37c

AIv8

THE CHARACTERIZATION OF SHENG AND DAN

ROLES IN CHINESE OPERA

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

By

Hsiao-Mei Wang, B.A.

Denton, Texas

August, 1987

Wang, Hsiao-Mei, The Characterization of Sheng and Dan

Roles in Chinese Opera. Master of Arts (Dance and Drama),

August, 1987, 125 pp., bibliography, 68 titles.

This study sought to discover the principles of

characterization governing the Sheng and the Dan roles in

the Chinese opera. Seven Dan role divisions and three Sheng

role divisions were studied. It was discovered that

throughout its long history the Chinese opera had adhered to

its original singing and dancing styles; that the creative

activities involved in the opera's staging were subordinated

to singing and dancing styles; that the actors in the

Chinese opera perform only one role category in their

career; that years of rigid training were required before

the actors were allowed to perform on stage; that each role

division had its peculiar method of characterization that

was shown through their performances, their costumes, and

their acting techniques.

Copyright by

Hsiao-Mei Wang

August 1987

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS................................. vi

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION...............................

PurposeProblemsA Short History of The Chinese TheatreMethodology

II. THE DAN CHARACTERIZATIONIN CHINESE OPERA..........................21

Steps of Makeup and CostumingThe Daily Training RoutineCharacterization

Ching I (Cheng Dan)Hua DanHua ShanWu Dan and Dao-Ma Dan

Wu DanDao-Ma Dan

Lao DanChou Dan (or Tzai Dan)

III. THE SHENG CHARACTERIZATIONIN CHINESE OPERA........................... 58

Characterization

Lao ShengWen Lao ShengWu Lao ShengShwai Lao ShengHung Sheng

Hsiao ShengGuan ShengShan Tz ShengChiung ShengChi Wei ShengWa Wa Sheng

iv

Wu ShengChang Kao (or Kao Ba) Wu ShengDuan Da Wu Sheng

IV. CONCLUSION............................ .......... 93

APPENDIX..................................................105

BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................ 121

V

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

Chapter I

1. Role Chart of Chinese Opera................5

2. Dynasty Chart of China..................9...9

Chapter II

1. Soft Chiao................................ 25

2. Hard.Chiao.................................25

3. Orchid Finger I............................ 29

4. Orchid Finger II...........................29

5. Ching I................................. 32

6. Blue Coat..................................33

7. Actress in Palace Dress...................34

8. Hua Dan................................. 38

9. Jann I Jann Chiun.........................43

10. Wu Dan.................................. 44

11. Pink Kao................................ 47

12. Dao-Ma Dan.................................48

13. Lao Dan................................. 51

14. Chou P0................................. 52

Chapter III

1. Wen Lao Sheng--an Emperor.................65

2. Wen Lao Sheng--an Official................66

3. Shwai Lao Sheng............................70

vi

4. Hung Sheng.............................. 73

5. Shan Tz Sheng...............................77

6. Fu Gwei I............................... 80

7. Gao Fan Jing...............................80

8. Shwai Fa................................ 80

9. Chi Wei Sheng........................... 81

10. Wa Wa Sheng............................. . .. 83

11. Chang Kao Wu Sheng........................86

12. Duan Da Wu Sheng...........................87

13. Kwai I.....................,............ 90

vii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Although drama everywhere reflects life, differences in

artistic resources, aesthetic judgements, and national

characteristic and traditions among different cultures have

led to a variety of forms and styles of drama throughout the

world. Unlike most Western dramatic forms, the opera in

China achieved its reflection of life by means of a formula

of performance that resulted in a culturally-induced style

that was both traditional and purely symbolic. The

traditional singing and dancing styles were developed over a

long period of history since the Shang dynasty (1600-1028

B.C.). The symbolic style meant that in the Chinese opera

the characterizations, the inner feelings, the development

of the plot, the staging, the costume design, and the

general atmosphere of the performances were expressed

through established and precise codes.

Besides the symbolic style, a harmony of effect was

particularly important from the very beginning. First, in

ancient times, dancing was always combined with spoken verse

or song; second, instrumental music invariably was composed

to accompany chanted verse or narrative rather than to be

performed solo (Scott 16-17). The harmony effect was to be

attained by a strict formality applied rigorously to every

1

2

aspect of the actor's performance.

Because of the singing and dancing style, every sound

heard from the stage should be musicalized, and every

movement should be modified to look like dancing.

Therefore, even the spoken words were developed and spoken

out like singing verses in a song, and both were very

different from daily spoken Chinese. Every movement, as

subtle as opening a door, was developed more like dancing

than realistic movement (Tien 143-150). Because of the

completely symbolic style of the Chinese opera, song,

dialogue, movement, costume, make-up, and accompaniment were

not separate activities, but were units combined into a main

pattern of expression. Actors had to follow certain

formative rules to do the performance. Any deviation from

the audio-visual pattern, whether in the physical appearance

of the actor, his movements, and his costumes, or in the

stage ensemble was considered to have destroyed the

completeness of the entertainment (Wong, Art of Chinese

Opera 11-16; Scott 15-16).

From this three-thousand-year tradition of drama with

musical accompaniment, Chinese opera evolved about the

middle of the nineteenth century (Moy Art IV; Tien 2-6).

Many accomplishments, absorbed from other local dramas, were

used by the new form, and it became so popular that it

replaced Kun Chiu, which had remained supreme as a national

entertainment since the middle of the Ming dynasty (A.D.

3

1368-1644) (Scott 15).

Today, Chinese opera has become a national drama, not

only for mainland China but also for the Republic of China,

for the opera is welcomed and accepted by most people in

both countries, and is strongly advocated by their

governments. The early opera, about A.D.1805, was called

Ching Hsi--opera of the capital Peking. When the name of

the capital was changed to Peiping after A.D. 1911, the

opera was called Ping Chu--Peiping drama. Today, in both

mainland China and the Republic of China, this "drama" is

recognized as Kuo Chu--national drama, because it is a

genuine Chinese artform, upholding Chinese virtues, such as

loyalty, filial piety, chastity, justice, and righteousness

(Kwang Hwa, China and Chinese-14 1; Tien 93-94).

The plays of the Chinese opera customarily are

classified not as tragedies and comedies but as Wen Hsi,

Civil, and Wu Hsi, Military (Arlington 25). At the

beginning of the Ching dynasty (A.D.1368-1911), Wu Hsi was

invented as a companion for Wen Hsi (Chang 12), which is the

quieter of the two forms and portrayed domestic aspects of

social life. Wu Hsi, on the other hand, specialized in

martial subjects and consisted mainly of battle scenes. Wu

Hsi plots included wars, soldiers, military encounters, and

the adventures of brigands (Latsch 6), in which the emphasis

was placed on the acrobatic combats and violent deeds (Moy

Art IV; Latsch 5). Moreover, characteristics of both styles

4

were often intermingled in the plays, which have plots drawn

from historical events, imagined figures and events,

mythology, and folk lore. The materials from these sources

were mixed without regard to f actuality so long as a good

dramatic story resulted (Scott 20).

Both Wen Hsi and Wu Hsi employed four categories of

roles: Sheng (male), Dan (female), Ching (painted-face),

and Chou (comics). These role divisions showed only a few

differences during many separate periods of time. During

the Yuan dynasty (A.D. 1279-1368), the male roles were

called "Mo." During the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368- 1644), the

Sheng roles (young males) were added to the list of

characterizations, replacing the Mo. When Wu Hsi was

invented, the roles, like Wu Sheng, Wu Dan, Wu Ching, Wu

Chou, Wu Lao Sheng(old military men), and so forth, were

added.

After 1911, these roles were reorganized into four

categories: Sheng, Dan, Ching, Chou. All of the male roles

now belonged to the Sheng category, the female roles to the

Dan category, the face-painted roles to the Ching category,

and the comic roles to the Chou category. Within these four

categories, there were many lesser classifications of roles;

these are listed in Figure 1 (Chang 12-13).

The characters' descriptions in Figure 1 expressed

standardized attributes, such as old or young, good or bad,

5

Figure 1

Role Chart of Chinese Opera

-- Lao Sheng |I (old men) |

I-Wu Sheng---fI--Hsiao Sheng

(young men)I Sheng--I

I--Lao ShengI-Wen Sheng--I

I I-|--Hsiao ShengI

1--Ching I(idea women of beauty) II--Hua Dan(coquettish and active I

women)I--Hua Shan(characters between I

I IChing I and Hua Dan) II Dan---j--Dao Ma Dan(military women) I

I--Wu Dan(military women)I--Lao Dan(old women) II--Chou Dan

(Tzai Dan or comic character) I

I--Wu Ching(military painted-face) II Ching-I

I--Wen Ching(civil painted-face) I

I--Wu Chou(military comics)Chou--l

I--Wen Chou(civil comics)

beautiful or ugly, loyal or disloyal, and so forth, and paid

no attention to normal variations in human appearance.

Within these categories, each type of role had its own

gestures, style of movement, costumes, and particular vocal

techniques. The audience expected and was familiar with

this rigid and unchanging presentation (Scott 17-18). Since

the Ching Hsi stage lacked a real stage setting and actual

6

properties, there were two concentration devices--the

actors' techniques and the brilliant costumes. The actors'

techniques were the center of the whole art. Usually, the

techniques of singing and speaking were used to express the

plot and to introduce the status of the characters, and the

techniques of movements (dancing and gestures) and combats

were used to finish the whole artistic expression;

therefore, singing, speaking, movements (dancing and

gestures), and combats had to be done as a whole unit, or

else the harmony of the effect would be destroyed (Wong, The

Appreciation and Criticism 63). The brilliant costume

design was another way to concentrate the attention of the

audience on the person of the actor, regardless of factors

such as the lighting or the set (Wong, Shao-Jou 13-14).

Throughout the history of the Chinese opera and

especially in the twentieth century, an actor or an actress

was trained to play only one type of character. A detailed

knowledge of the singing and the movements of the character

had to be polished until each separate role was performed to

perfection. Each actor or actress was always distinctly

different from the other in dialogue, movements, costumes,

and qualities of voice, though it must also be said that a

very talented actor could change to other roles within that

category: for example, a Sheng actor could change from Wu

Sheng to Lao Sheng, but never to Ching or Chou.

7

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to discover the

principles of characterization involved in the Sheng and the

Dan characters in Chinese opera. The characters were studied

in terms of their costumes, makeup, voice requirements, and

special acting techniques.

Problems

The problem dealt with by this thesis was the

characterization of Sheng and Dan roles in the Chinese opera

provided by the costumes, the makeup, the voice

requirements, and the acting techniques. In the chapters to

follow this one, the questions given below will be answered:

1. What are the subdivisions of the Sheng and the Dan

categories?

2. How are they defined?

3. What the basic requirements for actors to get into

the training for each Sheng or Dan sub-division?

4. What are the general acting techniques for all Sheng

and Dan roles? What are the specific acting skills

unique to certain roles?

5. How are makeup and costumes used for certain roles?

6. What are the voice requirements for each division?

7. What are the line-reading skills for certain

divisions?

8

A Brief History of the Chinese Theatre

The Chinese opera traces its origins back to the songs

and dances within the festivals and the religious or public

ceremonies of ancient times. There was hardly a festive

occasion at a temple where a play was not performed.

Singing and dancing were regarded as the basis of all

dramatic expression in China. From this beginning, the

theatre evolved against a shifting background of social and

political changes which contributed to what, eventually,

became a national theatre. (Scott 28). A chronological

chart of Chinese dynasties was shown in Figure 2 on next

page.

During the Shang dynasty (1600-1028 B.C.), when the

people believed that witches had the power to communicate

with God, to praise God for people, and to ask for God's

blessing, and that the witchdance was the best way for

witches to do their jobs, the witchdance became central to

all festivals and religious ceremonies. About 1154 B.C. at

the latest, these dances were held everywhere and always at

the end of winter, the beginning of spring, and at harvest

time. One authority has asserted that the Chinese theatre

originated in these dances (Tien 24-25).

During the early years of the Chou Dynasty (1027-56

B.C.), the Chou Sung, a kind of dance which told stories,

replaced the witchdance as the most popular dance, and for

the first time music, dancing and singing were used together

9

Figure 2

Dynasty Chart of China

I Xia 2100-1600B.C. II Shang 1600-1028B.C.I Chou 1027-256B.C.I Qin 221-206B.C. || Han 206B.C.-A.D.220 |I Three Kingdoms A.D.220-265 II Western Tsin 265-317 II Eastern Tsin 317-420 |I Northern and SouthernI Kingdoms 420-589 II Sue 589-618 II Tang 618-907 I

Five Dynasties 907-960 II Song 960-1279 |I Northern Song 960-1126 |I Southern Song 1127-1279 |

Jin 1115-1234 || Yuan 1279-1368 IK Ming 1368-1644I Ching - 1644-1911 II Republic 1911- II People's Republic 1949-

in the same religious ceremonies. Because the Chou Sung had

both singing and dancing in its form of drama which told

stories, some authorities have assumed this activity was the

earliest drama in China. The Chou Sung both served the

religious ceremony and was used to praise the pioneers or

the heroes of the Chou dynasty. As a result, this form of

drama was strongly advocated by the nobility and because a

professional occupation during the Chou dynasty.

Eventually, court jesters had not only to worship god and

praise the pioneers, but also to entertain the Emperor and

the nobility (Halson 1). Jeou Ge was the most complete work

10

of this religious dance-drama. Sung actors were called "Yu

Chang" or "Pai Yu." "Pai" meant plot and dialogue, and "Yu"

and "Chang" meant music; therefore, people called the person

who could sing and dance either "Yu Chang" or "Pai Yu" (Tien

23-36).

After the Chou dynasty, during the Qin, there were no

obvious changes in the singing and the dancing at festivals.

By the beginning of the Han dynasty (206 B.C,-A.D. 220), Yu

Chang's job still was the worshiping of God and the playing

of jokes to entertain the emperors and the nobility. When

western China was conquered by the Han emperor, Wu Dy,

however, many new performing skills were imported into

China. Theatrical entertainment became more like a circus.

This new approach, called Bai Hsi, included wrestling,

acrobatics, stories about ancient people, magic shows,

farce, and a lion and dragon dance. Bai Hsi became very

popular during the remainder of the Han dynasty, and the

singing and dancing style still existed in the stories about

ancient people. According to Tien Shih Lin, females were

recorded as part of the acrobatic troupe; no doubt the Han

women also could participate in the theatrical activities.

When stories about ancient peoples were enacted, the most

popular play was Mr. Huang of the Eastern Ocean (Tien 52).

Mr. Huang also provided a rough form of the Chinese

opera's Wu Hsi; according to Tien Shih Lin, (1) it had plot

and theme, (2) it used singing and dancing to act out the

11

story, (3) it used makeup, (4) it had comic points, and (5)

it solved the conflict between good and evil by skillful

combat (Tien 44-45).

In the time between the Han and the Tang dynasties, a

period of national disunity caused by the invasions of many

non-Chinese peoples, puppet shows or marionette plays were

started in the We Kingdom during the Three Kingdom period

(A.D. 221-265). These events, which had begun with small

clay images moved by hand to represent actors in a play,

eventually took the form of glove puppets. The beautifully

formed puppets in full regalia worn in puppet shows today

are the direct descendants of the We puppets (Halson 2).

Although many small kingdoms were established all over

China during the invasion period, the kingdoms generally

were divided into northern China and southern China. In

northern China, music was common and close to everyday life;

in southern China, the music was more delicate than in the

north and the lyrics were quite literary (Tien 55-58).

Southern music was an early form of Kun Chiu, one of the

popular musical forms of the Ming dynasty. Masks that were

the forerunners of the painted faces in Chinese opera were

thought to have originated with a warrior called Lan Lin

Wong who was a famous general in Pei Chi, one of the

northern China kingdoms. He had such effeminate features

that he wore a mask to frighten his opponents. Actors

during this period also adopted masks of different designs,

12

and complicated patterns were worn (Halson 2).

Also during the period of the Northern and the Southern

Kingdoms, the adjutant play was developed, though it did not

become popular until the Tang dynasty. The adjutant play

was usually farcical and was named after the main character,

an adjutant.

Yet even though dance entertainments can be traced to

the Chou and the Han dynasties, not until the Tang dynasty

(A.D. 618-907) was the symbolic singing and dancing form of

drama established (Zung 59-60). Bai Hsi had reached its

climax during the Tang dynasty, Da Chiu was the music for

the dancing, and both Da Chiu and the adjutant play were

very popular. Dancers not only sang out the literary lines,

but also dressed in costumes and makeup to heighten the

dramatic effect of the Da Chiu. One of the Tang emperors,

Ming Huong, founded a theatre school, the Pear Garden (Chen

18). This school trained musicians and singers, but not

actors. The singing and the dancing were continued, and

costumes and makeup were added for color. The adjutant play

included dialogue which was the imitation of other

characters' speeches, jokes, and singing. The two main

characters were the Adjutant, a foolish character, and the

Tsang Ku, a clever and quick-witted character. In the play,

Tsang Ku would hit the Adjutant in order to make the

audience laugh. The character of the Adjutant evolved into

the Ching role; Tsang Ku, into the Sheng role (Tien 59-65).

13

Following the Tang dynasty, the Song dynasty was

divided into two periods. The northern Song began in A.D.

960 and ended in A.D. 1126, when it was conquered by a non-

Chinese people which established Jin dynasty in the northern

China. The southern Song began in A.D. 1127 and ended in

A.D. 1279 (Dolby 15). The puppet shows were popular

throughout both the Tang and the Song dynasties (A.D.

960-1279). Besides these puppet shows, a new form of drama,

the shadow play, also was popular during the Song dynasty.

Both of these influenced the singing style, costumes,

characterization, symbolic face-painting, and symbolic stage

sets in later periods of the Chinese drama. In the northern

Song, the term of "Tzar Jiu" came to be used to refer to the

Tang's Bai Hsi, the music used in both the Tzar Jiu and the

Bai Hsi was still the Da Chiu. During the southern Song, Da

Chiu began to be intermingled with the singing and the

dialogue; only one part of the Tzar Jiu told the story by

songs and dance. At the end of the northern Song, a local

drama began in southern China. Because it was named from

Wen Chou, the new drama was called Wen Chou Tzar Jiu. It

was different from the Yuan dynasty Tzar Jiu, because they

each had their own special style and attributes. Until the

Song dynasty, the Chinese theatre still used mostly singing

and dancing to tell stories, and few changes were made over

the centuries.

The Yuan dynasty (A.D. 1297-1368) saw the growth of

14

drama as an art form, and foundations were built that remain

the basis of all future development. The Yuan Tzar Jiu, in

fact, was the original form of today's Chinese opera.

Having reached a stage of maturity that allowed no other

schools, including the Kun Chiu and many other local dramas,

to exceed its style and rules, Yuan Tzar Jiu remained the

model for all types of drama thereafter. The techniques of

makeup, however, were developed from the Song shadow plays

that used colors and patterns to indicate the characters'

personalities. Costumes were developed during the Tang

dynasty to heighten dramatic effects. The use of simple

stage properties also evolved from the Song shadow play, the

properties were used to break the restrictions of time and

space. The structure of the plays, following the Song Tzar

Jiu tradition, was divided into singing and dialogue. The

musicians started playing on stage, to the side on the music

bench, or behind the actors. The four-act play became the

only form, and the role categories had been established.

They were Sheng, Dan, Ching, Mo (one of Sheng's

subdivisions), Chou, and Wai (Scott 31).

The Yuan drama also was marked by a division of styles

which was important in the history of Chinese opera. There

were two schools, northern, Pei Chiu, and southern, Nan

Chiu. "Chiu" literally meant songs and plays. The

difference between the northern and the southern schools lay

in the construction of the plays; that is, the music, the

15

dialogue, and the procedure differed with the place of

inspiration. The southern style paid more attention to the

use of scholarly and literary expressions; the northern

style emphasized the use of terms from everyday speech.

String instruments accompanied the singing in the northern

style, but the southern style used them only in a secondary

capacity. The chief instrument used by the southern style

was the flute. The songs of the northern school were lively

and vigorous in keeping with the bolder spirit of its

origin; those of the southern school were softer in melody

and feeling. The two schools continued to thrive, each in

its own fashion, until about the beginning of the Ming

dynasty (Scott 28-31).

During the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644), Chwan Chi, a

new type of drama in which there could be as many acts as

the story wanted but which stuck with the southern school's

tradition, broke the hold of the four-act play form and

became the most popular kind of drama. Then, in the middle

of the Ming dynasty, Chwan Chi came to be called Kun Chiu

because of a change in the melody that had been used. Kun

Chiu thus became the second most popular theatre during the

Ming dynasty. But because Kun Chiu was too literary,

another local drama, the Pee Huang, absorbed the qualities

of the Kun Chiu and became the main stream of Chinese

theatre. First developed along the Yangtze River, Pee Huang

is the main melody of today's Chinese opera.

16

Chien Lung, one of the emperors of the Ching dynasty

(A.D. 1644-1911), was particularly fond of drama. At his

invitation, four famous theatre groups from the areas

outside Peking and were established on a permanent basis.

The four groups merged the northern school, the southern

school, and other local schools of theatre into the opera

seen today in Chinese theatres. Pee Huang, the main melody

of today's Chinese opera, reached its golden age during the

reigns of Tung Ch and Kuang Hsyu (A.D. 1862-1908), two

Emperors of the Ching dynasty.

Since that time, influenced by the realistic theatre of

the west, many people have tried to transform the

traditional Chinese opera. Although scenery and lighting

effects have been added, the opera's singing and dancing

styles, its characterization, and its symbolization remain

unchange (Wong, Jia-Feng 58-60).

Methodology

In the art of Chinese opera, owing to its simple

scenery and its symbolic style of dancing and singing,

actors not only must sing and dance but also must act out

every detail in the plot. Actors are the center of the art

form, although this does not mean actors cannot act

according to their feelings, they must follow certain rules

to learn the proper symbolic expressions and then combine

their learning with their experiences in order to reach the

peak of this art.

17

Most critics of the Chinese opera focus on evaluating

the actor's techniques and his stage appearance to make

their conclusions about the plays being successful or not

(Wong, The Appreciation and Criticism 1-3). Utilizing this

viewpoint, this study chooses Sheng and Dan, two categories

of characters, and sorts out the rules that the actors have

to follow in their own field in order to show both the

characterization and the beauty of their art. Personal

interviews of an actress, an author, and an writer of the

Chinese opera were held to support the viewpoint of the

crictics. In addition, figures were used as the visual

presentions to show the typical silhouette of each role

division.

The result of this study will be reported in the two

chapters that follow this one. Chapter II will focus on

analyzing the Dan category, and the following points will be

examined:

1. The subdivisions of Dan category: Ching I, Hua Dan,

Hua Shan, Wu Dan, Dao-Ma Dan, Lao Dan, Chou Dan(or

Tzai Dan); the age and type of personality they

represent.

2. The requirements in each subdivision for qualifying

for training.

3. The general training for all the subdivisions.

4. The specific training for each division.

5. The costume and the makeup for each subdivision.

18

6. The voice requirements for all the subdivisions.

Chapter III will focus on the Sheng category, and the

following points will be covered:

1. The sub-divisions of the Sheng category: Lao Sheng

(Wu Lao Sheng, Wen Lao Sheng, Shwai Lao Sheng, and

Hung Sheng), Hsiao Sheng (Guan Sheng, Shan Tz Sheng,

Chiung Sheng, Chi Wei Cheng, Wa Wa sheng), Wu Sheng

(Chang Kao Wu Sheng and Duan Da Wu Sheng); the ages

and the personalities they represent.

2. The requirements in each subdivision for qualifying

for training.

3. The general training for all the subdivisions.

4. The specific training for each division.

5. The costume and the makeup for each subdivision.

6. The voice requirements for each subdivision.

Chapter IV will contain a summary and recommendations for

further research.

19

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Arlington, L.C. The Chinese Drama from the EarliestTimes Until Today. New York: Benjamin Blom Inc.,1966.

2. Chang, Po-Chin. Chinese Opera and its Face Painting.Taipei: National Fu Hsing Chinese OperaExperimental School, 1969.

3. Chen, Jack. The Chinese Theatre. London: Dennis DobsonLtd., 1949.

4. Dolby, A.W.E. A History of Chinese Drama. New York:Barnes & Noble, 1976.

5. Halson, Elizabeth. Peking Opera. Hong Kong, London,New York: Oxford University Press, 1966.

6. Kwang Hwa Publishing Company. China and Chinese-14Chinese Opera with a Difference. Taipei, R.O.C.:Kwang Hwa Publishing Company, 1980.

7. Latsch, Marie-Luise. Peking Opera as a European SeesIt. Beijing, China: New World Press, October 1980.

8. Moy, Ernest K., editor and compiler. Mei Lang-Fang.New York: China Institute in America, n.d.

9. Scott, A.C. The Classical Theatre of China. Westport,Connecticut: Greenwood Press, Publishers, 1957.

10. Tien, Shih-Lin. The Appreciation and Comprehension ofChinese Drama. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.: Fen FangBao Dao Magazine Inc., 1980.

11. Wong, Jia-Feng. "Make Chinese Opera Popular Again."Sinorama Magazine Jan. 1985: 56-62.

12. Wong, Shao-"Jou, Illustrator, and Kuo-Lin Chao. Gwo-Jiuh-Lean-Puu-I-Suey. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.: HanGuang Cultural Enterprise, Ltd., 1985.

13. Wong, Yuan-Fu. The Art of Chinese Opera. Taipei,

Taiwan, R.O.C.: Li Ming Cultural Enterprise, Ltd.,n.d.

14. Wong, Yuan-Fu. The Appreciation and Criticism ofChinese Opera. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.: Li Ming

Cultural Enterprise, Ltd., 1985.

20

15. Zung, Cecillia S.L. Secrets of the Chinese Drama. NewYork: Benjamin Blom, Inc., 1973.

CHAPTER II

THE CHARACTERIZATION OF THE DAN ROLES IN THE CHINESE OPERA

In his widely-admired article about the Chinese opera,

Sergei Eisenstein noted that even though the symbol Dan was

used as the basic concept of women on the Chinese stage, Dan

stood primarily for a "stylized, aesthetically abstract

image of women, altogether unrealistic" (Eisenstein 746).

In this chapter, the manner in which Dan roles have been

portrayed through the centuries will be examined. The

origin and development of the Dan characters, the steps of

makeup and dress-up, the daily training routine for all

categories' actors, and finally, the costumes, performances

and special training for Dan divisions will be studied.

Although male actors played the female roles on the

Ching Hsi stage during some periods of its history (Latsch

17), and early records show that the practice of employing

young men of good voice and physical charm for the parts of

women was long a common practice in China, this practice did

not forbid the use of women in the theatre until the Ching

dynasty (A.D. 1644-1911). During the Yuan dynasty (A.D.

1280-1368), the profession of actress was a flourishing one

even though it was contrary to the precepts of a

conservative society (Scott, Classical Theatre of China 68).

Not until the reign of Chien Lung were women banished

21

22

from the professional stage. After that, as female

impersonators became increasingly important many new

conventional and symbolic methods of interpreting female

characters were discovered.

When women were allowed the opportunity to return to

the stage after 1912, the actresses had to follow the rules

established by a long line of male actors in order to be

accepted by their audiences (Moy Art IV; Scott, Classical

Theatre of China 18). Even though many actresses had

acquired charm, perfected talent, and been accepted by the

audiences without question, the most successful interpreters

of women's roles still were the male actors. Mei Lang-Fang

was the best of many such actors (Scott, Classical Theatre

of China 69-70).

The Steps of Makeup and Costuming

Among the Sheng, Dan, Ching, and Chou categories, Dan

is the only one that represented female roles. These roles

were divided into seven divisions according to their type

and manner of action, and all these divisions were defined

according to their ages, personalities, and social status.

These seven divisions were: (1) Ching I, which meant "blue

coat" representing the modest and virtuous women (Today, the

dress has been changed to black); (2) Hua Dan, representing

the flirtatious women; (3) Hua Shan, representing the female

roles which developed during recent years as a result of the

23

combination of all the characteristics of Ching I and Hua

Dan; (4) Wu Dan, representing women who were skilled in

fighting, riding, and more masculine accomplishments; (5)

Dao-Ma Dan, representing horsewomen warriors, usually female

generals; (6) Lao Dan, representing elderly, dignified

ladies, such as mothers, aunts and widows; (7) Chou Dan (or

Tzai Dan), the comediennes, and sometimes the shrews or the

wicked maidservants (Zung 37; Halson 13-14; Chang 77; Scott,

Classical Theatre of China 73; Latsch 16-17; Moy Art V). No

matter what personalities or social status the Dan roles

represented, however, the makeup techniques were about the

same for each one except Hua Dan, which had a red dot or

heart-shaped drawing between her eyebrows while the others

had white color there. In any case, Hua Dan actors used the

following steps to put on their makeup and their costumes:

1. Clean face and put on white base.2. Blend carmine rouge into cheek from inner corner of

eyes, deep at the inner corner of eyes and graduallylighter to the cheek.

3. Powder all over of the face.4. Put red powder over the carmine rouge portion.5. Use black ink to draw upward shape of eyes.6. Draw eyebrows; their shape should be pointed at the

beginning and wider at the end--Ching I's aredignified and beautiful; Hua Dan's are alluringlyslender; Tzai Dan's are mischievously slanting.

7. Put on lipstick.8. Put on trousers and Chiao or false "Golden lilies"

shoes (Fig 1). Chiao was invented during Chien Lungby Wei Chang-Sheng. They are made of wood in theshape of "Golden Lilies" feet, about two and a halfinches long, four and a quarter inches high for softChiao Shoes and wrapped by embroidered cloth. Theway of wearing then is to tighten them to the feet.An actress has to walk on tiptoe while wearing Chiaoshoes.

24

9. Firmly tighten Chiao cloth, or else the ankles willbe easily hurt.

10. Wrap feet with Chiao Wrapper cloth after tighteningChiao Cloth.

11. Use adhesive tape to pull the eyes and eyebrowsupwards to make a noble slant.

12. Glue the wiglet along the hair line, first step of"Bao Da Tou," the procedure of arranging hair andjewels; then, glue the leaf-shape wiglet on eitherside of cheek, right beside the ears. This step iscalled "Tieh Pien Tz." "Tieh Pien Tz" was alsoinvented by Wei Chang-Sheng during the Chingdynasty.

13. Put on the artificial braids on the back of thehead.

14. Put on a hair net.15. Put on the whole wig and form a peanut-shape hair

ball on the center back of head.16. Then, pin on all the jewels. Jade-colored feathers

for rich and upper class women; diamond for middleclass women; silver beads for poor women.

17. Put on Phoenix shape pin beside the left ear.18. Add some flowers around the right ear. (Step 12-18

altogether are the complete steps for "Bao Da Tou.")19. Then put on their costumes.20. Pull two bonds of wig from the long wiglet, to both

sides of the front (Wong, Shao-Jou 18; Wong, Art ofChinese Opera 43; Moy Art V; Liu 146).

These steps served every Dan role except Lao Dan. The

Lao Dan actor wore no makeup, and his costume was more

subdued in color and design than the other Dan roles (Halson

15). Since the other Dan characters wore skirts, Lao Dan

eliminated Step 8 from the process. Also, only Hua Dan and

Wu Dan wore Chiao; other Dans wore flat, embroidered shoes

called Tzai Shieh (Liu 81-85).

The Chaio shoes were invented to help the actors show

their feminine characteristics. Foot-binding was a custom

that originated in the Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-907). It was

carried out in early childhood so that the growth of foot

25

T

Fig. 1. Soft Chiao

T.K--'1

Fig. 2. Hard Chiao

26

was restricted and the bone was deformed during the

procedure. There were two kinds of Chiao--hard Chiao (Fig

2) and soft Chiao. The entire shoes of hard Chiao were made

of wood, but only the soles of the soft Chiao were made of

wood. Usually, the Wu Dan wore hard Chiao and the Hua Dan

wore soft Chiao, but today, since walking on hard Chiao was

very painful, Wu Dan no longer wears hard Chiao. He wear

soft Chiao instead (Ma, Body Languages and Acrobatics

106-109). Also, since the Wu Dan's movements were vigorous

and violent, the Chiao shoes they wore were a little lower

than Hua Dan's (Liao 30). As A.C. Scott remarked, "women

with bound feet developed a teetering step which was

regarded as a mark of refinement and sexual appeal. The

most seductive courtesans were considered those whose tiny

feet made them sway from side to side with a hip movement."

Thus, the actors who played female roles devised the "Chiao"

shoes for this mimicry, and even though women performed most

of the female roles during the past twenty years, the

simulated foot boundary rule was still used (Scott, Theatre

in Asia 132-33).

The Daily Training Routine

All the students in the Chinese opera lived and were

trained in the Opera School, and the training took several

years to complete. The student actors, like Western ballet

dancers, started their training at an early age, long before

27

their physical development reached maturity. The preferred

age to begin training was between seven and twelve. Once

chosen, the young actors lived rigid lives in the opera

School that included instructors' assigning them types of

roles based on each actor's physical appearance, voice

quality, facial appearance, and stature. The daily regimen

provided by the school were, first, group voice training for

all the Sheng, Dan, Ching and Chou students; second,

fundamental acrobatics and movements training, including Tan

Tz Kung--a series of exercises designed to increase

flexiblity and strength, and improve coordination (Mindich,

Part I 22-23), and Chi Pen Kung--fundamental eye, hand, body

and leg movements, and Ba Tz Kung--fighting with weapons

(Mindich, Part II 33-36); finally, the advanced training for

each division.

During the group voice training session, under the

supervision of their instructors, the pupils would get up at

six a.m. summer and winter, and spend an hour practicing the

character voice against walls which served as sounding

boards. In this way, the actors' voices acquired the

necessary power and strength for their roles. After voice

practice, each pupil went to special classes for his

category. This daily routine lasted until the pupils were

able to portray their characters without the instructors'

help. Then the actors were allowed to play roles on the

stage (Scott, Classical Theatre of China 58-62). A Dan

28

role, except Hua Dan, Lao Dan, and Chou Dan, spoke with a

characteristic half-speaking, half-singing intonation which

was called Yun Pai, and sang with a falsetto as well (Latsch

16-17).

During the fundamental training section, there were two

things all Dan pupils needed to learn. First, learning to

walk on the Chiao was needed not only for introducing the

bonded feet to the audience, but also for showing the

charming and delicate body movements of a woman. Only the

Wu Dan and Hua Dan actors used the Chiao, of course, and the

Lao Dan and the Chou Dan employed a more natural way of

walking (Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 34).

At first,-the pupils learned to walk on Chiao for five

minutes daily; gradually the length of time was increased

until the actors could walk freely and skillfully for two

hours (Scott, Classical Theatre of China 63). The technique

of balancing on Chiao was to stand upright with two legs

close together while walking (Ma, Body Language and

Acrobatics 110). The result was short, swaying, and mincing

steps that were both graceful and capable of walking in

accordance with a strict tempo and forming both quick and

slow movements (Moy Art VII).

Another specialty of the Dan actors was learning the

"Orchid Finger," of which there were three types. The first

position involved pressing the middle of the middle finger,

and stretching th'e other fingers stiffly outwards from the

29

Fig. 3. Orchi Finger I

Fig. 4. Orchid Finger II

30

palm (Fig 3). The second position placed the thumb and the

middle finger to form a circle, stretching the index finger

and curving the ring and the small fingers (Fig 4). The

third position included forming both hands into the first

position and then resting both hands near the waist.

Though separate from each other, the three positions

could interchange according to the need of a play. Each

time there was a movement, the eyes followed the hands and

at the same time, the body stood upright and relaxed (Liang

43-46). Years of practice were required before the pupils

could make the Orchid Finger movements appear totally

natural.

After the finger positions and movements had been

mastered, the students learned symbolic acting techniques

that included opening and closing a door, getting on a boat,

and holding a handkerchief, a basket, a horsewhip, and so

forth (Liang 115-123; 167-184). All the while a Dan actor

had to smile charmingly and with tranquility (Zung 44).

Besides training their voices and their hand-eyes-

posture movements, the Dan pupils had to acquire many

advanced hand and foot movements. The Ching actors, for

example, learned the movements of water sleeves, the long

white strips of cloth which attached to the regular sleeves,

left open at seam, white in color, about one-and-a-half to

two feet long, seventeen and a half inches wide, and made of

sheer silk; the Hua Dan actors had to mimic delicate hand

31

movements, such as doing needle work; the Wu Dan and the

Dao-Ma Dan had to learn combat techniques. After all these

trainings, the pupils could begin working on characters in

actual plays. The actors practiced the plays over and over

until they could perform the necessary personalities with

great skill.

Characterization

Except for Lao Dan and Chou Dan, the major principle

for the Dan actors' techniques was to make the actions look

beautifully, delicately, and vividly portrayed. Many years

of practicing the basic training were required before an

actor could do them skillfully. Yet once in character, an

actor needed even more time to analyze his characters and to

learn some specific techniques for portrayed them.

Ching I (Cheng Dan)

The costumes for the Ching I (Fig 5) were a blue coat,

silver beads for the head, a white satin skirt, and the Tzai

Shieh.--soft, flat, embroidered shoes; occasionally the Ching

I wore a palace dress instead. As mentioned previously (see

p.22), Ching I was named for the blue coat worn by the

character (Fig 6); it would have been more accurate to have

named the character after its sleeve movements. The fact is

that the use of a blue coat for Ching I depended on what

social class the character represented. If she was poor,

32

t.

Fig. 5. Ching I

33

Fig. 6. Blue Coat

f

'1111 11-

R

i

34

Ao $

Fig. .Acressin PlaceDres

35

the blue coat was worn; if she was rich or a princess, the

palace dress was worn (Fig 7). In both situations, however,

the water sleeves were always used (Chyi 38 & 40; Liao 52)

Liao 52).

The Ching I characters represented good, honest,

simple, dignified women; they also were the Chinese ideal of

feminine beauty (Moy Art V; Chang 77). These women could be

either young or middle-aged. Social types portrayed by

Ching I were the good matron, the faithful wife, the filial

daughter, and the lover in distress.

The Ching I's acting techniques emphasized singing and

line-reading; no fighting techniques or other vigorous

movements were required (Liu 81-82). The line-reading skill

involved both half-singing and half-speaking styles which

were called Yun Pai (Chang 9). As a consequence, the singing

voice was characterized by long, plaintive arias and by a

high-pitched quality accompanied by many beautiful sequences

of sleeve movements and hand gestures (Scott, Traditional

Chinese Plays Vol 1 16; Moy Art V). The Ching I's body-and-

eye movements were very slow, a style of movement that

indicated the women were virtuous and conservative. Her

actions contained not a vestige of seductiveness or

winsomess, and she was always demure and graceful. Taking

careful footsteps, she kept her feet close to the ground.

The hands, always in a graceful and dignified position, were

often crossed on the waist (Moy Art V). The eyes were kept

36

lowered or were directed straight in front to indicate

shyness. Her good breeding was shown by the graceful,

flowing movements of the water sleeves (Halson 14). When

the Ching I entered or withdrew form the stage, her head was

inclined forward; when she left the stage, she elevated her

right sleeve.

One of the most important of the Ching I's techniques

the management of the water sleeves. All Dan roles used the

water sleeve very often, but Ching I employed it the most

(Liang 127). Like stage movements, managing sleeve

movements was always in accordance with the rhythm of the

music (Zung 77).

According to Liang Hsiou-Chuan, there were more than

fifty different kinds of sleeve movements, each with its own

particular pattern of grace and symmetry, and of symbolic or

directly expressive connotation. Only a few examples can be

examined here. In the "weeping sleeve," the actor held the

upper corner of the sleeve with the right hand, and raised

it just near enough to his eyes to make it appear that he

was wiping away his tears with the sleeve; the sleeve served

as a handkerchief. When performing the "attention sleeve,"

the actor raised the right hand to the side of the head and

by a circular wrist movement folded the right sleeve upward

and outward until he let it fall back and hang naturally

from the wrist, while he said, "Behold!"; this statement

meant to look ahead, to tell the person addressed to look

37

ahead, or to give a signal call to the orchestra. When

performing the "concealing sleeve," the actor raised the

hand to the right side to a position higher than the cheek

and a little to the front, sufficiently high to hide the

actor's face, formed a semi-circle with the arm, and

remained silent with eyes cast downward in order to show

embarrassment or to prevent himself from being discovered.

When performing the "greeting sleeve," the actor placed the

left hand below the chest on the right side of the waist,

and put the right hand on the left hand; at the same time,

he made a graceful bow to show respect to the person greeted

(Zung 79-91). The water sleeve movements had to be

practiced over and over until the arm and the wrist could

move smoothly and gracefully.

Hua Dan

The costumes for the Hua Dan usually were diamonds for

the headdress, a jacket and trousers, though sometimes

skirts were worn, "Wei Tzwei" as well as aprons with lots of

colorful embroidery on them, a handkerchief, and soft Chiao

shoes. This kind of daily dress was popular during the last

fifty years of the Ching dynasty. The employment of the

regular sleeve length and the trousers was to fit the need

of the vigorous and quick movements required by Hua Dan

roles. The use of a handkerchief, Chiao shoes, and bright

colors benefited the coquettish and lively person who swung

38

gt

Fig. 8. Hua Dan

39

her body and hands from side to side (Chyi 39; Liao 52; Shih

84).

The Hua Dan (Fig 8) characters represented active,

coquettish, charming, and wordly wise young women who were

younger than the Ching I and could be either good or bad

women. Because their social class was not restricted, they

could be active and wise country girls, vivacious maid-

servants, coy and coquettish women, demi-mondes, or

courtesans (Chen 33; Moy Art v & VI; Halson 14). According

to the Dictionary of Chinese Drama , the Kuei-Mei Dan, the

Wan-Shiao Dan and the Puo-La Dan all were classified into

this category. The Kuei-Men Dan took the part of a younger

Hua Dan; The Wan Shiao Dan, young middle-class married women

or the Puo-La Dan, bad-tempered and violent women.

Unlike the idealized Ching I roles, the Hua Dan roles

tried to be closer to real life and actual people, and

certainly they were more sensational and emotional than the

Ching I roles. To achieve this active and coquettish

personality, the Hua Dan actor employed facial expressions,

hand-gestures, eye movements, and a large number of

acrobatic and dancing techniques, especially those connected

with walking on Chiao shoes. Though the Hua Dan's movements

still had grace, they were livelier than those of the Ching

I. As mentioned previously (see p.37), to help with this

style of performance, the Hua Dan's costumes were designed

for quick and vigorous movements; a jacket and trousers were

40

included most of the time (Shih 81-84; Halson 14 & 44).

Sophisticated singing and line-reading skills that showed

mastery of literary effects were not required by the Hua Dan

characters; because of their lower social status, their

spoken lines were closer to the tones of life (Wong, Shao-

Jou 16). A method of line-reading was called "Jing Pai,"

which sounded close to the modern Chinese language but

required greater clearness and liveliness when lines were

read, were used by the Hua Dan (Wong, Appreciation and

Criticism 62).

In order to show a seductive and coquettish

personality, the Hua Dan's special training became very

complicated and strict. First, as mentioned previously (see

p.28), was walking on Chiao shoes. Since the procedure was

painful, the Hua Dan actors had to take quite a long time to

get used to it before they could get into character and

swing their bodies from one side to the other as they

walked. At the same time, the hands had to swing with the

rhythm of the body movements. This walking would be

practiced over and over until hands and body were able to

move together as a very elegant and harmonious unit (Liu

146-147).

In the Chinese concept, women's hands were born to do

delicate work and only with those actions could feminine

beauty be expressed totally. Since the Hua Dan's hands were

outside his sleeves and he always carried a handkerchief the

41

delicacy of the hand movements was important. Therefore,

the line of arms, palms, and fingers had to look beautiful

when they moved, using the orchid-finger positions. There

were several important examples of such movements, and the

best one for showing the delicacy of hands was the movement

used when doing needlework. Accompanied with music, the

hand movements of needlework could reach an artistic.climax

(Shih 95-100). Eye movements also were an important acting

technique for the Hua Dan. In order to show coquetry and

wickedness the Hua Dan actors had to know how to make the

eyes reveal emotions. In the past, the teachers usually lit

incense for eye concentration training, and made the eyes

follow the incense moving upward, downward, from right to

left or from left to right until the eyes could move

smoothly and quickly; they then made the pupils face the

mirror to combine eye movements with those of the other

features and practice them until all the features worked

well together (Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 32-33). Today,

teachers use a wooden stick for this training. The famous

Dan actor, Mei Lang-Fang, used incense in a dark room to

train himself (Shih 102).

Hua Shan

The Hua Shan costumes were similar to those of the

Ching I, but the colors employed were brighter and had a

more embroidered design. Since the Hua Shan's movements did

not need to be as vigorous and coquettish as those of the

42

Hua Dan, the Hua Shan actors wore the Tzai Shieh, which were

flat, embroidered shoes (Liao 52-53).

The Hua Shan characterization occupied a happy middle

ground between that of the Ching I and the Hua Dan. That

is, singing and line-reading techniques were the same as the

Hua Dan, although the Hua Shan's costumes were brighter than

those of the Ching I. Even though both categories showed

many attributes, the Hua Shan characters were charming but

not so coquettish as those potrayed by the Hua Dan actors;

graceful but not so dignified as the Ching I (Wong, Shao-Jou

16; Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 33; Liu 82-83). Since many

characters could not be placed clearly in the Ching I and

the Hua Dan categories, the Hua Shan category was developed.

These in-between characters such as Susan in "Yu Tang

Chwen," and Yang Gwen-Fei in "Gwen Fei Chwei Jiu," were Hua

Shan types.

Wu Dan and Dao-Ma Dan

In the Chinese opera, there were two military Dan

characters: Wu Dan, a brave martial woman with supernatural

powers whose fighting was extremely acrobatic, and Dao-Ma

Dan, a strong woman who could fight acrobatically but who

was less violent than Wu Dan, and who relied more on singing

and dancing skills (Chang 78).

Wu Dan

The Wu Dan actor wore diamonds for the headdress, soft

43

Fig. 9. Jann I Jann Chiun

IJe

f *0F

-

-

D

Fig. 10. Wu Dan

44

45

Chiao shoes, "Jann I Jann Chiun," consisting of a jacket,

trousers and two pieces of cloth covering each side of the

legs (Fig 9), a waist band, and carried the weapons required

by the plays. This jacket-and-trousers costume also was

designed to accommodate quick and violent movements; the

Chiao shoes, to portray feminine beauty (Chyi 40; Liao 55;

Liu 205-206).

As a rule, the Wu Dan (Fig 10) character was a female

robber, a thief, a goblin or a woman with magical powers.

As noted above (see p.26), a mastery of fighting techniques

on Chiao shoes and the more masculine movements was

required. Since the Wu Dan characters were not ordinary

people and they had supernatural powers, they could remain

young and beautiful all the time. Because of this ability,

the Wu Dan had to take the stage beautifully and gracefully.

Thus, a Wu Dan actor had to have good looks, health, and

quick-responses, but not necessarily a good voice (Liu 206

-207). The Wu Dan's movements had to be smaller and more

graceful than the Wu Sheng (see Chapter III). The most

important Wu Dan movement was the "Da Chu Shou," which meant

not only dancing with weapons in his hands, but fighting

opponents by kicking, hooking, bumping and catching weapons

back and forth, and using different somersaults. In another

words, the Wu Dan used every possible and beautiful way to

deliver weapons to their opponents (Wong, Art of Chinese

Opera 33-34; Ma "About the Fighting Techniques of Wu Dan,

46

Dao-Ma Dan and Four Famous Dan Actors" 53-54; Liu 205).

Thus, when a Wu Dan actor was fighting on stage, his eyes,

mouths, hands, and feet all had something to do; at the same

time, the audience could see weapons flying all over the

place.

Da Chu Shou was the main technique which decided a Wu

Dan's success. When the flying-weapon techniques were

called for, the Wu Dan's opponents were important, because

if they threw a weapon without the right strength, the good

balance, and the exact direction, the action would be

destroyed. For example, when a spear was thrown at a Wu

Dan, he had to bend the body and kick it back by the back of

one ankle; at this moment, the thrower must throw it

balancingly enough to the exact position where Wu Dan's

ankle will reach, or else the Wu Dan will miss the spear and

the action will not be complete. This was one kind of

harmony in Chinese opera, and it a took many hours of

practice in order to reach the necessary artistic standard.

The flying weapons represented unusual things which could be

controlled only by the person who had supernatural power;

thus ordinary people, such as some Wu Sheng and Dao-Ma Dan

characters did not have to Da Chu Shou (Liu 206-207).

Dao-Ma Dan

As a female general, the Dao-Ma Dan actor's costume

included a headdress with pheasant feathers; red Tzai Shieh,

an soft, flat, embroidered shoes; pink "Kao" (Fig 11),

47

Fig. 11. Pink Kao

i

a I

48

7a 1 6

,y

Fig. 12. Dao-Ma Dan

49

an ancient Chinese formal armor, and the flags which were

the sign of the commander's authority in ancient China, but

which today serves as a costume decoration for enhancing the

dance. Bows and arrows were the weapons carried most of the

time by the Dao-Ma Dan. Symbols of horses were provided by

horse whips which completed the costume (Chyi 41 & 58; Liao

55).

The Dao-Ma Dan actor (Fig 12) usually portrayed female

generals who commanded the army. All they needed to do was

to give orders, and since they rarely fought with the enemy,

skillful fighting techniques were less important than

singing and dancing while wearing a headdress with two

pheasant feathers stretching out of it (Liu 205). The

pheasant feather on the headdress were called "Ling," and

were adapted from a costume used by the Chinese rare tribes.

The feather, which came from the tail of a pheasant, was six

to seven feet long. Its main function was to enhance the

beauty of the dancing.

Because of the existence of the Ling in the Dao-Ma

Dan's costume, managing the Ling movements became his most

important technique; dancing with the Ling was the most

beautiful part of this role. Sometimes, the actor posed

with holding the Ling in one or both hands, or in the mouth,

and sometimes he used neck movements to draw a circle

through the Ling in the air. The Ling stood for elegance,

and feet movements were the key to its characteristics. If

50

the feet movements were floppy or loose, the Ling would move

in a disorderly manner. The idea was to move the Ling with

beautiful neck movements that drew a circle through the Ling

or made them move back and forth naturally (Ma, "Kue-Zuo,

Tieh-Zuo, Ling" 36-37).

Lao Dan

The Lao Dan's costumes were more subdued in color and

design than those of the other Dan characters. He wore no

makeup and always carried a long staff for supporting his

hesitant steps. If the character were a rich old woman, the

costume would be more colorful than for a poor old woman

(Chyi 38; Liao 53).

Either way, the Lao Dan (Fig 13) character was a

dignified old woman. Her costume, body shape and movements

exhibited the characteristics of aged people, and was the

most realistic female role on the Ching Hsi stage. Lao Dan

women walked with a bent back and a lowered head, supporting

hesitant steps with a long staff.

The Lao Dan actors used a real voice to sing, very

similar to that of the Lao Sheng but using one of the Ching

I's tunes. The types of roles ranged from poor to rich old

women, even to old queens. Their singing needed to be slow

and their line-reading had to be slow and gentle, but seem

never to stop; the result was the impression of talking to

themselves. Nine out of ten times such talking was about

51

I)

Fig. 13. Lao Dan

-F 1

Fi.C.

52

Chou Po

53

life, death, and departure; the Lao Dan characters seldom

smiled. The important thing was to sing, read, and act well

enough to be taken for an actual old woman. If these goals

were accomplished, a Lao Dan actor was considered to be'

good. Since the Lao Dan usually were not the major

characters in a play, they had fewer theatrical requirements

than the Ching I, the Hua Dan, the Wu Dan, and the Dao-Ma

Dan characters (Sott, Classical Theatre of China 74; Halson

15)

Chou Dan (or Tzai Dan)

The Chou Dan actors were the female comics of the

Chinese opera. "Tzai Dan" were younger women; "Chou Po,"

the older women (Fig 14). In the opinion of at least one

historian, both roles should be classified in Chou Dan,

because their acting styles were the same, even though their

costumes were different (Liu 363-364). Another historian

stated that since their costumes and the age groups they

represented were different, they should be individualized

(Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 35-37). In this thesis, Liu's

method of classification has been used. They wore very

heavy white powder and rouge. Their costumes were colorful.

Usually, they wore a suit of jacket and trousers, a waist

band, and Tzai Shieh (Chyi 41; Liao 53-54).

In their liveliness of costumes and makeup, the Tzai

Dan was akin to the Hua Dan. The character could be played

by other Chou or Hua Dan actors. Though sometimes they

54

could be beautiful or graceful, they always remained

trifling in nature and often mean (Moy Art V). The Chou Po

were wicked, evil maidservants or scheming matchmakers, and

they were played by men most of the time (Scott, Classical

theatre of China 73). Both the Tzai Dan and the Chou Po

read their lines in an everyday manner, and both spoke

quickly and fluently, sometimes in dialects.

These comic actors had a great deal of freedom to say

or do things, and though they exaggerated a lot, they always

created a sense of satire. They often improvised comic

lines for special situations, making faces and evil

movements. The Chou Po's actions could be rude and mean,

for example, and the Tzai Dan's disgustingly coquettish with

eyes rolling in diabolical mischievousness. No matter what

they did, their chief purpose was to make people laugh and

thus relieve the tension of the plot (Liu 357-367).

In the Chinese opera, all female characters were

portrayed through seven fixed groups--Ching I, Hua Dan, Hua

Shan, Wu Dan, Dao-Ma Dan, Lao Dan, and Chou Dan. In this

chapter, the principles of each group's costumes,

performances, and special trainings has been examined. The

figures were used to provided a typical silhouette for each

division, though sometimes actors wore specific costumes for

certain plays. Their performances were always fixed so that

their audiences could tell their ages, social status, and

basic personality at first glance when the actors first

55

appeared on the stage. Their special training provided the

artistic points for both the higher appreciation and the

entertainment of the Chinese opera. Through this formula of

portraying female characters, the symbolism of Chinese opera

in its characterization was easily shown. Chapter III will

deal with a second category of roles--the Sheng characters.

56

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Chang, Lien-Cheng, ed. Dictionary of Chinese Drama.Shanghai: Shanghai Dictionary and Book Publisher,1981.

2. Chen, Jack. The Chinese Theatre. London: Dennis DobsonLtd., 1949.

3.Chyi Ru-Shan. Gwo Jiuh Twu Puu. Taipei, Youth CulturalEnterprise Co., Ltd., 1981.

4. Eisenstein, Sergei. "The Enchanter from the Pear Garden."Theatre Arts Monthly October, 1935: 760-770.

5. Halson, Elizabeth. Peking Opera. Hong Kong, London, NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1966.

6. Latsch, Marie-Luise. Peking Opera as a European Sees It.Beijing, China: New World Press, October 1980.

7. Liang, Hsiou-Chuan. SHOU-YEN-SHEN-FA-PU: MovementMethods for the Female Roles of the ChineseTheatre. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.: Yuan Liu Press,1983.

8. Liao, Tzan-Huei. Ping Ju Hong Tou Geng Neng Ch len Jou.Taipei: Folklore and Drama Art Magazine Publisher, July1982.

9. Liu, Szu. Chinese Opera's Characters and Actors.Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.: Li Ming Cultural EnterpriseLtd., 1972.

10. Ma, Lee-Chu. "About the Fighting Techniques of Wu Dan,Dao-Ma Dan and Four Famous Dan Actors." ChineseOpera Monthly Oct. 5, 1983: 53-54.

11. Ma, Lee-Chu. "Kue-Zuo, Tieh-Zuo, Ling." Chinese OperaMonthly Aug. 5, 1983: 34-37.

12. Ma, Lee-Chu. Body Languages and Acrobatics in ChineseOpera. Taipei: Kai Li Publishing Inc., 1986.

13. Mindich, Jeffery H. "Part I: The Spirit of ChineseOpera---A Passion for Perfect Performance." Free ChinaReview Oct. 1986: 22-33.

14. Mindich, Jeffery H. "Part II: The Spirit of ChineseOpera---A Delight in Perfected Images." Free ChinaReview 36:33-47, November, 1986.

57

15. Moy, Ernest K., edited and compiled. Mei Lang-Fang.New York: China Institute in America, n.d.

16. Scott, A.C. The Classical Theatre of China. Westport,Connecticut: Greenwood Press, Publichers, 1957.

17. Scott, A.c. The Theatre in Asia. New York: MacillanPublishing Co., Inc., 1972.

18. Scott, A.C. Traditional Chinese Play. Vol. I. Madison,Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1969.

19. Shih, Shu-Ching. Chinese Opera as Western People SeeIt. Taipei: Lien Ching Publisher, 1976.

20. Wong Shao-Jou, and Tsaur Gwo-Lin. The Art of ChineseFace Painting. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.: Han GuangCultural Enterprise, Ltd., 1985.

21. Wong, Yuan-Fu. The Appreciation and Criticism ofChinese Opera. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C. : Li MingCultural Enterprise, Ltd., 1985.

22. Wong, Yuan-Fu. The Art of Chinese Opera. Taipei,- Taiwan, R.O.C.: Li Ming Cultural Enterprise, Ltd.,n.d.

23. Zung, Cecillia S.L. Secrets of the Chinese Drama. NewYork: Benjamin Blom, Inc., 1973.

Chapter III

THE CHARACTERIZATION OF THE SHENG ROLES IN THE CHINESE OPERA

In the Chinese opera, all characters were assigned to

four categories--Sheng, Dan, Ching and Chou. Taken as a

group, the categories represented the great variety and

diversity of human beings on earth. Within each category;

moreover, there were several subdivisions which examined

different groups of people still more closely. The Dan

category, for example, was divided into Ching I, Hua Dan,

Lao Dan, Wu Dan, and Dao Ma Dan characters according to

their ages and styles of acting. The Sheng category had

three subdivisions --Lao Sheng, Hsiao Sheng and Wu Sheng

(Wong, Appreciation and Criticism of Chinese Opera 57). All

non-face-painted male roles and all scholars, statesmen,

warrior patriots, faithful retainers, and the like were

portrayed by Sheng actors. This chapter will examine these

divisions of the Sheng category. The examination will

include the origin and the development of the Sheng

characters, the similarity and difference in the training

requirements between the Sheng and the Dan performers, and

the characterizations of the Sheng subdivisions.

The term "Sheng" was first used during the Song dynasty

(A.D. 960 -1279). Except for the Yuan Tzar Jiu (see Chapter

I, p.4), which was popular during the Yuan dynasty (A.D.

58

59

1279-1368) and which called old male characters "Mo," all

types of Chinese opera referred to young males as Sheng

characters. These young men usually were the major

characters in a play. In recent years, however, the Sheng

category was divided into Lao Sheng, Hsiao Sheng and Wu

Sheng, acc-rding to differences in age, social status, and

acting techniques (Chang 73; Wong, Shao-Jou 14; Liu 3-4).

There were several divisions within each of these three

groups. The Lao Sheng category contained (1) Wen Lao

Sheng--aged civil officials, servants, or scholars; (2) Wu

Lao Sheng--aged generals or warriors; (3) Shwai Lao Sheng--

men above sixty years old; (4) Hung Sheng--a red-faced-

painted character used only for the role named "Guan Yu" in

the plays about the Three Kingdoms period (A.D. 425-598).

The Hsiao Sheng characters were (1) Guan Sheng--young

officials; (2) Shan Tz Sheng--young scholars carrying a fan;

(3) Chiung Sheng--poor young men who usually became rich and

famous at the end of the play; (4) Chi Wei Sheng--young

generals wearing the headdress with pheasant feathers; (5)

Wa Wa Sheng--children. The Wu Sheng group included only two

types of roles: Chang Kao Wu Sheng, generals with fighting

skills, and Duan Da Wu Sheng, heroic robbers, thieves, and

so forth with good fighting and wrestling skills.

The similarity between the training requirements for

the Sheng and for the Dan pupils, as mentioned previously in

Chapter II, was that all the performers in the Chinese opera

60

had to submit to the same daily routine of training for many

years. The difference was that a Dan performer needed only

to concentrate on one type of character; a Sheng performer

had to study every character within his field. A Dan

performer could choose to study only Ching I, Hua Dan, or

Lao Dan, but to be a Sheng performer one had to study all

the subdivision's roles. A Lao Sheng performer, for

example, had to learn all the parts of Wen Lao Sheng, Wu Lao

Sheng, Shwai Lao Sheng, and Hung Sheng. The reasons for

this difference were that theatre groups usually could not

afford so many actors even though the Sheng characters were

supposed to be the leading male roles in the Chinese opera.

Very often, in fact, a Sheng character would change from one

subdivision to another within a single play. Such

characters could be a Chiung Sheng at the beginning and a

Shan Tz Sheng at the end, for example, or a Chi Wei Sheng at

the beginning and a Shan Tz Sheng at the end. As a result

of this requirement, one could say only that a certain Sheng

actor was good at Shan Tz Sheng, Shwai Lao Sheng, or Chang

Kao Wu Sheng parts, but not that a certain performer was a

Shan Tz Sheng actor or Shwai Lao Sheng actor (Liu 31-48).

Characterization

Lao Sheng

The Lao Sheng actors always wore a beard that served as one

way of symbolizing oldness in the Chinese opera. Sometimes

61

the Lao Sheng performers were called Shiu Sheng, which meant

"bearded men." Only a very few Lao Sheng actors did not

wear beards--Shieh Pin Gwei, for example, in Tou Jiun Bei

Yao. The easiest way to recognize a Lao Sheng actor,

therefore, was to see if he wore a beard but did not paint

his face (Moy Art VI; Scott, Traditional Chinese plays

15-16; Chang 74).

Masks were used very often in the ancient Chinese

drama, and beards evolved from them. At first, the beards

were glued directly to the masks; later, since each mask

fitted only certain characters--a limit to characterization

--the actors then knotted bundles of hair on a wire to make

moveable beards that could be hooked over the ears. Since

this addition aided the characterization, even when the

masks were abolished the wire beards were kept. The

moveable beards not only added to the characterizations but

also freed the actors' mouths and chins for declamations.

The actors also could enhance many movements and postures by

playing with the beards (Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 75-6;

Chen 33). The color of the beards was used to indicate

differences in age. Black indicated age thirty to fifty;

gray, the autumn of life between fifty and sixty; white,

above sixty (Latsch 23; Liao 45). The shapes of the beards

indicated the characters' social status and personalities.

As a rule, scholarly and refined men wore a three-tuft

beard; brave and fearless generals, full-sized beards; the

62

general Guan Yu or Guan Gung (categorized Hung Sheng), a

five-tuft beard (Chang 73-74; Wong, Art of Chinese Opera

77).

The Lao Sheng characterization was the most difficult

of all the Sheng divisions. With ages that ranged from

thirty to about eighty years old, the character portrayed

might be just an emperor, a high ranking official, an elder

statesman, a scholar, or even an honest fisherman. Besides

having to portray these differences in social status or age

as required by the complicated plots, the Lao Sheng's

acting, especially their facial expression, was very much

emphasized. In addition, Lao Sheng performers had to stress

singing in their performances. Moreover, because they used

their real voices to sing, the Lao Sheng actors had to have

excellent natural voices. "Excellence" meant the voice

should be soft and pleasant to listen to, neither too harsh

nor too high-pitched, but gentle and firm (Halson 12). The

singing required a rich baritone voice, and at the same time

the singer had to maintain a delicate but perfect

synchronization among gesture, pantomime, and song. All

movements, even one so small as the glance of an eye or the

crook of a finger, had to match both the music and the

emotions of the occasion, and had to be slow and heavy.

(Liu 5; Wong, Shao-Jou 14; Scott Classical Theatre of China

66-67). Lao Sheng actors also had to possess graceful,

dignified, and distinctive manners; they could never overact

63

(Moy Art VI).

The Lao Sheng actor's makeup was simple and refined--

put on very lightly. Only a small amount of rouge and

powder was used, and the eyebrows were drawn without

exaggeration. There were several special patterns of makeup

for certain occasions. During moments of danger, the Lao

Sheng character always put oil on his face. When he was

being hurt, he added red dots beside his eyes or nostrils;

when he was being frightened or shocked, he placed black

spots either on side of his nostrils. Even though their

makeup were simple, however, their facial expressions were

still the most important part of their techniques (Wong, Art

of Chinese Opera 120-121).

The four subdivisions of the Lao Sheng were (1) Wen Lao

Sheng, (2) Wu Lao Sheng, (3) Shwai Lao Sheng, and (4) Hung

Sheng. The following paragraphs will examine each

individual category in terms of performance, costume, and

special techniques.

Wen Lao Sheng

In performance, the Wen Lao Sheng characters were

middle-aged men with a sophisticated and dignified manner.

Usually portrayed were emperors, civil officials, or

scholars who especially emphasized singing, line-reading,

and facial expressions. Their stage movements were both

simple and slow; indeed, Wen Lao Sheng characters were never

allowed to move swiftly (Wong, Shao-Jou 14; Chang 74).

64

The costume worn by Wen Lao Sheng performers depended

on the types of character being portrayed, and the rules

about wearing beards were always the same in each division

(see p.60). If the role was an emperor (Fig 1), for

example, his costume would be a nine-dragon headdress that

was a yellow hat decorated with two dragons in the front and

two tassels on either side. A nine-dragon hat was worn in

times of leisure; on formal occasions, a Wong Mao or a Pin

Tien Gwan was worn (Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 66; 72-73).

Wong Mao was a hat gold in color, decorated with a dragon,

two upward wings at the back, and two yellow tassels on

either side. This hat was used only for emperor roles. Pin

Tien Gwan was a square hat, decorated with seven stars and

strings of pearls on either side and in the back. In

addition, the Wen Lao Sheng would wear a beard, a yellow

dragon robe (yellow in China, like purple in the western

world, was the color of royalty), a red Je Tz--an ankle-

length robe with water sleeves that overlapped the breast,

red trousers, and blue thick soled boots. The boots evolved

from those worn by officials of the Ming and the Ching

dynasties, but at two inches in height this sole was two or

three times thicker than the one worn offstage (Liao, 30).

If the role was a civil official (Fig 2), the costume would

be an official's dress that varied its color according to

the official's rank--red, purple, blue, ivory, white, and

dark red was the order of colors from the highest to the

65

Fig. 1. Wen Lao Sheng--an Emperor

66

Fig. 2. Wen Lao Sheng--an Official

1AL

s ,

N

67

lowest (Liao 51), blue thick-soled boots, and a official's

hat (a black-gauzed hat) with two wings on either side; the

wings varied in shape according to rank. The lower ranks

had round-shaped wings; the next highest were square-shaped,

and the minister had long thin wings (Chyi 34; Halson 12;

Liao 41-42; Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 67).

Since the special techniques used by the Wen Lao Sheng

actors involved singing, strict training of their voices was

required. They were trained to research their characters,

and the attributes of music--high or low, hard or soft, fast

or slow--to express their characters' social status and

emotions (Wong, Yu-Sheng 30, 39 & 48).

There were seven general rules about sound that the Wen

Lao Sheng actors had to follow:

1. The Lee sound (a high-pitched sound) was used to

respond when something unexpected happened.

2. The Kang sound (a sudden rising from low to high

pitch) was used to express an increase in excitement.

3. The Liou sound (dropping from high to low pitch) was

used to express sad or regretful feelings.

4. The Tsang sound (a low harsh sound) was used to show

age.

5. The Shwei Pwo (or water-wave) sound (a trembling

sound) was used to show a feeling of being upset.

6. The Shan Dieh sound (a rotating sound from high to low

pitch and then from low to high) was used to show a

68

complicated and worrisome feeling.

7. The Gwei, double Gwei sound (changing volume suddenly

from high to low) was used to show a feeling of

control.

Most of the famous Lao Sheng actors had their own ways of

singing, but they never failed to follow most of these rules

(Wong, Yu-Sheng 68-79).

Wu Lao Sheng

In performance the Wu Lao Sheng actor was also called

Kao Ba Lao Sheng, because he always wore Kao (stage armor)

and carried one or more weapons. The characters portrayed

were middle-aged generals who possessed good individual

fighting techniques. Since the role emphasized fighting

rather than singing and line-reading, if one could sing as

well as he could fight, then he would be thought very

talented (Wong, Shao-Jou 14; Chang 74).

The costume worn by the Wu Lao Sheng actors consisted

of the Kao with flags.on the back, trousers, blue thick-

soled boots, weapons, and a headdress. The Kao and the

flags (see the figure of Wu Sheng; p.85) varied in color

according to the general's rank (Liao 50-56). There were

five upper and five lower colors for the Kao. The five

upper colors were yellow, red, green, white, and black; the

five lower colors were purple, pink, blue, navy, and dark

red. The ranks of the upper five colors were higher than

69

those of the lower ones (Liao 67-69).

The special technique of the Wu Lao Sheng was to

control the movements of the flags on the costume. Waving

the flags in a disorderly manner was not appreciated by the

spectators. Since the movement of the flags was brought

about by an actor's body movements, the Wu Lao Sheng

performers had to learn how to make the flags appear to fly

and then to stop beautifully. When the actors were posing,

they had to fly the flags first and then suddenly stop,

using the waving of their bodies to embellish the beauty of

steadiness (Wong, Yu-Sheng 19).

Shwai Lao Sheng

The Shwi Lao Sheng actors (Fig 3) performed the men who

were sixty to eighty years old. Since very few stage

movements were required, the Shwai Lao Sheng actors spent

most of their time on the stage singing; they also were

notable for their delicate facial expressions and their body

movements that portrayed old age. Most of the time the

characters were retired people or poor men, but once in a

while one of them might be a strong and active general

(Wong, Shao-Jou 14; Chang 14).

The. costumes of the Swai Lao Sheng characters all had

white beards. For roles as poor men, they wore brass-

colored hats, Je Tz (see p.63, above), trousers, white

socks, and soft flat shoes embroidered with a "Fu"

character, which meant good fortune (Chyi 35; Liao 51). A

Fig. 3. Shwai Lao Sheng

70

1~IixrI

\1

71

walking stick was an important prop for the Shwai Lao Sheng

actor. When portraying a character in his sixties, a Shwai

Lao Sheng actor had to hold the highest part of the stick

and lightly lean on it. When portraying seventy-year-old

men, he had to hold the lower part of the stick and lean

more heavily on it. When portraying a man in his eighties,

he had to hold the middle part of the stick, lower than the

place for seventies, totally lean on the stick, and

sometimes use both hands to hold on (Wong, Yu-Sheng

268-270).

To learn the way an old person walked was one special

goal of a Shwai Lao Sheng actor. He angled two feet at

ninety degrees, bent his knees, kept his ankles flexible,

and always walked on his heels. Another special method for

showing oldness was the "three soft" technique, which meant

the actor had to be soft at the neck while his chin popped

out, soft at the waist while the back was bent, and soft as

he took steps again while his knees were bent. Needless to

say, the three soft technique required lots of practice.

The waist and feet were the two main points to practice on

(Wong, Yu-Sheng 22 & 28).

Hung Sheng

Hung Sheng was a character used exclusively for an

actual historical personage--Guan Yu, from the Three

Kingdoms period--about whom many stories and legends had

been developed. Guan Yu was always portrayed with a red

72

painted-face. Since his singing, line-reading, and acting

techniques were closer to the Lao Sheng's graceful and

dignified manners than to the Ching's rough and exaggerated

behavior, Guan Yu was classified as a Lao Sheng character

(Chang 74-75). His singing voice had to have simpleness,

but with solid strength rather than delicacy. When fighting

he had to be awe-inspiring yet kind at heart. The actor who

portrayed Guan Yu, therefore, needed to have a good voice

and good fighting skills. Also, he could not be too short,

or else Guan Yu's heroic manner would be reduced. There

were at least twenty plays which cast Guan Yu in a major

role. If a person could play these twenty roles well, then

he could be approved as being very good at Hung Sheng roles

(Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 252-254).

Guan Yu was a loyal and virtuous general during the

Three Kingdoms period who, even when the Kingdom was totally

destroyed, alone protected and brought up the little

Emperor. Because of this action, he was given the title of

Ho, the equivalent of an English baron, after he died and

then Duke and Emperor during the Song dynasty, 'and King

during the Ming dynasty. The people worshipped Guan Yu as a

God, and all over China temples were built for remembering

and worshiping him (Liu 68-70).

The costumes for the Hung Sheng character (Fig 4) were

used by him exclusively. Since he was a very loyal

character, he wore red face-painted makeup, with eyes and

73

4K

Fig. 4. Hung Sheng

74

eyebrows that were slanted sharply. A black line drawn from

the middle of the nose to the middle of the forehead

indicated that Guan Yu was killed cruelly. Since the

theatre people respected Guan Yu very much, they dared not

make up exactly the same as Guan Yu; therefore, they added a

black dot on the left cheek. This procedure was called Pwo

Lien (Wong, Shao-Jou 113). The Hung Sheng actor wore a

green general's hat with two tassels, two bands on either

side, and a square cloth attached to the back; a five-tuft

beard; a green soft Kao; a green Mong (an official's robe

with colorful diagonal strips on the bottom of the dress),

red trousers, and blue thick-soled boots. The weapon and

the flags he used were his alone. His heavy weapon, called

the "Green Dragon" sword, had two golden dragons drawn on

either side of the blade. The flags always had the

character "Guan" on them (Chyi 42; Liu 70).

Hsiao Sheng

The Hsiao Sheng actors were the opposite of the Lao

Sheng in that they represented healthy young men with no

beards. The characters portrayed might be scholars, lovers,

princes and youthful statesmen, or warriors, but they were

attractive even if the person was supposed to be a beggar.

A Hsiao Sheng actor had to remain handsome enough to make an

audience both pity and love him. The first physical

requirement for a Hsiao Sheng actor, therefore, was a

feminine face that was pretty rather than handsome. The

75

second requirement was a shrill and high-pitched voice to

indicate youthfulness.

The Hsiao Sheng actor used a falsetto voice to sing,

and mixed that voice with his real ones when he read lines.

Their goal was to exhibit manly characteristics on the one

hand and charm on the other. This mixture also was

attempted when making movements and gestures (Liu 31-33;

Chang 75; Halson 13; Scott, Classical Theatre of China 67;

Latsch 16). Hsiao Sheng's acting was very delicate; every

movement of hands, feet, or eyes had to be carefully done in

order to maintain a genteel and cultured manner (Wong, Art

of Chinese Opera 255).

The makeup for the Hsiao Sheng roles was similar to

that for the Dan characters, although the contrast in rouge

was not so noticeable. The makeup was very light, often

nothing more than a penciling of brows and eyes and a

suggestion of heightened tone in the cheeks. If the

character was a scholarly person, however, the makeup would

be a little heavier in order to portray the necessary charm

(Liu 32-33; Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 30 & 122; Scott,

Traditional Chinese Plays Vol I 18).

Because of differences in stage appearance, social

status, and attributes, the Hsiao Sheng characters were

divided into Guan Sheng, Shan Tz Sheng, Chiung Sheng, Chi

Wei Sheng, and Wa Wa Sheng. Each of these categories will

be examined in terms of performance and costumes.

76

Guan Sheng

The characters portrayed were young civil officials,

including ministers and emperors. Line-reading, singing,

and acting had to be done in a noble and dignified manner so

that the character's social status would be clear (Wong,

Shao-Jou 14; Chang 75).

Guan Sheng's costume was similar to that of Wen Lao

Sheng (see p.63, above) when officials were portrayed, but

without a beard. A black-gauzed hat with two wings on

either side was the means of signaling a Guan Sheng role

(Chang 75).

Shan Tz Sheng

The Shan Tz Sheng characters (Fig 5) were scholarly,

handsome young men who always carried a fan. Most of the

time they were born to a rich family and lived a life little

like roues and playboys. Since Shan Tz Sheng characters

were educated, were always charming and humorous, and never

behaved in an uneducated manner.

Singing, line-reading, and acting were of equal

importance to a Shan Tz Sheng actor. Their partners in a

play usually was beautiful women. Because of this fact,

Shan Tz Sheng had to achieve acting that was graceful and

lively enough to seduce their partners but also to show

warmth and gentleness. Facial expressions, especially eye

movements, were particularly important, and the acting was

enhanced by a fan, the movements of which were very

77

.,

!1

Fig. 5. Shan Tz Sheng

78

delicate. The use of the fan showed Shan Tz Sheng's

refinement and symbolized that he lived an easy life.

Thumb, index, and middle finger were used to hold the fan.

The other fingers then curved-in gracefully, and the fan was

waved very slowly (Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 113-4). The

speed and the method of opening and closing the fan would

show Shan Tz Sheng's emotions--happiness, sadness, and so

forth. Sometimes, Shan Tz Sheng slid the fan up from a

girl's chin to flirt with her; other times, he used the fan

as a shelter like one of the water sleeve functions (see

Chapter II--concealing sleeve of Ching I). And again, he

used the fan as the index finger for pointing things.

Without the fan, most of his actions would have been boring

(Liu 33: Chang 75-76; Wong, Shao-Jou 15).

Shan Tz Sheng's costume consisted of the Wen Sheng Jing

(a hat for scholarly people), the Je Tz (see p.63, above)

with floral patterns on it, pink or navy blue trousers,

black thick-soled boots, and a fan (Chyi 36 & 66: Liao 52).

Chiung Sheng

In performance, Chiung Sheng actors portrayed the young

scholars or officials who had suffered a misfortune. As the

play went on, however, they would become rich and famous.

To succeed in this character, the actor had to emphasize

acting rather than singing. The challenge was to appear

noble while stressing the objective poverty caused by the

character's misfortune (Liu 33; Scott, Classical theatre of

79

China 67; Chang 76).

The costume always worn by the Chiung Sheng actor was

Fu Gwei I--beggar's costume, which consisted of a black Je

Tz with many colorful swatches of cloth sewed on it (Fig 6)

and a Gao Fan Jing, a square black hat (Fig 7) worn by

scholars) (Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 70), or a Shwai Fa

(Fig 8), a long wig that looked like a pony's tail. Later

in the play, when the Chiung Sheng character had become

well-to-do or an official, he would dress like the Shan Tz

Sheng or the Guan Sheng character (Liao 52; Chyi 47 & 67;

Chang 145).

Chi Wei Sheng

The Chi Wei Sheng (Fig 9) characters represented well-

educated young generals who always wore pheasant feathers

(or Ling) on their headgear. Usually, they were mildly evil

and had an astringent personality (Liao 25). Because they

wore a headdress of pheasant feathers, like Dao Ma Dan, the

Chi Wei Sheng actor stressed the control of their feathers

(Ling) and body positions. The sharp, facile movements used

to manage the Ling had to show the characters' wisdom,

heroism, and courage (Zung 37-38; Liu 33; Chang 76).

The Chi Wei Sheng actor's costume was very colorful.

He wore a headgear with pheasant feathers, a Jien I (a

military dress with printed patterns usually worn on the

battle field or on a long journey), a waist-band with

80

Fig. 6. Fu Gwei I

,"

Fig. 7. Gao Fan Jing Fig. 8. Shwai Fa

81

,,lip

Fig. 9. Chi Wei Sheng

82

tassels, navy or pink trousers, blue thick-soled boots, and

weapons (Chyi 37 & 53).

Wa Wa Sheng

Wa Wa Sheng characters (Fig 10) were young children,

and most of the time they were played by children. When

adults performed these characters, however, the Hsiao Sheng

actors got the roles. If two children were on the stage at

the same time, one would be played by a Sheng actor and the

other by a Dan actor or actress in order to show the

differences. The Wa Wa Sheng actor used his actual voice to

sing and usually had very few movements. Most of the

student actors in the Chinese opera played Wa Wa Sheng

characters when they were young (Wong, Shao-Jou 15).

The Wa Wa Sheng actor did not wear makeup at all. His

costume consisted of a child's wig, dress, red trousers,

soft flat shoes, and the books wrapped with cloth; the last

item was optional.

Wu Sheng

Wu Sheng characters represented strong young men who were

skillful at fighting.. The roles portrayed might be

generals, warriors, and other martial people, but also they

could be outlaws or aggressive young men who used weapons

with great speed. The weapons were made of bamboo, wood, or

vine, and were shaped like the real thing from ancient

times. Generally speaking, the Chang Kao Wu Sheng actor

83

-1000

Fig. 10. Wa Wa Sheng

84

most of the time used long weapons, while the Duan Da Wu

Sheng used short ones (Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 86). Wu

Sheng actors had to be strong and healthy enough to be able

to play several fight scenes in one play. Their fights

required precise timing, actions needed to be quick and

sharp, and their quickness revealed their manliness and

courage.

The term "Wu Sheng" began during the Ching Dynasty

(A.D. 1644- 1911). Before that the Wu Sheng roles were

played by the Hsiao Sheng actors if the characters did not

wear beards, or Lao Sheng actors if the roles required a

beard. But since doing too much fighting would hurt an

actor's voice, Lao Sheng and Hsiao Sheng actors who had

roles that required a lot of singing did not like to play Wu

Sheng roles. As a result, the Wu Sheng category was

established for those actors who were interested in Wu Sheng

roles and who were good at fighting skills but did not have

good singing voices (Liu 45-47; Scott, Traditional Chinese

Plays Vol I 16; Wong, Appreciation and Criticism of Chinese

Opera 61; Wong, Shao-Jou 15).

The Wu Sheng characters were divided into two

categories by costume and acting style: Chang Kao (or Kao

Ba) Wu Sheng and Duan Da Wu Sheng. The paragraphs below

will examine these two types of characters.

Chang Kao(or Kao Ba) Wu Sheng

The Chang Kao Wu Sheng actors portrayed young generals

85

or warriors of high rank who wore the full regalia of stage

armor with four flags or pennants attached behind the

shoulders. These actors also emphasized on fighting skills

more than singing or line-reading. Since they were

generals, when acting or posturing they had to maintain the

firm and steady demeanor of a confident commander even in

serious fighting scenes. They used their real voices to

sing and had to sing not with delicacy or a high quality but

more clearly and stronger than the Wu Lao Sheng actors (Liu

47-48; Chang 76; Scott, Classical Theatre of China 66). The

most important technique used by the Chang Kao Wu Sheng

actor was a set of movements called Chi Ba, which symbolized

the checking and testing of their armor before they went out

to fight. Performing the Chi Ba, a Chang Kao Wu Sheng actor

would stretch his arms, touch his hat, and tighten up the

armor in a symbolic way (Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 182-3).

The Chang Kao Wu Sheng actor (Fig 11) definitely wore

military dress (Kao) and flags, but sometimes appeared with

and sometimes without a beard. In ancient times there were

eight flags on the costume, but later, in an attempt to

create a better ensemble view of the stage, the number was

reduced to the four that are used today. The headdress

could be either a general's hat or a Shwai Fa (pony tail

wig), depending on the need of the plot. Wearing a

general's hat indicated that this person was in a normal

situation; wearing a Shwai Fa indicated this person was in a

86

44

so'

Fig. 11. Chang Kao Wu Sheng

7

r t'.

V4

f.J

1 hlb E J

r 1i 1

.01

1

Duan Da Wu Sheng

87

Fig. 12.

88

miserable one. When wearing flags together with the Shwai

Fa, a good actor would not let them twist together to ruin

the visual harmony. The Chang Kao Wu Sheng also wore red

trousers and blue thick-soled boots, and carried weapons and

sometimes a horsewhip (Chyi 35; Liao 54; Liu 47). The

weapons they often carried were long ones, such as spears,

long axes, sticks, and so forth (Wong, Art of Chinese Opera

86-94).

Duan Da Wu Sheng

The Duan Da Wu Sheng actors (Fig 12) portrayed bandits,

robber chieftains, or men of the lower class who were

skilled at fighting or even at committing crime. Since they

were skillful swordsmen, they had to twirl and leap about

with the quiet lightfootedness of cats, and very often turn

somersaults. One important movement was called "Tzou Bien,"

which symbolized the Duan Da Wu Sheng actors' way of walking

when they carried out their robberies at midnight. The

pantomime symbolized walking along walls or roadsides with

lightfootedness. Since the roads were usually hard, the

Duan Da Sheng actors had to use their imagination to act out

those troubles they met symbolically (Wong, Art of Chinese

Opera 183-4). Duan Da Wu Sheng's movements and fights were

more complicated, faster and more exaggerated than those of

the Chang Kao Wu Sheng actors. As a result, they were also

more appealing to the audience (Liu 47-48; Wong, Shao-Jou

15; Scott, Classical Theatre of China 66).

89

Because faster, exaggerated, and complicated movements

were required of the Duan Da Wu Sheng actor, his costume was

close-fitted. The costume had three types. First was the

Kwai I (Fig 13), a suit with a black jacket and trousers.

The jacket had many lines of white buttons in front of the

chest and under the sleeves. The second type of costume was

Ing Shiung I (or Pao I Pao Ku), which was a suit with a

white jacket and white trousers; the whole suit being

covered with floral patterns (see Fig 12). The trousers

were knee-length and had some ruffles were added at the

jacket's hem. The third costume was Jien I (see the costume

of Chi Wei Sheng). The Duan Da Wu Sheng's costume also had

a waist-band, flat, soft boots (or thick-soled boots) and a

headdress that matched the color of the costume (Chyi 36,

54-55; Liu 47; Liao 54). The weapons they usually carried

were short ones, such as swards, hooks, darts, and so forth

(Wong, Art of Chinese Opera 86-94).

All male characters were portrayed through three

formative groups--Lao Sheng, Hsiao Sheng, and Wu Sheng.

This chapter has examined their principles of performance,

costume, special techniques. Through these principles, the

Chinese opera's symbolism in its characterizations was

shown.

90

Fig. 13. Kwai I

1 1 1 - 1 - 11 1 v 1 o

91

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Chang, Lien-Cheng., et al. Dictionary of Chinese Drama.Shanghai: Shanghai Dictionary and Book Publisher,1981.

2. Chen, Jack. The Chinese Theatre. London: Dennis DobsonLtd., 1949.

3. Chyi Ru-Shan, writ., and Da-Shiah Chang, illus. Gwo JiuhTwu Puu. Taipei: Youth Cultural Enterprise Co.,Ltd., 1981.

4. Halson, Elizabeth. Peking Opera. Hong Kong, London, NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1966.

5. Latsch, Marie-Luise. Peking Opera as a European Sees It.Beijing, China: New World Press, October 1980.

6. Liao, Tzan-Huei. Ping Ju Hang Tou Geng Neng Ch Ien Jiou.Taipei: Folklore and Drama Art Magazine Publisher,July 1982.

7. Liu, Szu. Chinese Opera's Characters and Actors.Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.: Li Ming Cultural PressLtd., 1972.

8. Moy, Ernest K., edited and compiled. Mei Lang-Fang. NewYork: China Institute in America, n.d.

9. Scott, A.C. The Classical theatre of China. Westport,Connecticut: Greenwood Press, Publishers, 1957.

10. Scott, A.C. Traditional Chinese Plays. Vol. I.Madison, Wisconsin: The University of WisconsinPress, 1969.

11. Wong, Shao-Jou, illus., and Kuo-Ling Chao. The Art ofChinese Face Painting. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.: HanGuang Cultural Enterprise, Ltd., 1985.

12. Wong, Yuan-Fu. The Appreciation and Criticism ofChinese Opera. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.: Li MingCultural Enterprise, Ltd., n.d.

13. Wong, Yuan-Fu. The Art of Chinese Opera. Taipei,Taiwan, R.O.C.: Li Ming Cultural Enterprise, Ltd.,n.d.

14. Wong, Yu-Sheng, Tung-Sh Tien, and Shian-Shin Lee. ChingChu Sheng Hang I Shu Chian Lun. Beijing: Chinese

92

Drama Publisher, 1981.

15. Zung, Cecillia S.L. Secrets of The Chinese Drama. NewYork: Benjamin Blom, Inc., 1973.

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

The Peking opera--also called Ching Hsi, Pin Chu, and

Kao Chu appeared about the middle- of the nineteenth century

after a long period of evolution. The plays were classified

as Wen Hsi--civil and Wu Hsi--military; both styles were

often intermingled in the plays. All the staging aspects in

the Peking opera were considered together as a single

artistic and harmonious unit; no individual aspect could

represent this art form thoroughly. The singing and the

acting techniques, and the brilliant costumes, were devices

to capture the audience's attention. Each performer

specialized in one kind of role; although a talented actor

could change roles within his category, he could never

change to another category.

There were four categories of roles--Sheng, Dan, Ching,

and Chou--to represent the variety and the diversity of

human beings. Within each of these categories there were

several subdivisions. All the pupils of the Peking opera

underwent a long period of rigid daily training before they

were allowed to perform on the stage. The voice training,

the fundamental acrobatics and movement training, and the

fighting with weapons training were held in the morning

session; the advance movements and characterization

training, in the afternoon.

93

94

This system was established gradually through many

centuries of development. The Peking opera both inherited

traditional and symbolic theatrical activities that had been

developing since the Chou dynasty (1027-56 B.C.) and

absorbed many characteristics of local dramas. After the

Ching dynasty (A.D. 1644-1911), the Peking opera became the

most popular form of drama in China. This chapter will

summarize the principles of characterization used in two

role categories--Dan and Sheng--which were examined in

detail in Chapters II and III. After the summary,

recommendations for further research will be developed.

Summary

In the Peking opera, each performer specialized in one

type of role division for his entire acting career. Each

type had its own requirements for makeup, costumes, use of

voice (including singing and line-reading), and acting

techniques (including dance, singing, movements, and

acrobatics). Seven divisions from the Dan category and

three from the Sheng were chosen for study. Each division

was then examined in terms of costumes, performance, and

special techniques.

Dan

During the Ching dynasty (A.D. 1644-1911), Dan roles

were played only by men; after that year, Dan roles were

played by women most of the time. The seven Dan

95

subdivisions were Ching I, Hua Dan, Hua Shan, Wu Dan, Dao-Ma

Dan, Lao Dan, and Chou Dan. All the subdivisions except Lao

Dan applied the same style of makeup; the Lao Dan actor did

not wear makeup. The Hua Dan character had a red dot or a

red heart drawn between the eyebrows instead of the white

color used there by the other Dan characters. Only Hua Dan

and Wu Dan wore Chiao--imitation foot-binding shoes. Other

Dans wore flat, embroidered shoes called Tzai Shieh.

Nevertheless, all the Dan pupils still had to learn how to

walk on Chiao during their basic training period. The

training was continued until the pupils could walk on Chiao

for at least two hours.

The practice of the Orchid Finger positions was the

other basic training for the Dan pupils. Some advanced

symbolic acting techniques also were needed before they

could get into characterization training. On the whole, no

matter what training Dan pupils had to undergo, all they

needed to do while on stage was to make the actions look

beautiful, delicate, and vivid.

The Ching I characters represented good, honest,

simple, and dignified women who could be either young or

middle-aged. They were idealized women of beauty. The

Ching I's roles required considerable knowledge of singing

and line-reading techniques, but no fighting techniques or

vigorous movements. Most of the time, the Ching I's costume

was a blue coat with water sleeves, though sometimes the

96

palace dress was used for the role of princess. Since water

sleeves were always in use, the Ching I actor had to learn

to manage them in accordance with the rhythm of the music.

There were more than fifty different kinds of sleeve

movements.

The Hua Dan characters represented active, coquettish,

charming, and wise women who were younger than the Ching I

characters and could be either good or evil. Active

characters such as the Kuei-Men Dan, the Wan-Shiao Dan and

the Puo-La Dan were all placed in the Hua Dan category. Hua

Dan roles also were more like actual people than those of

Ching I, and because of the need for coquetry and

hyperactivity. The Hua Dan actor depended more on movements

that were connected with walking on Chiao than on singing or

line-reading for his effects. In order to perform the

vigorous movements and to show the coquetry, their principal

costumes, most of the time, were a suit of jacket-and-

trousers, though sometimes skirts, a handkerchief, and Chiao

shoes were used. The Hua Dan actor's special training was

the technique of walking on'Chiao, and the movements of

hands and eyes to show their seductive personalities.

The characterization provided by the Hua Shan actor was

set between that of the Ching I and the Hua Dan. The Hua

Shan's singing and line-reading were the same as the Ching

I's, although the bright colors of his costumes were closer

to those used by the Hua Dan actor. The Hua Shan characters

97

were charming but not so coquettish as the Hua Dan, graceful

but not so dignified as the Ching I. Their costume was

similar to that of the Ching I, but brighter colors were

employed.

The Wu Dan characters represented martial women with

supernatural powers who were very good at acrobatic

fighting; they did not need to have good voices. In order

to perform their quick and violent movements and to keep

their feminine beauty at the same time, the Wu Dan

characters wore a suit of jacket-and-trousers and Chiao

shoes. The Wu Dan actor's special training was called Da

Chu Shou, which meant to dance with weapons in hand and to

fight opponents by kicking, hooking, bumping, and catching

weapons back and forth, as well as with many difficult

somersaults. This action required extensive training in the

use of right strength, good balance, and exact direction

when delivering weapons. A great deal of practice with

their opponents also was required.

The Dao-Ma Dan actors represented female generals who

commanded the army. They did not do much fighting, but

instead emphasized singing and dancing with two pheasant

feathers (called Ling) stretching out of the headdress.

Their major costumes were a headdress with pheasant feathers

and the pink "Kao"--stage armor. Dao-Ma Dan's special

training was in managing the Ling with movements of the neck

and the feet. If the neck and the feet movements were

98

uncontrolled, the Ling would wave in a disorderly manner.

There were eleven ways to posture and to play with the Ling.

The Lao Dan characters were dignified old women and the

most realistic female roles on the Ching Hsi stage. They

wore no makeup, and their costumes were more subdued in

color and design than those of the other Dan characters.

The Lao Dan actors used their normal voices to sing; the

other Dan actors used only a falsetto. The Lao Dan roles

required fewer movements but many skillful singing

techniques.

Finally, the Chou Dan actors served as the comediennes

of the Chinese opera. The Tzai Dan were younger women; the

Chou Po, older women. The Tzai Dan characters could be

played by other Chou or Hua Dan players, but most of the

time the Chou Po characters were played by men. The Chou

Dan actors wore a very white powder with rouge, and their

costumes were colorful. Their special training was to

cultivate the ability to improvise comic lines to make

people laugh and thus release the tension cause by the plot.

Sheng

In the Peking opera, all of the non-face-painted male

roles were classified in the Sheng category, but the Hung

Sheng was the only face-painted character in the group. The

Sheng category was developed during the Song dynasty, and

there were non-face-painted, old male roles called "Mo" in

the Yuan dynasty. After that, these roles were all

99

classified as Sheng characters. Since the end of the Ching

dynasty, the Sheng category has had three divisions

according differences in age, social status, and acting

techniques. These three groups were Lao Sheng (Wen Lao

Sheng, Wu Lao Sheng, Shwai Lao Sheng, and Hung Sheng); Hsiao

Sheng (Guan Sheng, Shan Tz Sheng, Chiung Sheng, Chi Wei

Sheng, and Wa Wa Sheng); and Wu Sheng (Chang Kao Wu Sheng,

and Duan Da Wu Sheng). A Sheng actor had to learn all the

parts within one of the three divisions. A Hsiao Sheng

actor, for example, had to learn all the parts of Guan

Sheng, Shan Tz Sheng, Chiung Sheng, and so forth.

Lao Sheng--also called Shiu Sheng, bearded men--always

wore a beard. The movable wire beards that are used today

evolved from the beards that were glued directly to masks.

The movable beards were invented to increase the flexibility

of the characterization and to free the actors' mouths and

chins for declamations. The beard's colors indicated

differences in age; the beard's shapes, variations in social

status and personality. Lao Sheng used a normal vocal range

while singing, along with delicate singing techniques, and

his facial expressions which were highly varied. The Lao

Sheng actor used regular makeup, with only a small amount of

rouge and powder, except when the character had been injured

shocked, or was endangered in some way, the makeup included

red, black dots, or oil. The four subdivisions of the Lao

Sheng characters were:

100

1. Wen Lao Sheng: middle-aged men with a sophisticated

and dignified manner, with emphasis on singing and

line-reading techniques and on facial expressions.

There were seven rules for singing: the Lee, Kang,

Liou, Tsang, Shwei Pwo, Shan Dieh and Gwei sounds.

Wen Lao Sheng actors wore a beard, and the costumes

fitted their social status.

2. Wu Lao Sheng, also called Kao Ba Lao Sheng: middle-

aged generals; because they had to possess good

fighting techniques, therefore, considered fighting

training was more important than singing and line-

reading. Their major costume piece was a Kao with

flags on the back; the Kao and flags varied in color

according to the general's rank. Wu Lao Sheng's

special techniques were to control the movements of

the flags on the costume.

3. Shwai Lao Sheng: very old men above sixty years old

who used delicate singing and facial expressions

because they had few stage movements. Shwai Lao

Sheng wore a white beard and a set of costumes

which, along with a staff, fitted their social

status. Shwai Lao Sheng's special technique was the

three soft technique, which required the actor to be

soft at the neck, at the waist, and while stepping

in order to show age.

4. Hung Sheng, a character designed exclusively for an

101

actual historical personage--Guan Yu, his singing,

line-reading, and acting techniques were closer to

the Lao Sheng actor's graceful and dignified manner.

The physical requirements for an actor to portray

this role were a considerable height and a pleasing

voice, so that Guan Yu's heroic manner could be

shown more easily. Hung Sheng's major costumes were

a red face-painted make-up, a five-tuft beard, a

green general's hat, and the green Mong and the

"Green Dragon" sword. These costumes were used

exclusively for the Hung Sheng role--Guan Yu.

The Hsiao Sheng actors represented healthy, beardless

young men who had small-boned and soft looking faces, and

shrill and high-pitched voices, to indicate their charm and

youthfulness. They used a falsetto voice to sing and a

mixed voice of real and falsetto tones to read lines. Hsiao

Sheng's make-up was similar to that of the Dan actor, except

the contrast in rouge was not so definite. Within the Hsiao

Sheng category, there were five divisions:

1. Guan Sheng: young officials whose line-reading,

singing, and acting were done in a noble and

dignified manner. Their major costume was an

official's dress with a black-gauzed hat.

2. Shan Tz Sheng: scholarly, handsome young men who

always carried a fan, were born in a rich family,

and lived the life of a roues. Singing, line-

102

reading, and acting were equal in importance to

them. Their special training was to learn how to

express their feelings through the use of a fan.

The major costume pieces were a fan, a scholarly

hat, and a Je Tz--an ankle-length robe with water

sleeves.

3. Chiung Sheng: young scholars or officials who had

suffered a misfortune but who became rich and famous

by the end of the play. Their challenge was to

retain their nobility while stressing the

character's misfortune. Chiung Sheng's major

costume pieces were a Fu Gwei I, beggar's costume, a

Shwai Fa, a long wig, and later in the play, a set

of costumes which fitted his social status.

4. Chi Wei Sheng: well-educated young generals who

always wore two pheasant feathers on their hats.

Playing and posturing with the pheasant feathers

were the special techniques of the Chi Wei Sheng

actors, techniques which were similar to those of

the Dao-Ma Dan. The difference -was that the Chi Wei

Sheng actors had to show their manliness through the

way they managed the pheasant feathers; the Dao-Ma

Dan actors had to show only their femininity. A Chi

Wei Sheng actor's major costume pieces were a hat

with two pheasant feathers and a Jien I--a military

dress.

103

5. Wa Wa Sheng: young children who had very few lines

or movements. Most Sheng actors played Wa Wa

characters when they were young. Wa Wa Sheng actors

did not wear makeup, and their primary costume was a

set of children's clothes.

The Wu Sheng actors represented strong young men who

were skillful at fighting, and the category was evolved

during the early Ching dynasty. Since doing too much

fighting would have harmed an actor's voice, the Lao Sheng

and the Hsiao Sheng actors did not like to play Wu Sheng

roles. As a result, the Wu Sheng category was established.

According to their different costumes and acting styles, the

Wu Sheng characters were divided into two categories:

1. Chang Kao (or Kao Ba) Wu Sheng: young generals or

warriors who used their real voices to sing and who

emphasized their fighting skills. They had a

special set of movements, called Chi Ba, which

indicated the checking and the testing of their

armor before they went out to fight. Their major

costumes were a Kao with flags on the back, a

general's hat, or a Shwai Fa, and weapons. The

weapons were long ones.

2. Duan Da Wu Sheng: bandits, robber chieftains, and

the like who were skilled at fighting. Their most

important set of movements was called Tzou Bien,

which was the pantomime of a symbolized walking

104

along walls or roadsides with lightfootedness when

carrying out their robberies at midnight. Duan Da

Wu Sheng's costume consisted of a close-fitted

jacket with trousers. The three sets of costumes

they usually wore were Kwai I, In Shiung I (Pao I

Pao Ku), and Jien I. Most of the time they used

short weapons.

Suggestions for Further Study

Although there were four role categories in the Peking

opera, this thesis concentrated only on two of them--the Dan

and the Sheng. Space and the available time for research

did not permit detailed study of all four categories. Other

researchers could explore the Ching and the Chou categories.

Within each of the four categories, of course, research on a

single famous actor would provide useful information about

the Peking opera. Production and staging techniques, the

craft of the Peking opera, would also provide a meaningful

subject for further research.

105

APPENDIX

1. List of Terminologies

Bai Hsi

Bao Da Tou

Ba Tz Kung

Chang Kao Wu Sheng

Chi Ba

Chi Wei Sheng

Chiao

Chien Lung

Ching

Ching I

Chi Pen Kung

Chiung Sheng

Chou Dan

Chou dynasty

Chou Po

Chou Sung

Da Chiu

Da Chu Shou

Dan

Dao-Ma Dan

Duan Da Wu Sheng

Fu Gwei I

Gao Fan Jin

NJ

ij

</'t\~

Guan Sheng

Guan Yu

Gwei sound

Gwen Fei Chwei Jiu

Han

Hsiao Sheng

Hua Dan

Hung Sheng

Ing Shiung I

Jann I Jann Chiun

Je Tz

Jien I

Jing Pai

Kang Hsyu

Kang sound

Kao Ba Lao Sheng

Kao

Kun Chiu

Kuo Chu

Kwai I

Lan Lin Wong

Lao Dan

Lao Sheng

Lee sound

Liou sound

Mei Lang-Fang

106

44k\) __

k

v--

r~\ 7

Ii

Ming Huong

Ming

Mo

Mr. Huang of the Eastern Ocean

Na Chiu

Pai Yu

Pee Huang

Pei Chi

Pei Chiu

Peiping

Pin Tien Gwan

Pwo Lien

Qin

Shan Dieh sound

Shan Tz Sheng

Shang

Sheng

Shiu Sheng

Shwai Fa

Shwai Lao Sheng

Shwei Pwo sound

Song dynasty

Susan

Tang

Tan Tz Kung

Tieh Pien Tz

107

I

-L 7

-'- -

111

e- J.

f

.,

J .«

Tsang Ku

Tsang sound

Tung Ch

Tzai Dan

Tzai Shieh

Tzar Jiu

Tzou Bien

Wa Wa Sheng

Wai

Wei Chang-Sheng

Wei Tzwei

Wen Ching

Wen Chou Tzar Jiu

Wen Chou

Wen Hsi

Wen Lao Sheng

Wen Sheng

Wong Mao

Wu Ching

Wu Chou

Wu Dy

Wu Lao Sheng

Wu Sheng

Xia

Yang Gwen-Fei

Yangtze River

rt'' ,"

% '

r1

/

-

.

l

...

-I

5;

4r1

108

-7

11 /,

L11j j

4?-

Yu Chang

Yu Tang Chwen

Yuan

Yun Pai

109

\

110

2. Personal Interview I

Interviewer: Hsiao-Mei Wang

Interviewee: Yu-Ru Wang

Time: 22 December 1987

Place: Taipei, Kua Guang Drama School

Mei: What is Chi Pen Kun?

Ru: That is the exercises for training the flexibility of

the feet and waist, somersaults, and basic fighting

techniques

Mei: For how long after the training, the pupils are

categorized?

Ru: Two and half years

Mei: Depending on what do teachers assign the pupils' role

category?

Ru: Voice quality and facial appearance. Military roles

depend on their fighting techniques. In old days,

teachers had one hundred percent right for the

decision, but today, the students have thirty percent

chance to choose their own roless.

Mei: What are the trainings after teachers assigning the

role divisions?

Ru: That depends on the teachers' way of teaching. Some

teachers will teach plays directly; some will start all

over from the basic acting techniques, then some simple

111

plays, then singing, and finally, stage movements.

Mei: Are the movements of each role category different?

Ru: Yes. And also Lao Sheng's beards are different. There

are black, gray and white, three colors. The black-

bearded roles' stage movements are different from the

white-bearded roles. Wu Lao Sheng's are different from

Wen Lao Sheng's

Mei: What are the differences in their actings?

Ru: Take hands for instance, Hsiao Sheng's hands move very

delicately; Lao Sheng stretch their fingers slightly;

the face-painted roles stretch their fingers fully.

Mei: What are the differences in their use of voices?

Ru: Lao Sheng use natural voice; Hsiao Sheng use the

combination of real voice and falsetto; the face-

painted characters use a rough and loud voice. The

ways they sing are also somewhat different, but the

most obvious difference is in their stage appearances.

Mei: What are the divisions in Hsiao Sheng category?

Ru: Shan Tz Sheng, Chi Wei Sheng, Wu Sheng, Chiung Sheng,

Guan Sheng. They most of the time are the minor role

in a play, and usually their partners are beautiful

women. As for Hsiao Sheng's acting, how to laugh is

one important thing for them. All Hsiao Sheng laugh in

the same way, but the voices used, then, depends on the

needs of the play, such as cold laugh, embarrassed

laugh, etc. Lao Sheng have some ways of laughing but

112

they are not so important. Dan only smile.

Mei: Are Hsiao Sheng roles divided depending on their stage

appearances?

Ru: Yes.

Mei: How about the special acting techniques for Chi Wei

Sheng?

Ru: Chi Wei Sheng focus on fighting. Ling's movements are

practiced along with plays.

Mei: What are the basic rules of playing Ling?

Ru: The neck and the body above the waist need to be

flexible enough to control Ling. Playing with Ling

depends on the needs of the plots. Ling's function is

to beautified the dancing and movements.

Mei: What are the differences between Dao-Ma Dan's Ling and

Chi Wei Sheng's?

Ru: Chi Wei Sheng or Wu Sheng most of the time use the neck

to control Ling; Dan usually use hands to post or hold

Ling.

Mei: Is there any relationship between Ling and foot

movements?

Ru: Yes. If Ling moves disorderly, that means no good,

because that also means the foot and body movements are

floppy

Mei: What shoes do Sheng wear?

Ru: All Sheng wear thick-soled boots, except Shwai Lao

Sheng who wear soft flat shoes with a "Fu" character on

113

them.

Mei: What are the differences between Chang Kao and Duan Da

Wu Sheng?

Ru: Chang Kao wear Kao, and carry heavy weapons. Duan Da

wear flat shoes, a jacket-and-trousers dress, and do

many somersaults.

Mei: Are their stage movements different?

Ru: Almost the same. Any good Wu Sheng actor not only can

fight well but also can sing well, but today, most Wu

Sheng actors emphasize only on fighting but not on

singing.

Mei: Is there any different movements between Chang Kao and

Duan Da Wu Sheng?

Ru: Chang Kao usually dance with the weapons in hand. Duan

Da usually do somersaults, kick feet, etc.

Mei: I have read a book which mentioned that Lao Sheng

actors have to learn all the Lao Sheng roles and Hsiao

Sheng actors have to learn all the Hsiao Sheng roles.

Is that right?

Ru: Yes. Actually, at the beginning of the training, every

student needs to learn all roles, including Dan, Sheng,

Ching, and Chou, but later, when they are divided into

role categories , they only specialize in their own

field.

Mei: How about Hua Shan?

Ru: Hua Shan's acting are more close to Hua Dan, but they

114

sing more than Hua Dan do. Their costumes are more

close to Ching I's.

Mei: I know that Hua Dan most of the time wear trousers. Is

that right?

Ru: Exactly.

Mei: Wu Dan's Dan Chu Shou is very important. How are they

trained?

Ru: First, they wear soft Chiao and do basic kicking

without weapons. And then, the teachers will teach

basic sets of fighting which are practiced with Wu

Dan's opponents.

Mei: Is it possible that I can see the steps of Dan's

makeup?

Ru: It is hard to get to backstage to see it.

Mei: What is Chou Dan? Are they the major characters in

plays?

Ru: No, they are not major characters. They can be played

by women or men.

Mei: How do Shan Tz Sheng practice and play fan?

Ru: I don't know much about it. The teachers only teach

basic techniques. After that, all other techniques are

practiced by students. Fan's most important function

is to enhance the dance. Every movement in the Chinese

opera are accompanied by music and look like dancing;

therefore, movements are dancenized and become softer

movements.

115

Mei: Is singing important for every role category?

Ru: Singing is very very important to every actor in the

Chinese opera. And the second important thing is

acting. But all the outcomes depend on students'

practice and teachers' ways of teaching.

Mei: Thank you for your time.

Ru: You are welcomed.

116

3. Personal Interview II

Interviewer: Hsaio-Mei Wang

Interviewee: Ming-De Lee, writer

Yuan-Fu Wang, author/teacher

Time: 13 December 1986

Place: Taipei, Taiwan Television Co.

Mei: What is Shwai Lao Sheng? What is his stage appearance?

Lee: Shwai Lao Sheng are the male characters who wear white

beards.

Mei: Do they use microphone on Chinese stage?

Lee: No. Only TV and movie types of Chinese opera use

microphone. Usually Chinese opera actors are not used

to it.

Mei: What are the basic trainings?

Lee: There are many things. They are waist and foot

exercises, and somersaults. All start from Chi Pen

Kung; fighting techniques usually need two people to

practice.

Mei: Must every student practice Chi Pen Kung?

Lee: Yes. After half year's Chi Pen Kung training, students

start to practice their voices. At this time, teachers

usually watch carefully on each student's voice quality

to get some idea of which role category each student

has to go to.

117

Mei: Is it possible that an actor can play two role

categories?

Lee: 'There are some exceptions. But the roles have to have

many things in common.

Mei: How do they practice their voices?

Lee: They get up very early in the morning, says five

o'clock. In old days, teachers were very strictly on

watching students' practice, but today, people become

lazier and lazier.

Mei: How long will the voice practice take every day?

Lee: Usually, two hours.

Mei: After being assigned the role category, do students

start to learn plays right after that?

Lee: Yes. First, read the plays; second, memorize them;

then, teachers teach students to sing or read word by

word.

Mei: What is Hua Shan?

Lee: Hua Shan are the characters between Ching I and Hua

Dan. They are good at both singing and acting.

Mei: Hua Shan use Yun Pai or Jing Pai to read the lines?

Lee: It depends on the needs of the plays.

Mei: What are their special acting techniques?

Lee: Ching I emphasize on water sleeve movements. Hua Dan

emphasize on delicate acting. Hua Shan have to be good

at both singing and acting.

Mei: You mean Hua Shan have to be good at everything.

118

Lee: Yes.

Mei: What is the Dao-Ma Dan's techniques of playing Ling?

Lee: Dao-Ma Dan wear Kao. They emphasize on singing and

fighting. The Ling is controlled by the body movements

when Dao-Ma Dan turn and draw a circle through Ling.

Mei: I have read a book mentioned that if the body and foot

movements were floppy, then the Ling would move

disorderly. Is there any special way of training for

this?

Lee: Yes, there is. If without teachers' instruction, the

Ling will easily be broken. This also needs lots of

practice in order to show the spirit of Ling. Each

role division has its own movements to express its

characters. The more the actor practices, the better

acting techniques he will get. Take Hua Dan's eye

movements for example, the more the actor practices it,

the more beautiful and natural the eye movements will

be.

Mei: Ching I's water sleeve movements are important. How to

make the movements look beautifully?

Lee: How to make them move gracefully and beautifully is the

point.

Mei: What is the characteristics of Wu Lao Sheng?

Lee: Wu Lao Sheng not only have to be good at singing but

also fighting. And Wu Sheng only need to be good at

fighting.

119

Mei: Wu Dan usually wear hard Chiao or soft Chiao?

Lee: In old days, Wu Dan wore hard Chiao, and Hua Dan wore

soft Chiao, but today, they all wear soft Chiao.

Mei: Is there any other role doing Da Chu Shou?

Lee: No, Da Chu Shou is exclusive to Wu Dan. Wu Sheng

emphasize on wearing Kao and doing fighting at the same

time. Wu Lao Sheng have to be good at singing and

fighting while wearing Kao.

Mei: Dose the Wu Sheng category include Chang Kao and Duan

Da?

Lee: Yes. The term of Chang Kao and Duan Da are to

emphasize their acting techniques.

Fu: Wu Sheng sing less than fight. In old days, Wu Lao

Sheng also played Hung Sheng role, but today, Hung

Sheng become an individual division.

Mei: How to define Sheng category?

Fu: You can define them by their ages, or by their

personalities, or by their acting styles. Generally,

young men belong to Hsiao Sheng; old men to Lao Sheng.

Mei: What are the differences among the beards?

Fu: Generally, thirty to forty years old men wear black

beards, fifty, gray, and sixty and above, white. But

sometimes, there are exceptions.

Mei: Chou Dan belong to Dan or Chou category?

Fu: Tzai Dan can be played by Chou or Hua Dan, and their

costumes are close to Dan. Chou Po Tz can only be

120

played by Chou actor. Chou includes Wen Chou and Wu

Chou.

Mei: What does Lao Dan's acting emphasize?

Fu: They emphasize on singing and acting.

Mei: Why do many authors say the Chinese opera has dancing

everywhere?

Fu: Chinese opera is a symbolic, singing and dancing styles

of drama. These three points are very, very important.

The dancing is that we try to make every movement look

as gracefully as dancing. This kind of movements are

very different from our daily life. Take the water

sleeve as an example, it was designed to enhance the

dance-like movements.

Mei: So, you mean all the costumes are designed to fit the

dance.

Fu: Correct. Therefore, they don't wear costumes

chronologically. But all the costumes are designed

mainly based on the Ming dynasty's cloth, and combine

some characteristics of the Tang and the Song

dynasties' cloth.

Mei: Thank for your time.

Fu: If you are really interested in the Chinese opera, you

are always welcome to visit us.

121

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Arlington, L.C. The Chinese Drama from the Earlest Times

Until Today. New York: Benjamin Blom Inc., 1966.

Arlington, L.C. and Harold Acton. Famous Chinese Plays.Peiping: Henri Vetch, 1937.

Buss, Kate. Studies in the Chinese Drama. Boston: The Four

Seas Company, 1922.

Chang, Lien-Cheng., et al. Dictionary of Chinese Drama.

Shanghai: Shanghai Dictionary and Book Publisher, 1981.

Chang, Po-Chin. Chinese Opera and its Face Painting.

Taipei: National Fu Hsing Chinese Opera ExperimentalSChool, 1969.

Chen, Jack. The Chinese Theatre. London: Dennis DobsonLtd., 1949.

Chyi, Ru-Shan, writ., and Da-Shiah Chang, illus. Gwo Jiuh

Twu Puu. Taipei: Youth Cultural Enterprise Co., Ltd.,1981.

Crump, J.I. Chinese Theatre in the Days of Kublai Khan.

Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press, 1980.

Dolby, A.W.E. A History of Chinese Drama. New York: Barnes& Noble, 1976.

Godine, David R. The Red Pear Garden. Boston,Massachusetts: David R. Godine Publisher, 1973.

Guan, Han-Ching., et al. The Annotation of Selected Yuan

Tzar Jiuh. Taipei: Shi Nan Book Co., Ltd., 1980.

Halson, Elizabeth. Peking Opera. Hong Kong, London, New

York: Oxford University Press, 1966.

Jen, Shiang-Huan. Creation and Appreciation of Chinese

Drama. Taipei: Central Culture Appliance Association,

1984.

Kalvodova-Sis-Vanis. Chinese Theatre. London: Spring

Books, n.d.

122

Kwang Hwa Publishing Company. China and Chinese-14 :Chinese Opera with a Difference. Taipei, R.O.C.: KwangHwa Publishing Company, 1980.

Latsch, Marie-Luise. Peking Opera as a European Sees It.

Beijing, China: New World Press, October 1980.

Laufer, Berthold. Oriental Theatricals. Chicago: Field

Museum of Natural History, 1923.

Liang, Hsiou-Chuan. SHOU-YEN-SHEN-FA-PU: Movement Methods

for the Female Roles of the Chinese Theatre. Taipei,Taiwan, R.O.C.: Yuan Liu Press, 1983.

Liao, Tzan-Huei. Ping Ju Hang Tou Geng Neng Ch Ien Jou.

Taipei: Folklore and Drama Art Magazine Publisher, July1982.

Liu, Szu. Chinese Opera's Characters and Actors. Taipei,Taiwan, R.O.C.: Li Ming Cultural Press Ltd., 1972.

Lu, Kao-I. Huan Yu Pu. Shanghai: Shih Chieh Shu Chu, 1939.

Lu, Yuan, comp. Ching Hsi Erh Pai Nien Li Shih. Shanghai:Tai Ping Yang Yin Shua Kung Szu, 1928.

Ma, Lee-Chu. Body Languages in Chinese Opera. Taipei: KaiLi Publishing Inc., 1986.

Ma, Lee-Chu. The Fighting Techniques and Acrobatics inChinese Opera. Taipei: Kai Li Publishing Inc., 1986.

Ma, Lee-Chu. Kuo Chu Ba Tz Da Chiuan. Taipei: Kai LiPublishing Inc., 1986.

Malm, William P. Music Cultures of the Pacific, the NearEast, and Asia. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersy: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967.

Moy, Ernest K., ed. and comp. Mei Lang-Fang. New York:China Institute in America, n.d.

Scott, A.C. Actors Are Madmen: Notebook of a Theatregoer in

China. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of WisconsinPress, 1982.

Scott, A.C. An Introduction to the Chinese Theatre. New

York: Theatre Art Books, 1959.

Scott, A.C. The Classical Theatre of China. Westport,

Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1957.

123

Scott, A.C. The Theatre in Asia. New York: MacillanPublishing Co., Inc., 1972.

Scott, A.C. Traditional Chinese Plays. 3 vols. Madison,Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1969.Vol. 2.

Shang Kuan, Min (Sophia), trans. Homecoming of a Phoenix.Taipei: Committee for Appreciation and ImprovementChinese Opera, R.O.C., 1976.

Shih, Shu-Ching. Chinese Opera as a Western People See it.Taipei: Lien Ching Publisher, 1976.

Shu, Mu-Yun. History of Chinese Theatre. Taipei: Sh ChieShu Chu, 1977.

Shu, Mu-Yun. Li Yuan Ying Shih. Shanghai: Chung Hua YinShua Kung Szu, 1933.

Tan, :Dar-Sien. Research of Chinese Local Drama. Taipei,'Taiwan: Mood Dwo Press, R.O.C., June 1982.

Tien, Shih-Lin. Chinese Drama. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.:China Broadcasting Co., May 1983.

Wei, Tz-Yiuan. Peking Opera Stage. Taipei: Taiwan StudentShu Chu, 1986.

Wong, Shao-Jou, illus., and Kuo-Lin Chao, writ. The Art ofChinese Face Painting. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.: HanGuang Cultural Enterprise, Ltd., 1985.

Wong, Yuan-Fu. The Appreciation and Criticism of ChineseOpera. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.: Li Ming CulturalEnterprise, Ltd., 1985.

Wong, Yuan-Fu. The Art of Chinese Opera. Taipei, Taiwan,R.O.C.: Li Ming Cultural Enterprise, Ltd., n.d.

Wong, Yu-Sheng, Tung-Sh Tien, and Shian-Shin Lee. Ching ChuSheng Hang I Shu Chian Lun. Beijing: Chinese DramaPublisher, 1981.

Yao, I-Wei. Drama and Literature. Taipei: Yuan JingPublishing Inc., 1984.

Yu, Bin-Sheng. The Research of Peking Opera's Rhythm,Singing and Line-reading. Taipei: Taiwan Chung Hua ShuChu, 1972.

124

Yu Da-Gang. Hsi Chu Tsung Heng Tan. Taipei: Tsuan Chi Wen

Hsieh Publisher, 1979.

Zung, Cecillia S.L. Secrets of the Chinese Drama. New

York: Benjamin Blom, Inc., 1973.

Articles

Chang, Shiang-Chien. "Kuan Kung Makes Appearance." SinoramaMagazine Feb. 19, 1987:34-45.

Chao, Ru-Lan. "The Function of the Rhythm in Peking Opera."

Chinese Drama Monthly Feb. 1984:63-67.

Chen, Karl Chia. "Opera Defeats "Spoken Drama'---Theatre in

China." Theatre Arts Aug. 1947:48-52.

Reference Room. "Kai Chiao Tian Talks About Chinese Opera'sPerforming Art I." Chinese Opera Monthly Sep.1983:17-25.

Reference Room. "Kai Chiao Tian Talks About Chinese Opera'sPerforming Art II." Chinese Opera Monthly Oct.1983:10-21.

Ja, Kuo-Shiu. "Kou Ju, Tan Shing." Chinese Drama MonthlyMay 5, 1984:100-101.

Eisenstein, Sergei. "The Enchanter from the Pear Garden."Theatre Arts Monthly Oct. 1935:760-770.

Kao Ko-Pin. "About Chinese Opera's Face Painting: Eyes II."Chinese Opera Monthly Sep. 1983:26-30.

Kao Ko-Pin. "About Chinese Opera's Face Painting: itsCreation and its Adaptation." Chinese Opera MonthlyOct. 1983:46-48.

Kelsey, Vera. "God of the Theatre." Theatre Arts MonthlyMar. 1932:244-246.

Lee, Ging-Lan. "Language Problems in Chinese Opera."

Chinese Opera Monthly Feb. 5, 1984:24-29.

Lu, Tian. "The Symbolic Language of Beijing Opera." UNESCOCourier Apr. 1983:38-40.

125

Ma, Lee-Chu. "Kuei-Zuo, Tieh-Zuo, Ling." Chinese OperaMonthly Aug. 5, 1983:34-37.

Ma, Lee-Chu. "About the Fighting Techniques of Wu Dan, Dao-

Ma Dan and Four Famous Dan Actors." Chinese OperaMonthly Oct. 5, 1983:53-54.

Mindich, Jeffery H. "Part I: The Spirit of Chinese Opera---A

Passion For Perfect Performances." Free China ReviewOct. 1986:22-33.

Mindich, Jeffery H. "Par II: The Spirit of Chinese Opera---A

Delight in Perfected Images." Free China Review Nov.

1986:33-47.

Shuen, Sh-I. "Kuo Chu Basic Fighting Techniques." Chinese

Drama Monthly May 5, 1984:94-99.

Wong, Hsiao-Ming. "Kuo Chu' s Beauty of Colors and TheirMeaning." Chinese Drama Monthly May 5, 1984: 34-36.

Wong, Jai-Feng. "Making Chinese Opera Popular Again."Sinorama Magazine Jan. 1985:56-62.

Personal Interviews

Wang, Yu-Ru. Personal Interview. 22 December 1986.

Wang, Yuan-Fu, and Lee Ming-De. Personal Interview. 13December 1986.