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CHAPTER OUTLINEThe Columbian Exchange

Spanish America and Brazil

English and French Colonies in North America

Colonial Expansion and Conflict

ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: The Silver Refinery at Potos, Bolivia, 1700

DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Race and Ethnicity in the Spanish Colonies: Negotiating Hierarchy

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Shulush Homaan eighteenth-century Choctawleader called Red Shoes by the Englishfaced adilemma. For years he had befriended the French whohad moved into the lower Mississippi Valley, protect-ing their outlying settlements from other indigenousgroups and producing a steady flow of deerskins fortrade. In return he received guns and gifts as well ashonors previously given only to chiefs. Though born acommoner, he had parlayed his skillful politickingwith the Frenchand the shrewd distribution of thegifts he receivedto enhance his position in Choctawsociety. Then his fortunes turned. In the course of yetanother war between England and France, the Englishcut off French shipping. Faced with followers unhappyover his sudden inability to supply French guns, RedShoes decided to make a deal with the English. Unfor-tunately, the new tactic backfired. His former allies,the French, put a price on his head, which was sooncollected. His murder in 1747 launched a Choctawcivil war, a conflict that left French settlements unpro-tected and the Choctaw people weakened.

The story of Red Shoes reveals a number ofthemes from the period of European colonization ofthe Americas. First, although the wars, epidemics, andterritorial loss associated with European settlementthreatened Amerindians, many adapted the new tech-nologies and new political possibilities to their ownpurposes and thrivedat least for a time. In the end,though, the best that they could achieve was a hold-ing action. The people of the Old World were comingto dominate the people of the New.

Second, after centuries of isolation, the Americaswere being drawn into global events, influenced bythe political and economic demands of Europe. Theinflux of Europeans and Africans resulted in a vast bi-ological and cultural transformation, as the introduc-tion of new plants, animals, diseases, peoples, andtechnologies fundamentally altered the natural envi-ronment of the Western Hemisphere. This was not aone-way transfer, however. The technologies and re-sources of the New World contributed to profoundchanges in the Old. Staple crops introduced from theAmericas provided highly nutritious foods that helped

fuel a population spurt in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Aswe saw in Chapter 16, riches and products funneledfrom the Americas changed economic, social, and po-litical relations in Europe.

Third, the fluidity of the Choctaws political situa-tion reflects the complexity of colonial society, whereAmerindians, Europeans, and Africans all contributedto the creation of new cultures. Although similar proc-esses took place throughout the Americas, the par-ticulars varied from place to place, creating a diverserange of cultures. The society that arose in each colonyreflected the colonys mix of native peoples, its con-nections to the slave trade, and the characteristics ofthe European society establishing the colony. As thecolonies matured, new concepts of identity developed,and those living in the Americas began to see them-selves as distinct.

As you read this chapter, ask yourself the follow-ing questions:

How did the development of European colonies inthe Americas alter the natural environment?

What were the most important differences in thecolonial political institutions and economies cre-ated by Spain, Portugal, England, and France?

How important was forced labor to the Europeancolonies?

THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE

The term Columbian Exchange refers to the transferof peoples, animals, plants, and diseases betweenthe New and Old Worlds. The European invasion and set-tlement of the Western Hemisphere opened a long era ofbiological and technological transfers that altered Ameri-can environments. Within a century of first settlement,the domesticated livestock and major agricultural cropsof the Old World (the known world before Columbussvoyage) had spread over much of the Americas, and theNew Worlds useful staple crops had enriched the agricul-tures of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Old World diseases thatentered the Americas with European immigrants andAfrican slaves devastated indigenous populations. Thesedramatic population changes weakened native peoplescapacity for resistance and facilitated the transfer of

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plants, animals, and related technologies. As a result, thecolonies of Spain, Portugal, England, and France becamevast arenas of cultural and social experimentation.

Because of their long isolationfrom other continents (seeChapter 15), the peoples of theNew World lacked immunity to

diseases introduced from the Old World. As a result,death rates among Amerindian peoples during the epi-demics of the early colonial period were very high. Thelack of reliable data has frustrated efforts to measure thedeadly impact of these diseases. Scholars disagree aboutthe size of the precontact population but generally agreethat, after contact, Old World diseases overwhelmed na-tive populations. According to one estimate, in the cen-tury that followed the triumph of Hernn Corts in 1521,the indigenous population of central Mexico fell from ahigh somewhere between 13 million and 25 million toapproximately 700,000. In this same period nearly 75 per-cent of the Maya population disappeared. In the regionof the Inca Empire, population fell from about 9 millionto approximately 600,000. Brazils native population wassimilarly ravaged, falling from 2.5 million to under a mil-lion within a century of the arrival of the Portuguese. Themost conservative estimates of population loss beginwith smaller precontact populations but accept that epi-demics had a catastrophic effect.

Smallpox, which arrived in the Caribbean in 1518,was the most deadly of the early epidemics. In Mexico andCentral America, 50 percent or more of the Amerindianpopulation died during the first wave of smallpox epi-demics. The disease then spread to South America withequally devastating effects. Measles arrived in the NewWorld in the 1530s and was followed by diphtheria, ty-phus, influenza, and, perhaps, pulmonary plague. Mor-tality was often greatest when two or more diseasesstruck at the same time. Between 1520 and 1521 influenza,in combination with other ailments, attacked the Cak-chiquel of Guatemala. Their chronicle recalls:

Great was the stench of the dead. After our fathers andgrandfathers succumbed, half the people fled to thefields. The dogs and vultures devoured the bodies. . . .So it was that we became orphans, oh my sons! . . . Wewere born to die!1

By the mid-seventeenth century malaria and yellowfever were also present in tropical regions. The deadliestform of malaria arrived with the African slave trade. Itravaged the already reduced native populations and af-

DemographicChanges

flicted European immigrants as well. Most scholars be-lieve that yellow fever was also brought from Africa, butnew research suggests that the disease was present beforethe conquest in the tropical low country near present-day Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico. Whatever its origins,yellow fever killed Europeans in the Caribbean Basin andin other tropical regions nearly as efficiently as smallpoxhad earlier extinguished Amerindians.

The development of English and French colonies inNorth America in the seventeenth century led to similarpatterns of contagion and mortality. In 1616 and 1617epidemics nearly exterminated many of New Englandsindigenous groups. French fur traders transmitted measles,smallpox, and other diseases as far as Hudson Bay andthe Great Lakes. Although there is very little evidencethat Europeans consciously used disease as a tool of em-pire, the deadly results of contact clearly underminedthe ability of native peoples to resist settlement.

Even as epidemics sweptthrough the indigenous popu-lation, the New and the OldWorlds were participating in a

vast exchange of plants and animals that radically al-tered diet and lifestyles in both regions. All the staples ofsouthern European agriculturesuch as wheat, olives,grapes, and garden vegetableswere being grown in theAmericas in a remarkably short time after contact.African and Asian cropssuch as rice, bananas, co-conuts, breadfruit, and sugar canewere soon intro-duced as well. Native peoples remained loyal to theirtraditional staples but added many Old World plants totheir diet. Citrus fruits, melons, figs, and sugar as well asonions, radishes, and salad greens all found a place inAmerindian cuisines.

In return the Americas offered the Old World anabundance of useful plants. The New World staplesmaize, potatoes, and maniocrevolutionized agricul-ture and diet in parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia (seeEnvironment and Technology: Amerindian Foods inAfrica, in Chapter 18). Many experts assert that the rapidgrowth of world population after 1700 resulted in largemeasure from the spread of these useful crops, whichprovided more calories per acre than did any Old Worldstaples other than rice. Beans, squash, tomatoes, sweetpotatoes, peanuts, chilies, and chocolate also gainedwidespread acceptance in the Old World. In addition, theNew World provided the Old with plants that provideddyes, medicinal plants, varieties of cotton, and tobacco.

The introduction of European livestock had a dra-matic impact on New World environments and cultures.

Transfer of Plantsand Animals

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Faced with few natural predators, cattle, pigs, horses,and sheep, as well as pests like rats and rabbits, multi-plied rapidly in the open spaces of the Americas. On thevast plains of present-day southern Brazil, Uruguay, andArgentina, herds of wild cattle and horses exceeded 50million by 1700. Large herds of both animals also ap-peared in northern Mexico and what became the south-west of the United States.

Where Old World livestock spread most rapidly, en-vironmental changes were most dramatic. Many priestsand colonial officials noted the destructive impact ofmarauding livestock on Amerindian agriculturists. Thefirst viceroy of Mexico, Antonio de Mendoza, wrote to theSpanish king: May your Lordship realize that if cattle areallowed, the Indians will be destroyed. Sheep, whichgrazed grasses close to the ground, were also an environ-

mental threat. Yet the viceroys stark choice misrepre-sented the complex response of indigenous peoples tothese new animals.

Wild cattle on the plains of South America, northernMexico, and Texas provided indigenous peoples withabundant supplies of meat and hides. In the present-daysouthwestern United States, the Navajo became sheep-herders and expert weavers of woolen cloth. Even in thecenters of European settlement, individual Amerindiansturned European animals to their own advantage by be-coming muleteers, cowboys, and sheepherders.

No animal had a more striking effect on the culturesof native peoples than the horse, which increased the ef-ficiency of hunters and the military capacity of warriorson the plains. The horse permitted the Apache, Sioux,Blackfoot, Comanche, Assiniboine, and others to more

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C H R O N O L O G YSpanish America Brazil British America French America

1518 Smallpox arrivesin Caribbean

1535 Creation of Vice-royalty of New Spain

1540s Creation ofViceroyalty of Peru

1542 New Laws attemptto improve treatmentof Amerindians

1545 Silver discoveredat Potos, Bolivia

1625 Population ofPotos reaches 120,000

1700 Last Habsburgruler of Spain dies

1713 First Bourbonruler of Spain crowned

1770s and 1780sAmerindian revolts inAndean region

15401600 Era ofAmerindian slavery

After 1540 Sugar beginsto dominate theeconomy

By 1620 African slavetrade provides majorityof plantation workers

17501777 Reforms ofmarquis de Pombal

1583 Unsuccessful effortto establish colony onNewfoundland

1607 Jamestown founded

1620 Plymouth founded

1660 Slave populationin Virginia beginsperiod of rapid growth

1664 English take NewYork from Dutch

17541763 French andIndian War

15241554 JacquesCartiers voyages toexplore Newfoundlandand Gulf of St. Lawrence

1608 Quebec founded

1699 Louisiana founded

1760 English takeCanada

1500

1600

1700

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efficiently hunt the vast herds of buffalo in North America.The horse also revolutionized the cultures of the Araucan-ian (or Mapuche) and Pampas peoples in South America.

SPANISH AMERICA AND BRAZIL

The frontiers of conquest and settlement expandedrapidly. Within one hundred years of Columbussfirst voyage to the Western Hemisphere, the SpanishEmpire in America included most of the islands ofthe Caribbean, Mexico, the American southwest, Central

America, the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of SouthAmerica, the Andean highlands, and the vast plains ofthe Rio de la Plata region (a region that includes themodern nations of Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay).Portuguese settlement in the New World developedmore slowly. But before the end of the sixteenth century,Portugal occupied most of the Brazilian coast.

Early settlers from Spain and Portugal sought tocreate colonial societies based on the institutions andcustoms of their homelands. They viewed society as avertical hierarchy of estates (classes of society), as uni-formly Catholic, and as an arrangement of patriarchalextended-family networks. They quickly moved to estab-lish the religious, social, and administrative institutionsthat were familiar to them.

Despite the imposition of foreign institutions andthe massive loss of life caused by epidemics in the six-teenth century, indigenous peoples exercised a powerfulinfluence on the development of colonial societies.Aztec and Inca elite families sought to protect their tra-ditional privileges and rights through marriage or lessformal alliances with the Spanish settlers. They also of-ten used colonial courts to defend their claims to land. InSpanish and Portuguese colonies, indigenous militaryallies and laborers proved crucial to the development ofEuropean settlements. Nearly everywhere, Amerindianreligious beliefs and practices survived beneath the sur-face of an imposed Christianity. Amerindian languages,cuisines, medical practices, and agricultural techniquesalso survived the conquest and influenced the develop-ment of Latin American culture.

The African slave trade added a third cultural streamto colonial Latin American society. At first, African slaveswere concentrated in plantation regions of Brazil andthe Caribbean (see Chapter 18), but by the end of thecolonial era, Africans and their descendants were livingthroughout Latin America, enriching colonial societieswith their traditional agricultural practices, music, reli-gious beliefs, cuisine, and social customs.

The Spanish crown movedquickly to curb the independ-ent power of the conquistadors

and to establish royal authority over both the defeatednative populations and the rising tide of European set-tlers. Created in 1524, the Council of the Indies in Spainsupervised all government, ecclesiastical, and commer-cial activity in the Spanish colonies. Geography andtechnology, however, limited the Councils real power.Local officials could not be controlled too closely, be-cause a ship needed more than two hundred days tomake a roundtrip voyage from Spain to Veracruz,

State and Church

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Mexico, and additional months of travel were required toreach Lima, Peru.

The highest-ranking Spanish officials in the colonies,the viceroys of New Spain and Peru, enjoyed broadpower because of their distance from Spain. But the twoviceroyalties in their jurisdiction were also vast terri-tories with geographic obstacles to communication.Created in 1535, the Viceroyalty of New Spain, with itscapital in Mexico City, included Mexico, the southwest ofwhat is now the United States, Central America, and theislands of the Caribbean. The Viceroyalty of Peru, with itscapital in Lima, was formed in the 1540s to govern Span-

ish South America (see Map 17.1). Each viceroyalty wasdivided into a number of judicial and administrative dis-tricts. Until the seventeenth century, almost all of the of-ficials appointed to high positions in Spains colonialbureaucracy were born in Spain. Eventually, economicmismanagement in Spain forced the Crown to sell ap-pointments to these positions; as a result, local-bornmembers of the colonial elite gained many offices.

In the sixteenth century Portugal concentrated its re-sources and energies on Asia and Africa. Because earlysettlers found neither mineral wealth nor rich native em-pires in Brazil, the Portuguese king hesitated to set up ex-pensive mechanisms of colonial government in the NewWorld. Seeking to promote settlement but limit costs, theking in effect sublet administrative responsibilities inBrazil to court favorites by granting twelve hereditarycaptaincies in the 1530s. After mismanagement and in-adequate investment doomed this experiment, the kingappointed a governor-general in 1549 and made Sal-vador, in the northern province of Bahia, Brazils capital.In 1720 the first viceroy of Brazil was named.

The government institutions of the Spanish and Por-tuguese colonies had a more uniform character andwere much more extensive and costly than those laterestablished in North America by France and GreatBritain. Taxes paid in Spanish America by the silver andgold mines and in Brazil by the sugar plantations and, af-ter 1690, gold mines funded large and intrusive colonialbureaucracies. These institutions made the coloniesmore responsive to the initiatives of Spain and Portugal,but they also thwarted local economic initiative and po-litical experimentation.

In both Spanish America and Brazil the CatholicChurch became the primary agent for the introductionand transmission of Christian belief as well as Europeanlanguage and culture. It undertook the conversion ofAmerindians, ministered to the spiritual needs of Euro-pean settlers, and promoted intellectual life through theintroduction of the printing press and formal education.

Spain and Portugal justified their American con-quests by assuming an obligation to convert native pop-ulations to Christianity. This religious objective wassometimes forgotten, and some members of the clergywere themselves exploiters of native populations. Never-theless, the effort to convert Americas native peoples ex-panded Christianity on a scale similar to its earlierexpansion in Europe at the time of Constantine in thefourth century. In New Spain alone hundreds of thou-sands of conversions and baptisms were achieved withina few years of the conquest.

The Catholic clergy sought to achieve their evangel-ical ends by first converting members of the Amerindianelites, in the hope that they could persuade others to

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follow their example. Franciscan missionaries in Mexicohoped to train members of the indigenous elite for theclergy. These idealistic efforts had to be abandonedwhen church authorities discovered that many convertswere secretly observing old beliefs and rituals. The trialand punishment of two converted Aztec nobles forheresy in the 1530s highlighted this problem. Threedecades later, Spanish clergy resorted to torture, execu-tions, and the destruction of native manuscripts to erad-icate traditional beliefs and rituals among the Maya.Repelled by these events, the church hierarchy endedboth the violent repression of native religious practiceand efforts to recruit an Amerindian clergy.

Despite its failures, the Catholic clergy did providenative peoples with some protections against the abuseand exploitation of Spanish settlers. The priest Bar-tolom de Las Casas (14741566) was the most influen-tial defender of the Amerindians in the early colonialperiod. He arrived in Hispaniola in 1502 as a settler andinitially lived off the forced labor of Amerindians. Deeplymoved by the deaths of so many Amerindians and by themisdeeds of the Spanish, Las Casas gave up this way oflife and entered the Dominican Order, later becomingthe first bishop of Chiapas, in southern Mexico. For theremainder of his long life Las Casas served as the mostimportant advocate for native peoples, writing a numberof books that detailed their mistreatment by the Spanish.His most important achievement was the enactment ofthe New Laws of 1542reform legislation that outlawedthe enslavement of Amerindians and limited otherforms of forced labor.

European clergy arrived in the colonies with the in-tention of transmitting Catholic Christian belief and rit-ual without alteration. But the large size of Amerindianpopulations and their geographic dispersal over a vastlandscape thwarted this objective. Linguistic and culturaldifferences among native peoples also inhibited mission-ary efforts. These problems frustrated Catholic mission-aries and sometimes led to repression and cruelty. Thelimited success of evangelization permitted the appear-ance of what must be seen as an Amerindian Christianitythat blended Catholic Christian beliefs with important el-ements of traditional native cosmology and ritual. Mostcommonly, indigenous beliefs and rituals came to be em-bedded in the celebration of saints days or Catholic ritu-als associated with the Virgin Mary. The Catholic clergyand most European settlers viewed this evolving mixtureas the work of the Devil or as evidence of Amerindian in-feriority. Instead, it was one component of the process ofcultural borrowing and innovation that contributed to adistinct and original Latin American culture.

After 1600 the terrible loss of Amerindian populationcaused by epidemics and growing signs of resistance to

conversion led the Catholic Church to redirect most of itsresources from native regions in the countryside to grow-ing colonial cities and towns with large European popu-lations. One important outcome of this altered missionwas the founding of universities and secondary schoolsand the stimulation of urban intellectual life. Over time,the church became the richest institution in the Spanishcolonies, controlling ranches, plantations, and vineyardsas well as serving as the societys banker.

The silver mines of Peru andMexico and the sugar planta-tions of Brazil dominated theeconomic development of colo-

nial Latin America. The mineral wealth of the New Worldfueled the early development of European capitalismand funded Europes greatly expanded trade with Asia.Profits produced in these economic centers also pro-moted the growth of colonial cities, concentrated scarceinvestment capital and labor resources, and stimulatedthe development of livestock raising and agriculture inneighboring rural areas (see Map 17.1). Once estab-lished, this colonial dependence on mineral and agricul-tural exports left an enduring social and economiclegacy in Latin America.

Gold worth millions of pesos was extracted frommines in Latin America, but silver mines in the Spanishcolonies generated the most wealth and therefore exer-cised the greatest economic influence. The first impor-tant silver strikes occurred in Mexico in the 1530s and1540s. In 1545 the single richest silver deposit in theAmericas was discovered at Potos, in what is now Bo-livia, and until 1680 the silver production of Bolivia andPeru dominated the Spanish colonial economy. Afterthis date Mexican silver production greatly surpassedthat of the Andean region.

A large labor force was needed to mine silver. Themetal was extracted from deep shafts, and the refiningprocess was complex. Silver mines supported farming,livestock raising, and even textile production, which inturn promoted urbanization and the elaboration of re-gional commercial relations. Silver mining also greatlyaltered the environment.

At first, silver was extracted from ore by smelting: theore was crushed in giant stamping mills, then packedwith charcoal in a furnace and fired. Within a short time,the wasteful use of forest resources for fuel destroyedforests near the mining centers. Faced with rising fuelcosts, Mexican miners developed an efficient method ofchemical extraction that relied on mixing mercury with

ColonialEconomies

Potos (poh-toh-SEE)

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the silver ore (see Environment and Technology: The Sil-ver Refinery at Potos, Bolivia, 1700). Silver yields andprofits increased with the use of mercury amalgamation,but this process, too, had severe environmental costs.Mercury was a poison, and its use contaminated the en-vironment and sickened the Amerindian work force.

From the time of Columbus, indigenous popula-tions had been compelled to provide labor for Europeansettlers in the Americas. Until the 1540s in Spanishcolonies, Amerindian peoples were divided among thesettlers and were forced to provide them with labor orwith textiles, food, or other goods. This form of forced

A Silver Refinery at Potos, Bolivia, 1700and mixed with mercury and other catalysts to extract thesilver. The amalgam was then separated by a combination ofwashing and heating. The end result was a nearly pure ingotof silver that was later assayed and taxed at the mint.

Silver production carried a high environmental cost. Forestswere cut to provide fuel and the timbers needed to shore upmine shafts and construct stamping mills and other machin-ery. Unwanted base metals produced in the refining processpoisoned the soil. In addition, the need for tens of thousandsof horses, mules, and oxen to drive machinery and transportmaterial led to overgrazing and widespread erosion.

The silver refineries of Spanish America were among thelargest and most heavily capitalized industrial enterprisesin the Western Hemisphere during the colonial period. By themiddle of the seventeenth century the mines of Potos, Bo-livia, had attracted a population of more than 120,000.

The accompanying illustration shows a typical refinery(ingenio). Aqueducts carried water from large reservoirs onnearby mountainsides to the refineries. The water wheelshown on the right drove two sets of vertical stamps thatcrushed ore. Each iron-shod stamp was about the size andweight of a telephone pole. Crushed ore was sorted, dried,

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labor was called the encomienda. As epidemics andmistreatment led to the decline in Amerindian popula-tion, reforms such as the New Laws sought to eliminatethe encomienda. The discovery of silver in both Peru andMexico, however, led to new forms of compulsory labor.In the mining region of Mexico, Amerindian populationshad been greatly reduced by epidemic diseases. There-fore, from early in the colonial period, Mexican silverminers relied on free-wage laborers. Perus Amerindianpopulation survived in larger numbers, allowing theSpanish to impose a form of labor called the mita. Un-der this system, one-seventh of adult male Amerindianswere compelled to work for six months each year inmines, farms, or textile factories. The most dangerousworking conditions existed in the silver mines, whereworkers were forced to carry heavy bags of ore up fragileladders to the surface.

This colonial institution was a corrupted version ofthe Inca-era mita, which had been both a labor tax thatsupported elites and a reciprocal labor obligation thatallowed kin groups to produce surpluses of essentialgoods that provided for the elderly and incapacitated. Inthe Spanish mita, few Amerindian workers could surviveon their wages. Wives and children were commonlyforced to join the work force to help meet expenses. Eventhose who remained behind in the village were forced tosend food and cash to support mita workers.

As the Amerindian population fell with each new epi-demic, some of Perus villages were forced to shorten theperiod between mita obligations. Instead of serving everyseven years, many men were forced to return to mines af-ter only a year or two. Unwilling to accept mita service andthe other tax burdens imposed on Amerindian villages,large numbers of Amerindians abandoned traditionalagriculture and moved permanently to Spanish minesand farms as wage laborers. The long-term result of theseindividual decisions weakened Amerindian village lifeand promoted the assimilation of Amerindians intoSpanish-speaking Catholic colonial society.

Before the settlement of Brazil, the Portuguese hadalready developed sugar plantations that depended onslave labor on the Atlantic islands of Madeira, the Azores,the Cape Verdes, and So Tom. Because of the successof these early experiences, they were able to quickly trans-fer this profitable form of agriculture to Brazil. After1550 sugar production expanded rapidly in the northernprovinces of Pernambuco and Bahia. By the seventeenthcentury, sugar dominated the Brazilian economy.

The sugar plantations of colonial Brazil always de-pended on slave labor. At first the Portuguese sugar

planters enslaved Amerindians captured in war or seizedfrom their villages. They used Amerindian men as fieldhands, although in this indigenous culture women hadprimary responsibility for agriculture. Any effort to resistor flee led to harsh punishments. Thousands of Amer-indian slaves died during the epidemics that ragedacross Brazil in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.This terrible loss of Amerindian life and the rising profitsof the sugar planters led to the development of an inter-nal slave trade dominated by settlers from the southernregion of So Paulo. To supply the rising labor needs ofthe sugar plantations of the northeast, slave raiderspushed into the interior, even attacking Amerindianpopulations in neighboring Spanish colonies. Many ofthe most prominent slavers were the sons of Portuguesefathers and Amerindian mothers.

Amerindian slaves remained an important source oflabor and slave raiding a significant business in frontierregions into the eighteenth century. But sugar planterseventually came to rely more on African than Amer-indian slaves. Although African slaves at first cost muchmore than Amerindian slaves, planters found them to bemore productive and more resistant to disease. As profitsfrom the plantations increased, imports of African slavesrose from an average of two thousand per year in the latesixteenth century to approximately seven thousand peryear a century later, outstripping the immigration of freePortuguese settlers. Between 1650 and 1750, for exam-ple, more than three African slaves arrived in Brazil forevery free immigrant from Europe.

Within Spanish America, the mining centers of Mex-ico and Peru eventually exercised global economic influ-ence. American silver increased the European moneysupply, promoting commercial expansion and, later, in-dustrialization. Large amounts of silver also flowedacross the Pacific to the Spanish colony of the Philip-pines, where it was exchanged for Asian spices, silks, andpottery. Spain tried to limit this trade, but the desire forAsian goods in the colonies was so strong that there waslarge-scale trade in contraband goods.

The rich mines of Peru, Bolivia, and Mexico stimu-lated urban population growth as well as commerciallinks with distant agricultural and textile producers. Thepopulation of the city of Potos, high in the Andes,reached 120,000 inhabitants by 1625. This rich miningtown became the center of a vast regional market thatdepended on Chilean wheat, Argentine livestock, andEcuadorian textiles.

The sugar plantations of Brazil played a similar rolein integrating the economy of the south Atlantic region.The ports of Salvador and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil ex-changed sugar, tobacco, and reexported slaves fromBrazil for yerba (Paraguayan tea), hides, livestock, and

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encomienda (in-co-mee-EN-dah) mita (MEE-tah)

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silver produced in neighboring Spanish colonies. Portu-gals increasing openness to British trade also allowedBrazil to become a conduit for an illegal trade betweenSpanish colonies and Europe. At the end of the seven-teenth century the discovery of gold in Brazil helpedovercome this large regions currency shortage and pro-moted further economic integration.

Both Spain and Portugal attempted to control thetrade of their American colonies. Spains efforts weremore ambitious, granting first Seville and then Cdiz mo-nopoly trade rights. Similar monopoly privileges werethen awarded to the merchant guilds of Lima, Peru, andMexico City. Because ships returning to Spain with silverand gold were often attacked by foreign naval forces andpirates, Spain came to rely on convoys escorted by war-ships to supply the colonies and return with silver andgold. By 1650 Portugal had instituted a similar system ofmonopoly trade and fleets. The combination of monop-oly commerce and convoy systems protected shippingand facilitated the collection of taxes, but these measuresalso slowed the flow of European goods to the coloniesand kept prices high. Frustrated by these restraints, colo-nial populations established illegal commercial relationswith the English, French, and Dutch. By the middle of theseventeenth century a majority of European importswere arriving in Latin America illegally.

With the exception of someearly viceroys, few members ofSpains great noble familiescame to the New World. Hidal-goslesser nobleswere well

represented, as were Spanish merchants, artisans, miners,priests, and lawyers. Small numbers of criminals, beggars,and prostitutes also found their way to the colonies. Thisflow of immigrants from Spain was never large, and Span-ish settlers were always a tiny minority in a colonial soci-ety numerically dominated by Amerindians and rapidlygrowing populations of Africans, creoles (whites born inAmerica to European parents), and people of mixed an-cestry (see Diversity and Dominance: Race and Ethnicityin the Spanish Colonies: Negotiating Hierarchy).

Conquistadors and early settlers who received fromthe Crown grants of labor and tribute goods (en-comienda) from Amerindian communities as rewardsfor service to Spain dominated colonial society in earlySpanish America. These encomenderos sought to createa hereditary social and political class comparable to thenobles of Europe. But their systematic abuse of Amer-indian communities and the catastrophic loss of Amer-indian life during the epidemics of the sixteenth centuryundermined their position. They also confronted the

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growing power of colonial viceroys, judges, and bishopsappointed by the king.

By the end of the sixteenth century, the elite of Span-ish America included both European immigrants andcreoles. Europeans dominated the highest levels of thechurch and government as well as commerce. Creolescommonly controlled colonial agriculture and mining.Wealthy creole families with extensive holdings in landand mines often sought to increase their family prestigeby arranging for their daughters to marry successfulSpanish merchants and officials. Often richer in reputa-tion than in wealth, immigrants from Spain welcomedthe opportunity to forge these connections. Althoughtensions between Spaniards and creoles were inevitable,most elite families included members of both groups.

Before the Europeans arrived in the Americas, thenative peoples were members of a large number of dis-tinct cultural and linguistic groups. Cultural diversityand class distinctions were present even in the highlycentralized Aztec and Inca empires. The loss of life pro-voked by the European conquest undermined this richsocial and cultural complexity, and the imposition ofCatholic Christianity further eroded ethnic boundariesamong native peoples. Colonial administrators and set-tlers broadly applied the racial label Indian, whichfacilitated the imposition of special taxes and labor obli-gations while at the same time erasing long-standingclass and ethnic differences.

Amerindian elites struggled to survive in the newpolitical and economic environments created by mili-tary defeat and European settlement. Crucial to this sur-vival was the maintenance of hereditary land rights andcontinued authority over indigenous commoners. Someelite families sought to protect their positions by forginglinks with conquistadors and early settlers through mar-riage or less formal relations. As a result, indigenous andcolonial elite families were often tied together by kin-ship, particularly in the sixteenth century. Both self-interest and a desire to protect their communities ledthem to quickly gain familiarity with colonial legal sys-tems and establish political alliances with judges andother members of the colonial administrative classes. Inmany cases they were successful. For example, in NewSpain many representatives of the indigenous elitegained both recognition of their nobility and new hered-itary land rights from Spanish authorities. As this suc-cessful minority of elite families solidified their positionin the new order, they became essential intermediariesbetween the indigenous masses and colonial adminis-trators, collecting Spanish taxes and organizing the laborof their dependents for colonial enterprises.

Indigenous commoners suffered the heaviest bur-

dens. Tribute payments, forced labor obligations, andthe loss of traditional land rights were common. Euro-pean domination dramatically changed the indigenousworld. The old connections between peoples and placeswere weakened or, in some cases, lost. Religious life,marriage practices, diet, and material culture were al-tered profoundly. The survivors of these terrible shockslearned to adapt to the new colonial environment. Theyembraced some elements of the dominant colonial cul-ture and its technologies. They found ways to enter themarket economies of the cities. They learned to producenew products, such as raising sheep and growing wheat.Most importantly, they learned new forms of resistance,like using colonial courts to protect community lands orto resist the abuses of corrupt officials.

Thousands of blacks participated in the conquestand settlement of Spanish America. The majority wereEuropean-born Catholic slaves who came to the NewWorld with their masters. Some free blacks immigratedvoluntarily. More than four hundred blacks, most ofthem slaves, participated in the conquest of Peru andChile. In the fluid social environment of the conquestera, many slaves gained their freedom. Some simply fledfrom their masters. Juan Valiente escaped his master inMexico, participated in Francisco Pizarros conquest ofthe Inca Empire, and later became one of the mostprominent early settlers of Chile, where he was grantedAmerindian laborers in an encomienda.

The status of the black population of colonial LatinAmerica declined with the opening of a direct slave tradewith Africa (for details, see Chapter 18). Africans were cul-turally different from the Afro-Iberian slaves and freed-men who accompanied the conquerors. Afro-Iberianscommonly had deep roots in Spain or Portugal; their lan-guage was Spanish or Portuguese; and their religion wasCatholicism. African slaves had different languages, reli-gious beliefs, and cultural practices, and these differenceswere viewed by settlers as signs of inferiority, ultimatelyserving as a justification for slavery. By 1600 people withblack ancestry were barred from positions in church andgovernment as well as from many skilled crafts.

The rich mosaic of African identities was retained incolonial Latin America. Enslaved members of many cul-tural groups struggled to retain their languages, religiousbeliefs, and marriage customs. But in regions with largeslave majorities, these cultural and linguistic barriersoften divided slaves and made resistance more dif-ficult. Over time, elements from many African traditionsblended and mixed with European (and in some casesAmerindian) language and beliefs to forge distinct localcultures. The rapid growth of an American-born slavepopulation accelerated this process of cultural change.

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Many European visitors to colonial Latin America wereinterested in the mixing of Europeans, Amerindians,and Africans in the colonies. Many also commented on thetreatment of slaves. The passages that follow allow us toexamine two colonial societies.

The first selection was written by two young Spanishnaval officers and scientists, Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ul-loa, who arrived in the colonies in 1735 as members of a sci-entific expedition. They visited the major cities of the Pacificcoast of South America and traveled across some of themost difficult terrain in the hemisphere. In addition to theirscientific chores, they described architecture, local customs,and the social order. In this section they describe the ethnicmix in Quito, now the capital of Ecuador.

The second selection was published in Lima under the pseu-donym Concolorcorvo around 1776. We now know that theauthor was Alonso Carro de la Vandera. Born in Spain, hetraveled to the colonies as a young man. He served in manyminor bureaucratic positions, one of which was the inspectionof the postal route between Buenos Aires and Lima. Carroturned his long and often uncomfortable trip into an insight-ful, and sometimes highly critical, examination of colonial so-ciety. The selection that follows describes Crdoba, Argentina.

Juan and Ulloa and Carro seem perplexed by colonial ef-forts to create and enforce a racial taxonomy that stipulatedand named every possible mixture of European, Amerindian,and African, noting the vanity and social presumptions ofthe dominant white population. We are fortunate to havethese contemporary descriptions of the diversity of colonialsociety, but it is important to remember that these authorswere clearly rooted in their time and confident in the superi-ority of Europe. Although they noted many of the abuses ofAmerindian, mixed, and African populations while punctur-ing the pretensions of the colonial elites, they were alsoquick to assume the inferiority of the nonwhite population.

QUITOThis city is very populous, and has, among its inhabitants,some families of high rank and distinction; though their

number is but small considering its extent, the poorer classbearing here too great a proportion. The former are the de-scendants either of the original conquerors, or of presidents,auditors, or other persons of character [high rank], who atdifferent times came over from Spain invested with some lu-crative post, and have still preserved their luster, both ofwealth and descent, by intermarriages, without intermixingwith meaner families though famous for their riches. Thecommonalty may be divided into four classes; Spaniards orWhites, Mestizos, Indians or Natives, and Negroes, with theirprogeny. These last are not proportionally so numerous as inthe other parts of the Indies; occasioned by it being some-thing inconvenient to bring Negroes to Quito, and the differ-ent kinds of agriculture being generally performed by Indians.

The name of Spaniard here has a different meaning fromthat of Chapitone [sic] or European, as properly signifying aperson descended from a Spaniard without a mixture of blood.Many Mestizos, from the advantage of a fresh complexion,appear to be Spaniards more than those who are so in reality;and from only this fortuitous advantage are accounted assuch. The Whites, according to this construction of the word,may be considered as one sixth part of the inhabitants.

The Mestizos are the descendants of Spaniards and Indians,and are to be considered here in the same different degreesbetween the Negroes and Whites, as before at Carthagena[sic]; but with this difference, that at Quito the degrees ofMestizos are not carried so far back; for, even in the second orthird generations, when they acquire the European color, theyare considered as Spaniards. The complexion of the Mestizosis swarthy and reddish, but not of that red common in the fairMulattos. This is the first degree, or the immediate issue of aSpaniard and Indian. Some are, however, equally tawny withthe Indians themselves, though they are distinguished fromthem by their beards: while others, on the contrary, have sofine a complexion that they might pass for Whites, were it notfor some signs which betray them, when viewed attentively.Among these, the most remarkable is the lowness of the fore-head, which often leaves but a small space between their hairand eye-brows; at the same time the hair grows remarkablyforward on the temples, extending to the lower part of the

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ear. Besides, the hair itself is harsh, lank, coarse, and very black;their nose very small, thin, and has a little rising on the middle,from whence it forms a small curve, terminating in a point,bending towards the upper lip. These marks, besides some darkspots on the body, are so constant and invariable, as to makeit very difficult to conceal the fallacy of their complexion.The Mestizos may be reckoned a third part of the inhabitants.

The next class is the Indians, who form about another third;and the others, who are about one sixth, are the Castes [mixed].These four classes, according to the most authentic accountstaken from the parish register, amount to between 50 and 60,000persons, of all ages, sexes, and ranks. If among these classes theSpaniards, as is natural to think, are the most eminent for riches,rank, and power, it must at the same time be owned, howevermelancholy the truth may appear, they are in proportion the mostpoor, miserable and distressed; for they refuse to apply themselvesto any mechanic business, considering it as a disgrace to thatquality they so highly value themselves upon, which consists innot being black, brown, or of a copper color. The Mestizos, whosepride is regulated by prudence, readily apply themselves to artsand trades, but chose those of the greatest repute, as painting,sculpture, and the like, leaving the meaner sort to the Indians.

CRDOBAThere was not a person who would give me even an estimateof the number of residents comprising this city, because nei-ther the secular nor the ecclesiastical council has a register,and I know not how these colonists prove the ancient anddistinguished nobility of which they boast; it may be thateach family has its genealogical history in reserve. In mycomputation, there must be within the city and its limitedcommon lands around 500 to 600 residents, but in the prin-cipal houses there are a very large number of slaves, most ofthem Creoles [native born] of all conceivable classes, becausein this city and in all of Tucumn there is no leniency aboutgranting freedom to any of them. They are easily supportedsince the principal aliment, meat, is of such moderate price,and there is a custom of dressing them only in ordinary clothwhich is made at home by the slaves themselves, shoes beingvery rare. They aid their masters in many profitable ways andunder this system do not think of freedom, thus exposingthemselves to a sorrowful end, as is happening in Lima.

As I was passing through Crdoba, they were selling 2,000Negroes, all Creoles from Temporalidades [property confis-cated from the Jesuit order in 1767], from just the two farmsof the [Jesuit] colleges of this city. I have seen the lists, foreach one has its own, and they proceed by families number-ing from two to eleven, all pure Negroes and Creoles back tothe fourth generation, because the priests used to sell all ofthose born with a mixture of Spanish, mulatto, or Indianblood. Among this multitude of Negroes were many musi-cians and many of other crafts; they proceeded with the saleby families. I was assured that the nuns of Santa Teresa alonehad a group of 300 slaves of both sexes, to whom they give

their just ration of meat and dress in the coarse cloth whichthey make, while these good nuns content themselves withwhat is left from other ministrations. The number attachedto other religious establishments is much smaller, but there isa private home which has 30 or 40, the majority of whom areengaged in various gainful activities. The result is a largenumber of excellent washerwomen whose accomplishmentsare valued so highly that they never mend their outer skirtsin order that the whiteness of their undergarments may beseen. They do the laundry in the river, in water up to thewaist, saying vaingloriously that she who is not soaked can-not wash well. They make ponchos [hand-woven capes],rugs, sashes, and sundries, and especially decorated leathercases which the men sell for 8 reales each, because the hideshave no outlet due to the great distance to the port; thesame thing happens on the banks of the Tercero and Cuartorivers, where they are sold at 2 reales and frequently for less.

The principal men of the city wear very expensive clothes,but this is not true of the women, who are an exception inboth Americas and even in the entire world, because theydress decorously in clothing of little cost. They are very tena-cious in preserving the customs of their ancestors. They donot permit slaves, or even freedmen who have a mixture ofNegro blood, to wear any cloth other than that made in thiscountry, which is quite coarse. I was told recently that a cer-tain bedecked mulatto [woman] who appeared in Crdobawas sent word by the ladies of the city that she should dressaccording to her station, but since she paid no attention tothis reproach, they endured her negligence until one of theladies, summoning her to her home under some other pretext,had the servants undress her, whip her, burn her finery beforeher eyes, and dress her in the clothes befitting her class; de-spite the fact that the [victim] was not lacking in persons todefend her, she disappeared lest the tragedy be repeated.

QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS1. What do the authors of these selections seem to think

about the white elites of the colonies? Are there simi-larities in the ways that Juan and Ulloa and Carro de-scribe the mixed population of Quito and the slavepopulation of Crdoba?

2. Are there differences in the way that the authors char-acterize the relationship between color and class?

3. What does the humiliation of the mixed-race woman inCrdoba tell us about ideas of race and class in theSpanish colony?

Sources: Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, A Voyage to South America, The John Adamstranslation (abridged), Introduction by Irving A. Leonard (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,1964), 135137, copyright 1964 by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Used by permission of AlfredA. Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc.; Concolorcorvo, El Lazarillo, A Guide for In-experienced Travelers between Buenos Aires and Lima, 1773, translated by Walter D.Kline, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1965), 7880. Used with permission ofIndiana University Press.

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Slave resistance took many forms, including sabo-tage, malingering, running away, and rebellion. Althoughmany slave rebellions occurred, colonial authorities werealways able to reestablish control. Groups of runawayslaves, however, were sometimes able to defend them-selves for years. In both Spanish America and Brazil,communities of runaways (called quilombos in Braziland palenques in Spanish colonies) were common. Thelargest quilombo was Palmares, where thousands ofslaves defended themselves against Brazilian authoritiesfor sixty years until they were finally overrun in 1694.

Slaves were skilled artisans, musicians, servants,artists, cowboys, and even soldiers. However, the vastmajority worked in agriculture. Conditions for slaveswere worst on the sugar plantations of Brazil and theCaribbean, where harsh discipline, brutal punishments,and backbreaking labor were common. Because planterspreferred to buy male slaves, there was always a genderimbalance on plantations. As a result, neither the tradi-tional marriage and family patterns of Africa nor those ofEurope developed. The disease environment of the trop-ics, as well as the poor housing, diet, hygiene, and med-ical care offered to slaves, also weakened slave families.

The colonial development of Brazil was distin-guished from that of Spanish America by the absence ofrich and powerful indigenous civilizations such as thoseof the Aztecs and Inca and by lower levels of Europeanimmigration. Nevertheless, Portuguese immigrants cameto exercise the same domination in Brazil as the Spanishexercised in their colonies. The growth of cities and thecreation of imperial institutions eventually duplicated inoutline the social structures found in Spanish America,but with an important difference. By the early seven-teenth century, Africans and their American-born de-scendants were the largest racial group in Brazil. As aresult, Brazilian colonial society (unlike Spanish Mexicoand Peru) was influenced more by African culture thanby Amerindian culture.

Both Spanish and Portuguese law provided formanumission, the granting of freedom to individualslaves. The majority of those gaining their liberty hadsaved money and purchased their own freedom. Thiswas easiest to do in cities, where slave artisans and mar-ket women had the opportunity to earn and savemoney. Only a tiny minority of owners freed slaves with-out demanding compensation. Household servantswere the most likely beneficiaries of this form of manu-mission. Only about 1 percent of the slave populationgained freedom each year through manumission. How-ever, because slave women received the majority ofmanumissions and because children born subse-

quently were considered free, the free black populationgrew rapidly.

Within a century of settlement, groups of mixed de-scent were in the majority in many regions. There werefew marriages between Amerindian women and Euro-pean men, but less formal relationships were common.Few European or creole fathers recognized their mixedoffspring, who were called mestizos. Nevertheless, thisrapidly expanding group came to occupy a middle posi-tion in colonial society, dominating urban artisan tradesand small-scale agriculture and ranching. In frontier re-

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gions many members of the elite were mestizos, someproudly asserting their descent from the Amerindianelite. The African slave trade also led to the appearanceof new American ethnicities. Individuals of mixed Euro-pean and African descentcalled mulattoscame tooccupy intermediate position in the tropics similar tothe social position of mestizos in Mesoamerica and theAndean region. In Spanish Mexico and Peru and inBrazil, mixtures of Amerindians and Africans were alsocommon.

All these mixed-descent groups were called castasin Spanish America. Castas dominated small-scale re-tailing and construction trades in cities. In the country-side, many small ranchers and farmers as well as wagelaborers were castas. Members of mixed groups whogained high status or significant wealth generally spokeSpanish or Portuguese, observed the requirements ofCatholicism, and, whenever possible, lived the life of Eu-ropeans in their residence, dress, and diet.

ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONIESIN NORTH AMERICA

The North American colonial empires of England andFrance and the colonies of Spain and Portugal hadmany characteristics in common (see Map 17.1). Thegovernments of England and France hoped to find easilyextracted forms of wealth or great indigenous empireslike those of the Aztecs or Inca. Like the Spanish and Por-tuguese, English and French settlers responded to nativepeoples with a mixture of diplomacy and violence.African slaves proved crucial to the development of allfour colonial economies.

Important differences, however, distinguished NorthAmerican colonial development from the Latin Ameri-can model. The English and French colonies were devel-oped nearly a century after Cortss conquest of Mexicoand initial Portuguese settlement in Brazil. The inter-vening period witnessed significant economic and demo-graphic growth in Europe. It also witnessed the ProtestantReformation, which helped propel English and Frenchsettlement in the Americas. By the time England andFrance secured a foothold in the Americas, the regions ofthe world were also more interconnected by trade. Dis-tracted by ventures elsewhere and by increasing militaryconfrontation in Europe, neither England nor Franceimitated the large and expensive colonial bureaucraciesestablished by Spain and Portugal. As a result, privatecompanies and individual proprietors played a much

larger role in the development of English and Frenchcolonies. Particularly in the English colonies, this prac-tice led to greater regional variety in economic activity,political institutions and culture, and social structurethan was evident in the colonies of Spain and Portugal.

Englands first efforts to gain afoothold in the Americas pro-duced more failures than suc-cesses. The first attempt was

made by a group of West Country gentry and merchantsled by Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Their effort in 1583 to es-tablish a colony in Newfoundland, off the coast ofCanada, quickly failed. After Gilberts death in 1584, hishalf-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, organized private fi-nancing for a new colonization scheme. A year later 108men attempted a settlement on Roanoke Island, off thecoast of present-day North Carolina. Afflicted with poorleadership, undersupplied, and threatened by Amer-indian groups, the colony was abandoned within a year.Another effort to settle Roanoke was made in 1587. Be-cause the Spanish Armada was threatening England, norelief expedition was sent to Roanoke until 1590. Whenhelp finally arrived, there was no sign of the 117 men,women, and children who had attempted settlement.Raleighs colonial experiment was abandoned.

In the seventeenth century England renewed its ef-fort to establish colonies in North America. Englandcontinued to rely on private capital to finance settlementand continued to hope that the colonies would becomesources of high-value products such as silk, citrus, andwine. New efforts to establish American colonies werealso influenced by English experience in colonizing Ire-land after 1566. In Ireland land had been confiscated,cleared of its native population, and offered for sale toEnglish investors. The city of London, English guilds,and wealthy private investors all purchased Irish plan-tations and then recruited settlers. By 1650 investorshad sent nearly 150,000 English and Scottish immigrantsto Ireland. Indeed, Ireland attracted six times as manycolonists in the early seventeenth century as did NewEngland.

London investors, organized asthe privately funded VirginiaCompany, took up the chal-

lenge of colonizing Virginia in 1606. A year later 144 set-tlers disembarked at Jamestown, an island 30 miles(48 kilometers) up the James River in the ChesapeakeBay region. Additional settlers arrived in 1609. The in-vestors and settlers hoped for immediate profits, but

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these unrealistic dreams were soon dashed. Although thelocation was easily defended, it was a swampy and un-healthy place; in the first fifteen years nearly 80 percentof all settlers in Jamestown died from disease or Amer-indian attacks. There was no mineral wealth, no passageto Asia, and no docile and exploitable native population.By concentrating their energies on the illusion of easywealth, settlers failed to grow enough food and weresaved on more than one occasion by the generosity ofneighboring Amerindian peoples.

In 1624 the English crown was forced to dissolvethe Virginia Company because of its mismanagement ofthe colony. Freed from the companys commitment toJamestowns unhealthy environment, colonists pusheddeeper into the interior, developing a sustainable econ-omy based on furs, timber, and, increasingly, tobacco.The profits from tobacco soon attracted new immigrantsand new capital. Along the shoreline of Chesapeake Bayand the rivers that fed it, settlers spread out, developingplantations and farms. Colonial Virginias population re-mained dispersed. In Latin America large and powerfulcities dominated by viceroys and royal courts and net-works of secondary towns flourished. In contrast, no cityof any significant size developed in colonial Virginia.

Colonists in Latin America had developed systemsof forced labor to develop the regions resources. En-comienda, mita, and slavery were all imposed on indige-nous peoples, and later the African slave trade compelledthe migration of millions of additional forced laborers tothe colonies of Spain and Portugal. The English settle-ment of the Chesapeake Bay region added a new systemof compulsory labor to the American landscape: inden-tured servants. Ethnically indistinguishable from freesettlers, indentured servants eventually accounted forapproximately 80 percent of all English immigrants toVirginia and the neighboring colony of Maryland. Ayoung man or woman unable to pay for transportationto the New World accepted an indenture (contract) thatbound him or her to a term ranging from four to sevenyears of labor in return for passage and, at the end of thecontract, a small parcel of land, some tools, and clothes.

During the seventeenth century approximately fif-teen hundred indentured servants, mostly male, arrivedeach year (see Chapter 18 for details on the indenturedlabor system). Planters were less likely to lose money ifthey purchased the cheaper limited contracts of inden-tured servants instead of purchasing African slaves dur-ing the period when both groups suffered high mortalityrates. As life expectancy in the colony improved, plantersbegan to purchase more slaves. They calculated thatgreater profits could be secured by paying the higher ini-tial cost of slaves owned for life than by purchasing thecontracts of indentured servants bound for short peri-

ods of time. As a result, Virginias slave population grewrapidly from 950 in 1660 to 120,000 by 1756.

By the 1660s many of the elements of the maturecolony were in place in Virginia. Colonial governmentwas administered by a Crown-appointed governor andhis council, as well as by representatives of towns meet-ing together as the House of Burgesses. When these rep-resentatives began to meet alone as a deliberative body,they initiated a form of democratic representation thatdistinguished the English colonies of North Americafrom the colonies of other European powers. Ironically,this expansion in colonial liberties and political rightsoccurred along with the dramatic increase in the colonysslave population. The intertwined evolution of Americanfreedom and American slavery gave Englands southerncolonies a unique and conflicted political character thatendured even after independence.

At the same time, the English colonists were expand-ing settlements in the South. The Carolinas at first pros-pered from the profits of the fur trade. Fur traders pushedinto the interior, eventually threatening the French trad-ing networks based in New Orleans and Mobile. Nativepeoples eventually provided over 100,000 deerskins annu-ally to this profitable commerce. The environmental andcultural costs of the fur trade were little appreciated at thetime. As Amerindian peoples hunted more intensely, thenatural balance of animals and plants was disrupted insouthern forests. The profits of the fur trade alteredAmerindian culture as well, leading villages to place lessemphasis on subsistence hunting and fishing and tradi-tional agriculture. Amerindian life was profoundly alteredby deepening dependencies on European products, in-cluding firearms, metal tools, textiles, and alcohol.

Although increasingly brought into the commerceand culture of the Carolina colony, indigenous peopleswere being weakened by epidemics, alcoholism, and a ris-ing tide of ethnic conflicts generated by competition forhunting grounds. Conflicts among indigenous peopleswho now had firearmsbecame more deadly. ManyAmerindians captured in these wars were sold as slavesto local colonists, who used them as agricultural workersor exported them to the sugar plantations of theCaribbean islands. Dissatisfied with the terms of tradeimposed by fur traders and angered by this slave trade,Amerindians launched attacks on English settlements inthe early 1700s. Their defeat by colonial military forcesinevitably led to new seizures of Amerindian land by Eu-ropean settlers.

The northern part of the Carolinas had been settledfrom Virginia and followed that colonys mixed econ-omy of tobacco and forest products. Slavery expandedslowly in this region. Charleston and the interior ofSouth Carolina followed a different path. Settled first by

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planters from the Caribbean island of Barbados in1670, this colony soon developed an economy based onplantations and slavery in imitation of the colonies ofthe Caribbean and Brazil. In 1729 North and South Car-olina became separate colonies.

Despite an unhealthy climate, the prosperous riceand indigo plantations near Charleston attracted a di-verse array of immigrants and an increasing flow ofAfrican slaves. African slaves were present from thefounding of Charleston. They were instrumental in in-troducing irrigated rice agriculture along the coastallowlands and in developing indigo (a plant that pro-duced a blue dye) plantations at higher elevations awayfrom the coast. Slaves were often given significant re-sponsibilities. As one planter sending two slaves andtheir families to a frontier region put it: [They] are likelyyoung people, well acquainted with Rice & every kind ofplantation business, and in short [are] capable of themanagement of a plantation themselves.2

As profits from rice and indigo rose, the importationof African slaves created a black majority in South Car-olina. African languages, as well as African religious be-liefs and diet, strongly influenced this unique colonialculture. Gullah, a dialect with African and English roots,evolved as the common idiom of the Carolina coast.African slaves were more likely than American-bornslaves to rebel or run away. Africans played a major rolein South Carolinas largest slave uprising, the Stono Re-bellion of 1739. After a group of about twenty slaves,many of them African Catholics who sought to flee southto Spanish Florida, seized firearms, about a hundredslaves from nearby plantations joined them. The colo-nial militia soon defeated the rebels and executedmany of them, but the rebellion shocked slave ownersthroughout Englands southern colonies and led togreater repression.

Colonial South Carolina was the most hierarchicalsociety in British North America. Planters controlled theeconomy and political life. The richest families main-tained impressive households in Charleston, the largestcity in the southern colonies, as well as on their planta-tions in the countryside. Small farmers, cattlemen, arti-sans, merchants, and fur traders held an intermediatebut clearly subordinate social position. Native peoplesremained influential participants in colonial societythrough commercial contacts and alliances, but theywere increasingly marginalized. As had occurred in colo-nial Latin America, the growth of a large mixed popula-tion blurred racial and cultural boundaries. On thefrontier, the children of white men and Amerindianwomen held an important place in the fur trade. In theplantation regions and Charleston, the offspring of whitemen and black women often held preferred positions

within the slave work force or, if they had been freed, ascarpenters, blacksmiths, or in other skilled trades.

The colonization of New Eng-land by two separate groups ofProtestant dissenters, Pilgrims

and Puritans, put the settlement of this region on a dif-ferent course. The Pilgrims, who came first, wished tobreak completely with the Church of England, whichthey believed was still essentially Catholic. Unwilling toconfront the power of the established church and themonarch, they sought an opportunity to pursue theirspiritual ends in a new land. As a result, in 1620 approxi-mately one hundred settlersmen, women, and chil-drenestablished the colony of Plymouth on the coastof present-day Massachusetts. Although nearly half ofthe settlers died during the first winter, the colony sur-vived. Plymouth benefited from strong leadership andthe discipline and cooperative nature of the settlers.Nevertheless, this experiment in creating a church-directedcommunity failed. The religious enthusiasm and pur-pose that at first sustained the Pilgrims was dissipated bynew immigrants who did not share the founders reli-gious beliefs, and by geographic dispersal to new towns.In 1691 Plymouth was absorbed into the larger Massa-chusetts Bay Colony of the Puritans.

The Puritans wished to purify the Church of Eng-land, not break with it. They wanted to abolish its hier-archy of bishops and priests, free it from governmentalinterference, and limit membership to people whoshared their beliefs. Subjected to increased discrimina-tion in England for their efforts to transform the church,large numbers of Puritans began emigrating from Eng-land in 1630.

The Puritan leaders of the Massachusetts Bay Com-panythe joint-stock company that had received a royalcharter to finance the Massachusetts Bay Colonycarried the company charter, which spelled out com-pany rights and obligations as well as the direction ofcompany government, with them from England to Mas-sachusetts. By bringing the charter, they limited Crownefforts to control them; the Crown could revoke but notalter the terms of the charter. By 1643 more than twentythousand Puritans had settled in the Bay Colony.

Immigration to Massachusetts differed from immi-gration to the Chesapeake and to South Carolina. Mostnewcomers to Massachusetts arrived with their families.Whereas 84 percent of Virginias white population in1625 was male, Massachusetts had a normal gender bal-ance in its population almost from the beginning. It wasalso the healthiest of Englands colonies. The result was arapid natural increase in population. The population of

New England

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Massachusetts quickly became more American thanthe population of the colonies to the south or in theCaribbean, whose survival depended on a steady flow ofnew English immigrants to counter high mortality rates.Massachusetts also was more homogeneous and less hi-erarchical than the southern colonies.

Political institutions evolved out of the terms of thecompany charter. A governor was elected, along with acouncil of magistrates drawn from the board of directorsof the Massachusetts Bay Company. Disagreements be-tween this council and elected representatives of thetowns led, by 1650, to the creation of a lower legislativehouse that selected its own speaker and began to de-velop procedures and rules similar to those of the Houseof Commons in England. The result was greater auton-omy and greater local political involvement than in thecolonies of Latin America.

Economically, Massachusetts differed dramaticallyfrom the southern colonies. Agriculture met basic needs,but poor soils and harsh climate offered no opportunityto develop cash crops like tobacco or rice. To pay for im-

ported tools, textiles, and other essentials, the colonistsneeded to discover some profit-making niche in thegrowing Atlantic market. Fur, timber and other forestproducts, and fish provided the initial economic founda-tion, but New Englands economic well-being soon de-pended on providing commercial and shipping servicesin a dynamic and far-flung commercial arena that in-cluded the southern colonies, the smaller Caribbean is-lands, Africa, and Europe.

In Spanish and Portuguese America, heavily capi-talized monopolies (companies or individuals given ex-clusive economic privileges) dominated internationaltrade. In New England, by contrast, merchants survivedby discovering smaller but more sustainable profits indiversified trade across the Atlantic. The colonys com-mercial success rested on market intelligence, flexibil-ity, and streamlined organization. The success of thisdevelopment strategy is demonstrated by urban popu-lation growth. With sixteen thousand inhabitants in1740, Boston, the capital of Massachusetts Bay Colony,was the largest city in British North America. This coin-

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cided with the decline of New Englands once-large in-digenous population, which had been dramatically re-duced by a combination of epidemics and brutalmilitary campaigns.

Lacking a profitable agricultural export like tobacco,New England did not develop the extreme social stratifi-cation of the southern plantation colonies. Slaves andindentured servants were present, but in very small num-bers. New England was ruled by the richest colonists andshared the racial attitudes of the southern colonies, but italso was the colonial society with fewest differences in

wealth and status and with the most uniformly Britishand Protestant population in the Americas.

Much of the future success ofEnglish-speaking America wasrooted in the rapid economicdevelopment and remarkable

cultural diversity that appeared in the Middle Atlanticcolonies. In 1624 the Dutch West India Company es-tablished the colony of New Netherland and locatedits capital on Manhattan Island. The colony was poorlymanaged and underfinanced from the start, but itslocation commanded the potentially profitable andstrategically important Hudson River. Dutch merchantsestablished trading relationships with the IroquoisConfederacyan alliance among the Mohawk, Oneida,Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca peoplesand with othernative peoples that gave them access to the rich fur tradeof Canada. When confronted by an English military ex-pedition in 1664, the Dutch surrendered without a fight.James, duke of York and later King James II of England,became proprietor of the colony, which was renamedNew York.

New York was characterized by tumultuous politicsand corrupt public administration. The colonys successwas guaranteed in large measure by the development ofNew York City as a commercial and shipping center. Lo-cated at the mouth of the Hudson River, the city playedan essential role in connecting the regions grain farmersto the booming markets of the Caribbean and southernEurope. By the early eighteenth century New York Colonyhad a diverse population that included English colonists;Dutch, German, and Swedish settlers; and a large slavecommunity.

Pennsylvania began as a proprietary colony and asa refuge for Quakers, a persecuted religious minority. In1682 William Penn secured an enormous grant of territory(nearly the size of England) because the English kingCharles II was indebted to Penns father. As proprietor(owner) of the land, Penn had sole right to establish a gov-ernment, subject only to the requirement that he providefor an assembly of freemen.

Penn quickly lost control of the colonys political life,but the colony enjoyed remarkable success. By 1700Pennsylvania had a population of more than 21,000, andPhiladelphia, its capital, soon passed Boston to becomethe largest city in the British colonies. Healthy climate,excellent land, relatively peaceful relations with nativepeoples (prompted by Penns emphasis on negotiationrather than warfare), and access through Philadelphia togood markets led to rapid economic and demographicgrowth in the colony.

The MiddleAtlantic Region

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Both Pennsylvania and South Carolina were grain-exporting colonies, but they were very different soci-eties. South Carolinas rice plantations required largenumbers of slaves. In Pennsylvania free workers, includ-ing a large number of German families, produced thebulk of the colonys grain crops on family farms. As a re-sult, Pennsylvanias economic expansion in the late sev-enteenth century occurred without reproducing SouthCarolinas hierarchical and repressive social order. By theearly eighteenth century, however, the prosperous city ofPhiladelphia did have a large population of black slavesand freedmen. Many were servants in the homes ofwealthy merchants, but the fast-growing economy of-fered many opportunities in skilled trades as well.

Patterns of French settlementmore closely resembled thoseof Spain and Portugal than of

England. The French were committed to missionary ac-tivity among Amerindian peoples and emphasized theextraction of natural resourcesfurs rather than miner-als. The navigator and promoter Jacques Cartier firststirred Frances interest in North America. In three voy-ages between 1524 and 1542, he explored the region ofNewfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A contem-porary of Corts and Pizarro, Cartier also hoped to findmineral wealth, but the stones he brought back to Franceturned out to be quartz and iron pyrite, fools gold.

The French waited more than fifty years beforeestablishing settlements in North America. Coming toCanada after spending years in the West Indies, Samuelde Champlain founded the colony of New France atQuebec, on the banks of the St. Lawrence River, in 1608.This location provided ready access to Amerindian traderoutes, but it also compelled French settlers to take sidesin the regions ongoing warfare. Champlain allied NewFrance with the Huron and Algonquin peoples, tradi-tional enemies of the powerful Iroquois Confederacy. Al-though French firearms and armor at first tipped thebalance of power to Frances native allies, the membersof the Iroquois Confederacy proved to be resourcefuland persistent enemies.

The European market for fur, especially beaver,fueled French settlement. Young Frenchmen were sentto live among native peoples to master their languagesand customs. These coureurs de bois, or runners of thewoods, often began families with indigenous women,and they and their children, who were called mtis,helped direct the fur trade, guiding French expansion to

French America

the west and south. Amerindians actively participated inthe trade because they quickly came to depend on thegoods they received in exchange for fursfirearms, metaltools and utensils, textiles, and alcohol. This change inthe material culture of the native peoples led to over-hunting, which rapidly transformed the environmentand led to the depletion of beaver and deer populations.It also increased competition among native peoples forhunting grounds, thus promoting warfare.

The proliferation of firearms made indigenous war-fare more deadly. The Iroquois Confederacy respondedto the increased military strength of Frances Algonquinallies by forging commercial and military links withDutch and later English settlements in the Hudson RiverValley. Well armed by the Dutch and English, the Iro-quois Confederacy nearly eradicated the Huron in 1649and inflicted a series of humiliating defeats on theFrench. At the high point of their power in the early1680s, Iroquois hunters and military forces gained con-trol of much of the Great Lakes region and the Ohio RiverValley. A large French military expedition and a relent-less attack focused on Iroquois villages and agriculturefinally checked Iroquois power in 1701.

Spain had effectively limited the spread of firearms inits colonies. But the fur trade, together with the growingmilitary rivalry between Algonquin and Iroquois peoplesand their respective French and English allies, led to therapid spread of firearms in North America. Use offirearms in hunting and warfare moved west and south,reaching indigenous plains cultures that had previouslyadopted the horse introduced by the Spanish. This inter-section of horse and gun frontiers in the early eighteenthcentury dramatically increased the military power andhunting efficiency of the Sioux, Comanche, Cheyenne,and other indigenous peoples, and slowed the pace ofEuropean settlement in the North American west.

In French Canada, the Jesuits led the effort to convertnative peoples to Christianity. Building on earlier evan-gelical efforts in Brazil and Paraguay, French Catholicmissionaries mastered native languages, created board-ing schools for young boys and girls, and set up modelagricultural communities for converted Amerindians.The Jesuits greatest successes coincided with a destruc-tive wave of epidemics and renewed warfare among na-tive peoples in the 1630s. Eventually, churches wereestablished throughout Huron and Algonquin territories.Nevertheless, local culture persisted. In 1688 a Frenchnun who had devoted her life to instructing Amerindiangirls expressed the frustration of many missionaries withthe resilience of indigenous culture:

We have observed that of a hundred that have passedthrough our hands we have scarcely civilized one. . . .

Quebec (kwuh-BEC) coureurs de bois (koo-RUHR day BWA)mtis (may-TEES)

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When we are least expecting it, they clamber over ourwall and go off to run with their kinsmen in the woods,finding more to please them there than in all theamenities of our French house.3

As epidemics undermined conversion efforts in missionsettlements and evidence of indigenous resistance toconversion mounted, the church redirected some of itsresources from the evangelical effort to the larger Frenchsettlements, founding schools, hospitals, and churches.

Responsibility for finding settlers and supervisingthe colonial economy was first granted to a monopolycompany chartered in France. Even though the fur tradeflourished, population growth was slow. Founded atabout the same time as French Canada, Virginia hadtwenty times more European residents by 1627. After theestablishment of royal authority in the 1660s, CanadasFrench population increased but remained at only seventhousand in 1673. Although improved fiscal manage-

ment and more effective colonial government did pro-mote a limited agricultural expansion, the fur trade re-mained important. It is clear that Canadas small settlerpopulation and the fur trades dependence on the volun-tary participation of Amerindians allowed indigenouspeoples to retain greater independence and more con-trol over their traditional lands than was possible in thecolonies of Spain, Portugal, or England. Unlike thesecolonial regimes, which sought to transform ancientways of life or force the transfer of native lands, theFrench were compelled to treat indigenous peoples asallies and trading partners. This permitted indigenouspeoples to more gradually adapt to new religious, tech-nological, and market realities.

Despite Canadas small population, limited resources,and increasing vulnerability to attack by the Englishand their indigenous allies, the French aggressively ex-panded to the west and south. Louisiana was founded in1699, but by 1708 there were fewer than three hundred

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soldiers, settlers, and slaves in the territory. Like Canada,Louisiana depended on the fur trade, exporting morethan fifty thousand deerskins in 1726. Also as in Canada,Amerindians, driven by a desire for European goods, ea-gerly embraced this trade. In 1753 a French official re-ported a Choctaw leader as saying, [The French] werethe first . . . who made [us] subject to the different needsthat [we] can no longer now do without.4

Frances North American colonies were threatenedby a series of wars fought by France and England and bythe population growth and increasing prosperity ofneighboring English colonies. The French and IndianWar (which led to a broader conflict, the Seven YearsWar, 17561763), however, proved to be the final contestfor North American empire (see Map 17.2). Englandcommitted a larger mil