The Changing Social ion of Crime and Criminals

8/2/2019 The Changing Social ion of Crime and Criminals

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The Changing Social Organisationof Crime and Criminals in

Jamaica

Anthony Harriott


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Introduction


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Introduction

While most theorists focus on changes in crime

rates, the poorer socio-economic groups and

reasons crimes are associated with them,

Harriott focuses on analysing and over viewing

the changing social organization of crime and

criminals from the 1970s and its sources.

Mikhailas part


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Introduction

It is argued that radical changes in the social

organization of crime and criminals have

occurred over the last 25 years.

Changes reflect shift from property to violent

crimes. Changes are viewed as adaptations to

economic crises and a development of an

economy which is regulated by violence and

threat.


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Method

He uses official documents, statistics of police

recorded crime, interviews with criminals and

observation. An amalgamation of these types

of data collection methods provides higher

validity.


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Context

There are three stages in the development in

criminality:

-1st (Colonial era)- Nature and sources of traditional pattern but not muchattention paid to this era.

-2nd (1977-1987)- Turning point associated with the relevacneof 3 processes:

The Structural adjustment Programme, the accelerated growth of theexport trade in cannabis and the resort to organized high intensity political

crimes.

- 3rd Shift in position of Jamaican gangs international drug trade.


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Context

Jamaica has been undergoing an economic

crisis which is seen from high levels of

unemployment, inflation, indebtedness and a

steady devaluation of the currency.


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Context

Between 1977/1978 Jamaica entered a structural adjustment

program aimed at diversifying the economy and improving its

competitiveness in international trade.

These strategies include: Attracting foreign investments on

the basis on a cheap domestic labour market.

High levels of inequality and competitive individualism are

associated with high rates of violent crimes

The SAP had a profound effect on the labour market. The

distinction is often made between a primary and secondary

labour market based on skills, with low skills and thus low

paying jobs located in the secondary market.

Arunas part


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Context

Tourism was the biggest earner in the winning sector. But it

has developed on a model that compounds the social

problems of the country as the all inclusive try to further

concentrate wealth within the sector by excluding andcriminalizing its competitors from amongst the poor as

hustlers and harassers who constitute a threat to the industry

and byt the relatively low wages rates

The wage levels within this secondary sector were among thelowest in the region. This scenario resulted not only in

increased poverty but also changes in the social character of

poverty and in greater inequality. These processes served to

worsen the patterns of inequality.


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Context

Many of the available jobs were regarded as unprofitable or

below the reservation wage of young males in particular.

Based on a community survey of unemployed inner city

residents , Buchanan reported that some 53 % wereuninterested in regular employment as they found hustling or

robbery more rewarding.

Self employment has tended to be preferred mode of work.

Withdrawal from the labour market was thus accompanied bythe growth of an already large informal sector and more

prevalent resort to deviant adaptive strategies.


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Context

A second line of response was the creation of illegal economic

opportunities mainly in drug trade. Indeed the rapid

development of the informal economy served to stimulate

and drive the growth of the drug trade underground and itbecame a source of foreign exchange for trade in light

manufacturing.

This accelerated in the mid 1970s and has continued into the

1990s with illegal migration opening up opportunities tocriminals and young males. The entry of these criminals into

the distribution of hard drugs in turn provided the resources

and access to firearms which has helped to transform the

character of crime in Jamaica.


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Context

This conflict has had a profound effect on the political

geography of the urban areas of the country. It resulted in the

reinforcement and multiplication of armed politically

homogenous communities which are militantly hostile toopposing parties and highly centralized in their mode of

competing parties were treated as fifth column and driven

from these communities.


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Structure of Crime.Charnacess part


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Structure of Crime

There seems to be a decline in crime in Jamaica over

the period 1977-1933. This is however due to the

fact that there has been a shift in arrests, with therebeing more for violent crimes than property crimes.

Previously property crimes up until the 1970s made

up a greater proportion of crime in Jamaica (and

generally the Caribbean) than violent crime. This was

only disrupted during the political war of 1976-

1980.


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Structure of Crime

The Property crime ratio to violent crime started to

decrease around the 1980s.

From that period blue collar fraud increased fromthis time by 58%

White collar crime also increased

Property crime has decreased from 30,315 in 1977 to14,353 in 1994. Violent crime has increased from

15,893 to 22,394.


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Structure of Crime

This change has a lot to do with a shift to illegal

modes of adaption to economic crisis. New income

generating activities for males in particular in theunderground economy, is believed to have caused

this increase in violent crime.


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Structure of Crime

Murders and shootings in particular increased

significantly. A lot of this is thought to be fueled also

by an increase in guns which are believed to bechanneled partly by political organizations during the

political war but continued do to illegal economic

activities such as drug trafficking.


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Patterns of violent crime

There have also been changes in the pattern of violent

crimes. Murders usually used to occur because as

crimes of passion or disputes over personal property.It has changed however from emotive interpersonal

conflicts to crime related murder with less victims

being closely related to their murders.


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For example, in 1983 sexual competition and

control, loss/accumulation of face and communal

conflicts accounted for 28% of all homicides, while in1993, this declined t 16%

There has been increase in gang related murders

from 11% in 1983 to 21% in 1993.

This is directly related to turf control to ensure a

monopoly in the drug trade.


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Other murders are also social control mechanisms to

intimidate members into submission.

The majority of victims were young (65%), urbanbased (70%), male (89%) and un-employed or self-

employed.


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Changes in the Social

Organisation of CriminalsAnastasias part


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Changes in the Social Organisation

of Criminals

There has been a significant change in the social organization of crime and

criminals as of the mid 1980s.Changes in criminality include:

1. More complex division of work or labour in which gang members have

more specialized roles.

2. More complicated organizational networks

3. Internationalization of such networks and role changes in international

all narcotics trade

4. Greater differentiation and acceptance or integration within the trade or

underground economy.


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of Criminals

The division of labour in the underground economy or trade has

become more complex, showing greater specialization and

better organization. This results in stratification amongcriminals. In the underground economy, specialization occurs

at levels:-

Gang Level: Gangs may have a crime type preference.

Depending on the gang, it may be involved in certain crimes

be it robbery, drug trafficking, car theft, murder, burglary,

robberies etc.

Individual Level: Members would be skilled or specialized in

certain roles e.g. Drivers etc.


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of Criminals

This reflects an advanced division of labour, especially

in the drug trade. These specializations are fulltime

jobs of those in the trade. This has led todifferentiation of crime careers. Crime careers are

also judged by the members level of commitment

and contribution to the crime.


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of Criminals

They are classified into:-

Occasional offenders: Unwilling offenders to whom crime is a

means of survival. Habituals: They engage in criminal activity though not

committed to crime. They are divided into, firstly, persons

engaging in crime to sustain legitimate businesses and

secondly, persons engaging in serious crime for quick meansof accumulation. They tend to be successful criminals.

Professionals: Their incomes depend solely on crime, they are

most committed to it and rule over large areas in the

underground economy.


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of Criminals

There are safe havens in urban areas where criminality is

accepted which has strong interactions between the locals

and gangs maintain control and gain protection from thepolice. New generations have grown up in these communities

where morals against criminality is non existent.

Differentiation also has resulted in increased integration of

women and children into the criminal activities. They are

becoming more directly involved, especially in the drug trade,acting as couriers (secret messengers or smugglers) for guns

and drugs.


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of Criminals

Women are also accounting for growing proportions of

convicts. (1992 they accounted for 16% of all offenders, an

increase from 12% in 1977)

Children are also becoming more involved by becoming

hitmen and offenders, which contributes to increase in

juvenile delinquency.

Therefore, change in specialization has shifted from personsdeveloping new skills and networks needed for success of a

crime, who would have been involved in that crime, to roles

based along age and gender lines.


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of Criminals

There is variation in the levels of organization of criminal

groups.

Within the drug trade, norms and rules are developed whichallows the leadership to have power which preserves the

gang.

These groups assets are vast and they provide regular income

for their members Jamaican criminal groups now operate on an international

level. The internationalization of such groups is driven by the

quest for new drug markets.


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of Criminals

By 1990 Jamaican gangs became a significant player in the

drug (cocaine) market. Due to this, deportation has become a

measure for combating drug gangs.

Tighter integration in the US drug trade has facilitated in the

importation of guns, criminal networks and corruption of local

and political institutions and Jamaica with its high

materialistic culture has made it simpler for drug derived

sources to be easily translated into social and political power.


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The Embeddedness of

CriminalityJevonnes part


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The Embeddedness of Criminality

Criminality is considered embedded when formed in

interactions with others in networks of social relations.

Networks provide moral support and the practical skills

needed. The Garrison community provides a concentrated

expression of the problem of criminal embeddedness. Here,

the crime organization is superimposed on the political

structures, which provide the local narco-political dons with a

source of moral authority in these communities. Criminalorganizations perform both protective and allocative

functions.


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The protective function involves armed defense against

encroachments by political opponents and ordinary criminals

as well as it functions as control agents within the

communities- often providing effective guarantees against

predatory criminality. This serves to further morally legitimize

the criminal groups. In these communities, violence, even in

an offensive mode, may be considered legitimate. Some forms

of criminality, especially those involving voluntarytransactions have become socially acceptable means of

'survival' and accumulation.


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The embeddedness and the widening gap between legal and

social definitions of crime is an important factor conditioning

the ineffectiveness of crime control agents of the state. The

fear of social sanctions against criminality is negligible, thus

the deterent value of judicial sanctions has considerably

diminished. Embeddedness, with the consequent

criminogenic reputation and stigmatization of the

communities, outmigration of the upwardly mobile, anddecapitalization, has led to further isolation of the urban poor.


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Criminal embeddedness has its basis in the fairly high level of

integration of the underground informal and formal

economies at the community level. The underground is a

supplier and guarantor of cheap goods and services, thus

threats to the criminals are seen as threats to these services

and consequently to the local economy. these communities

therefore tend to develop defensive strategies designed to

protect 'their' criminal benefactors and to frustrate thecriminal justice system. These developments are the outcome

of criminogenic processes which have long been geminating in

Jamaican society and have become fully grown in the last

fifteen years.


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Group Members

Mikhaila Leid

Anastasia Gopee

Charnace Martin

Jevonne Horne

Aruna Mahadaeo

Documents

The Changing Social ion of Crime and Criminals