIC STRIP handout
in a location where the students can pick up
material as they enter into the classroom.
00:00-
10:00
Turn page 14 of the RESOURCE PACKET. Then
participate in the discussion explaining the
significance of oral histories. On page 6 of the
STUDENT RESPONSE PACKET, find ―Quoting
Exercise B‖ and fill in the blanks provided using
The New York Times ―Union Limits Nisei to Ex-
Service Men‖ by quoting specific parts of the
document and also writing a short explanation of
the significance of the quotes.
Place the slide QUOTING EXERCISE, found
on page 7 of the RESOURCE PACKET on the
screen and direct the students to the oral
history. Explain the positives and negatives of
using oral histories as primary sources. Repeat
to the students the importance of quoting
sources in an essay or narrative. Direct them to
page 6 of the STUDENT RESPONSE
PACKET and have the students fill in the
blacks in ―Quoting Exercise B.‖ As they spend
2-3 minutes selecting quotes and writing a short
analysis of the quotes, take roll and go around
the classroom to check that homework was
adequately completed by stamping the box
located on page 6 of the STUDENT
RESOURCE PACKET to indicate work done
on-time.
10:00-
25:00
Students will be called upon or volunteer to state
their answers from their TIMELINE STRIP. If
they did not complete or did not understand a
particular document, then this is a good time for
them to input a statement onto their TIMELINE
STRIP.
Review the responses to the TIMELINE STRIP
with the students using the TIMELINE STRIP
– SAMPLE KEY. Ask for student volunteers
or call on students for responses. Remind the
students that the answers provided on the
answer key is not the only answer and that their
responses are probably valid.
25:00-
45:00
Students will now do the preliminary work for the
comic strip using the ALTERNATE
DIFFERENTIATION-COMIC STRIP handout.
Have the students observe the completed
TIMELINE. Then select SIX primary documents
from the DOCUMENT PACKET that closely
relates in time and also subject matter to the
secondary source event provided in the graphic
organizer. At least two of the six primary
documents must be associated with the Chinese
American experience or the Japanese American
experience. Then write a ―Connection Statement‖
that connects both the secondary source event
together with the primary document in the third
column of the handout. If necessary, students may
work on this in the groups assigned during the
previous day.
Instruct students to prepare their comic strips
by using the ALTERNATE
DIFFERENTIATION-COMIC STRIP handout.
Use the COMIC STRIP SAMPLE to instruct
the students on how to form ―Connection
Statements.‖ The sample utilizes Document #2
and the ―Transcontinental Railroad Joined‖
event to construct a comic strip slide. If
necessary, allow students may work on this in
the groups assigned during the previous day.
45:00 –
60:00
Using the ―Connection Statements‖ formed, create
a chronological comic strip using the back side of
the ALTERNATE DIFFERENTIATION-COMIC
STRIP handout. Students will use the remainder
of the class period to complete this assessment
individually.
Leave the COMIC STRIP SAMPLE projected
on the screen for students to use as a reference
point. Walk around the classroom to aid
students and to ensure they are working
individually on their comic strips.
149
Appendix D2
CJCOMP – Student Response Packet
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
Appendix D3
CJCOMP – Resource Packet
Only pages #8,10-14 of the CJCOMP – Resource Packet are different from the Primary 3-Day
Resource Packet.
161
162
163
164
165
166
Appendix D4
CJCOMP – Differentiated Assessment – Comic Strip
167
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