The Dog Aggression Workbook - James O'Heare

8/10/2019 The Dog Aggression Workbook - James O'Heare

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Dog Aggression WorkbookJames O’Heare

DogPsych PublishingOttawa Canada





for Pascale, my loving wife.



PREFACE

to make a few introductory remarks beforestarted. First, I would like to dissuade younking there are quick fixes. Finding solutions

aling with aggressive behaviors takes timeork. Be skeptical of anyone who tries to sellme one-true-way “method” that works quicklyrmanently in all or almost all cases, or one

alleged to be proven by cutting edge,breaking” new research (which, in mosthas not been peer scrutinized or replicated).have been watching trainers on TV showsroblems in half of an hour and spouting ondiscipline” and “dominance” or the quick-fix

at somehow only they know, then be warned,not how it is done. That is entertainment

ding to be professional animal behavior

ng. Professional behavior consulting involvese, no TV-show personalities, and no quick

This will be a lot of work, and it requiresment. The approach in this book is efficientective, but it will require you to learn abouts is done and then to apply your knowledge.

I be providing you with a simple step-by-stepInstead, I will provide you with the tools you

ed to understand the particular problem youaling with and how to go about changing it.ason is simple. Behavior is complex. Norecipe of steps will apply to all cases. Whated is the ability to construct those stepsf, targeting the specific problem behaviorse dealing with. You need the flexibility tos not some generic “diagnosis” but your ar problem. And so, what we are going to dogive you a good, solid introduction to the

e and principles of behavior and behavior programming, outline some important

ures, and describe how you can assess them you are facing and apply the principles andes to resolving it.

ook is no replacement for a qualifiedional. You are the one who faces the

ations of this problem and you are the ones to live with this dog, so you need to developg understanding of the topic yourself, but ad professional has the skill and experience tosure you meet your goals efficiently.

ould maintain a file or a journal as you workthis book. This is a workbook and, as such,

e interactive. As we work through the book,l be required to prepare various lists and

ents. You will be tracking the frequency of theor on a graph and identifying the specificors as well as the environmental context inhey occur. You will want to keep this all in onend accessible.

tried to avoid jargon, but sometimes the best

ay be a word you are unfamiliar with. I havedefine such words when I introduce them.

s a glossary at the back of the book for somee terms, so if you do not understand a word,he glossary before you continue. Okay, let’s

work.





Location Guarding Person Guarding

REDATORY BEHAVIORS

OG –DOG AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR

Dog–Dog Aggressive Behavior Betweenwho Live Together

Train Each Dog IndividuallyTrain in PairsTrain in Groups

MMENDED RESOURCES

OOKS

EB SITES

SARY OF TERMS

RENCES CITED



CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

are reading this book, you are having am with your dog behaving aggressively. This

ll:

help you develop a productive perspective one problem

help you understand what aggress ivehaviors are and are not

help you understand why dogs performgressive behaviors

show you how to assess the particular oblem you are facing, ideallyh the help of a professional dog behavior nsultant

help you learn how to construct a behavior ange program todress the problem, ideally with the help of aofessional doghavior consultant.

are no longer simply a tool for hunters or ; they are members of our family. Aggressive

or is distressing for everyone involved; it isangerous and detrimental to the social bondn you and your companion dog, not ton the fact that it reduces the life expectancydog.

Perspective?

society really have a “dog aggressionm” as is commonly claimed on TV newsand elsewhere? If so, how big a problem is

his section, I will examine these questions soe proceed with our exploration of aggressiveors in dogs in a rational and grounded.

ing to Janis Bradley (2005, p. 15),ally, dogs are not as dangerous as front-steps, kitchen utensils, five-gallon water

s, bathtubs, strollers, stoves, lamp cords,able corners, Christmas trees, balloons, or m slippers. Your chance of being killed by aradley explains, is approximately one in 18which means you are twice as likely to win

per Lotto jackpot or five times more likely tod by a bolt of lightning. In the United States,n under 10 are killed by caregiversmately 826 times per year, by buckets 22er year, by playgrounds 15 times per year, bys 11 times per year, and by dogsmately 10 times per year. Car accidents killpeople per year, accidental falls kill 14,440,

ntal poisoning kills 14,142, and even bicyclespeople per year, compared with dogs, who

people per year. For injuries, Bradley reports67 caused by falls, 3,990,652 by cars,

70 by overexertion, 909,688 by “other bites,”4,627 by bicycles, compared with a mere

4 by dogs. More people are hurt each year bys, sneakers and other shoes than by dogs,

tables and chairs, beds and doors than byAnd when it comes to severity of dog bites,y reports that the vast majority (92.4%) causeal injury, while 7.5% cause minor injury and ar 0.076% cause moderate to serious injury.ntal falls cause far more serious and costly and, in the domestic animal category,cause far more medically treated injuries or than dogs. Even cattle cause more deaths

ogs. Taken together, the statistics Bradleyts paint a picture of the “aggression problem”different from many people’s perceptions. On

day, being injured or killed by a dog is vastlyobable than dozens of other potential hazardsrarely, if ever, become concerned about.

s there such hype about the “growingsion problem” in dogs, when the reality is thatlmost never kill people, they don’t typicallyry often and, when they do, we are rarelyand, when we are, it is rarely a serious injury?art of the problem is the sensationalist way inhe popular media cover the rare stories of acks. Much of our perspective on problems incomes from the way that these problems areed on TV and in newspapers. However, therarely get the facts straight on dog attacksend to exaggerate or embellish their ation in a way that suggests that dog attacksmuch greater problem than they really are.onalism sells papers and TV advertisementFurthermore, as Bradley’s research has

d, much of the statistical work on the scopedog attack “problem” is scant, weak or flawedpoint that it gives us a very misleading, if nottely invalid, impression of the true problem.



wants to have it two ways with regard to dogor. We expect dogs to act like the Littlestnd, when they offer even the most innocuous

g, we are shocked and take great personal. We expect dogs to be grateful for our taking

n and caring for them, and refuse to accepthey have likes and dislikes, fears andons, and that they do what works, just as ween though we are much more violent andsive as a species, we expect dogs never toressive. If our dogs use aggressive behavior,ck and sense of betrayal lead us to fear thesion “problem” and attribute moreance to the incident than is justified rationally.proper perspective, as Bradley (2005) has

dogs do (though rarely) bite and injure or killbut they are not nearly as significant a risk

n slippers or balloons.

ciety in general, then, the frequency andude of injuries and death caused by dogs are

ule. From your perspective, on the other f your dog does develop a tendency to usesive behaviors, you are at risk of physical andogical harm, and the problem is far fromule. You love your companion dog.sive behavior jeopardizes your valuedship, and maybe even your mental health.

ay have to decide whether to eliminate the riskanizing the dog, or consider how much effort

e willing and able to devote to changing theor. Those statistics we raised are all fine andenerally, but if you are reading this, you arethe unfortunate people who is already facingity of a problem with an aggressive dog. Thethe book will be dedicated to helping you finds.

About You?

like to take a moment to acknowledge ande the stress, and in some cases crisis, that

sult from facing the reality that your dogs aggressively. You probably feelassed and guilty. You probably take the dog’ssive behaviors personally, as a betrayal of ndness and trust. You worry that you might note to make the necessary changes in her or, and you might realize that you have beenal about it too. You probably feel as thoughre few if any options and that the whole thingde your control. You also probably feel your ship with your companion dog deterioratingperience what is technically a grief process. Itbe a challenge not to experience these

ns and thoughts. They are normal responsestressing situation.

know that you d o have options—youy have more options than you realize. Also,hat once you gain a better understanding of blem, as will be the goal of this book, you willthat you can exert quite a bit of control over

g’s behavior. If all goes well, I am going to

u like a dog while you read this book. Beforeupset about that, you should know that I treatetter than most people treat each other. Ithat their perspective is legitimate. I try to

hem how they can achieve their goals, I try tohem that they have control over their world and

empower them, and I try to set them up for s throughout.

are some tips for your own behavioralpment. Set yourself up for success. Startand move at a pace that ensures that youd, rather than jumping in too quickly and

that the world controls you instead of theway around. Focus on preventing thesive behavior and on micromanagement untilve a good, solid plan. Write down the problemns for your dog, and do what it takes to makeere is no trouble for now. Find rewards for ogress and commitment. You will learn how tohe frequency of the dog’s problem behaviors.that line trend down and recognize that as afor your excellent work. Don’t try to get too

done too quickly. Set realistic goals. Keepace moderate and take setbacks in stride.ends and relatives to act as your support

k. Talk about your feelings with people youho will empathize with you.

this book opens some doors for you ands some useful tools in your journey.

and Working with a Professionalior Consultant

trying to work through a problem withsive behavior on your own, even with a goodadvice from experts on email lists, casualoffered by others in dog parks, or evenadvice from dog trainers. Aggressive

or is risky. To help ensure that it is resolvedctively and efficiently as possible, you should





arily be suspicious of a consultant whooffer references, because client identity is

confidence.

e consultant about the methods they use.em if they make use of aversive tools or ues as corrections for “bad” behavior. Theseues include choke chains, prong collars,collars and leash jerks. If they indicate thato use these types of tools and techniques,ccasionally, this is a red flag that indicates

ou should find another professional. Avoidasking whether they use animal-friendly

s, as most trainers will indicate that they do,they do not or if they use them alongside

e techniques. Ask specific questions aboutols and techniques described above andout this book. Look for the consultant who

s you that they are dedicated to findinge solutions based on positive reinforcement,hey will change problematic emotional

ses where appropriate, and that they willmore acceptable behaviors in place of the

m behavior. And then, ensure they “walk theoo.

em about their theoretical orientation. It isble that a professional wants to focus onng the problem behavior, what evokes it andonsequences are maintaining it, rather thanting “dominance” or trying to label the

m with a “diagnosis” without a full assessmentctual behaviors involved.

close attention to whether you feelrtable with the consultant or not. Theydemonstrate empathy for your situation andou feel comfortable working with them. Someants will be more focused on the problemor than on consoling you. That is fine,d that you feel comfortable working with this

sional.

ve how the professional interacts with

og. It is not necessarily important that they gooo gah gah” over your dog, but they shouldy display respect for the dog. They shouldrmission before working with your dog. Youfeel comfortable with everything you see them

h your dog and with declining to allow anyar interaction. Never let a professional doing with your dog that you are uncomfortablet because they are a “professional.”

e professional about how they organize

consultations. Ask how the professionalship will work, how much it will cost, what theons are of each party and about other detailsd in the professional relationship. Theant should provide clear answers to thesens. It is generally a good sign if they havewaivers, services contracts and other forms

ed for you to evaluate.

and Responsibilities of the Guardian and

sional Dog Behavior Consultant

ely, you are responsible for your dog’sor and the decisions made about resolving itIt is common for guardians to attempt to putponsibility onto the behavior consultant, but in, you make the decisions and the consultantou do so. The behavior consultant’s job is to

you with information you need to makens and to help construct a plan of action youarry out, sometimes with and sometimes

their hands-on assistance. You are free towhichever professional you like, to not hire aional at all, and to take any, all or none of theoffered. Along with this choice comes

sibility for the outcomes.

y Issues

lly, in the United States, people are liable for mage caused by their dogs, unless the victimspassing or committing a felony, the dog was

g the police or military at the time, the victimed the dog, or the person injured was a dogional who assumed the risk of working with

Other exceptions may exist and would differ ate to state. Most states have a statutory strict

Under this system, the dog’s guardian istely responsible for all damages to the victim.required that the guardian be proven to have

egligent, or that they knew the dog might bite,at the dog did bite. States not adhering to they strict liability system follow the one-bite rule.his system, the guardian is not held liable for bite a dog commits, but is held liable for any

uent bites, since the first bite creates adangerous propensity of the dog to bite.his system, liability is determined by the flowFigure 1.



Flow chart for determining liabi lity in states with the one-

rtain circumstances involving aggressiveor in dogs, a dog guardian may be found toommitted a criminal offense, and criminal ascivil action may be taken against them.

a is similar to the United States in its dog biteith a few exceptions. For example, in Ontario,

g Owners Liability Act (R.S.O. 1990, c. D. 16,s a strict liability law similar to laws in the

States, although no exceptions to thean’s liability are made for trespassers or for ommitting criminal offenses.

United States, dog bites account for oneof all homeowner’s insurance liability claims,approximately $345.5 million annually, with

rage claim of $16,600 (Insurance Informatione at http://www.iii.org/). Most states have also

laws imposing stiff penalties for guardians of who cause serious injuries or death. Some

ce companies require guardians to signwaivers for dog bite incidents. Others merelyhomeowners (or renters, or car owners)

or having dogs, or will not provide a policy atuardians of dogs that the insurance company

ers to have a natural propensity to beous; these might include American Pit Bulls, Rottweilers and others. Some companiesthat the dog be taken to classes intended tothe odds of aggression or that the dog wear le in public.

oes all this mean for you? In most cases, itthat you will be held civilly liable and perhapsly culpable for any damage caused by your

nion dog. You should keep these legal risks inhen working with your dog.

ectives on Behavior and Changingior

are many ways to look at explaining,ng and changing behavior, some more

than others, and some more efficient ande than others. Unfortunately, “popular” is notthe same as “efficient and effective.” Some

—including many professional animal trainersse to use a medical model, which viewsor as normal versus abnormal (disordered).may speculate about so-called “dominance”ves the dog’s behavior, and they may throw aag of tricks and intuitions at the problem with

degrees of success. The tides are nowand many professionals are taking a more

oral approach, identifying the actual problemor and the events in the environment thatn it. This approach looks at observable,rable behavior, the stimuli (i.e., things and

that evoke it and the consequences that

n it, not questionable interpretations of it or ative generalizations that may or may not be

The behavioral approach is backed by muchch and is more efficient and effective inng and changing behavior.

my task in this book will be to help you seeor through “behaviorist-colored glasses” andu put inefficient, outdated ideas behind you.l make your journey much more efficient ande.



APTER 2. WHAT IS AGGRESSIVEEHAVIOR AND WHY DO DOGS

AGGRESS?

s Aggressive Behavior?

are many definitions for aggressive behavior,f which have both strengths and weaknesses.define aggressive behavior as attacks,ed attacks or threats of attack by oneal directed at another individual. Attack

ors for dogs usually mean bites. By “threats of I mean communication signals that tend tothat an attack will occur unless the dog

es what she wants. (Usually what the dogs to increase distance between herself ander dog or person.) In dogs, threats of attackrefer to growling, snarling and lunging. Other

ors, such as hard-staring and raised hackles,o often precursors to attacks. However, sincebehaviors are also associated with other ns—including general arousal or stress—it isf a stretch to consider them aggressive byBy “attempted attacks,” I include behaviors

ould be attacks if they were successful.ng might be an attempted attack in somealthough it is often just a threat. But really, weneed to get too caught up in definitions; weggressive behavior when we see it.

o Dogs Aggress?

past, some people have argued that we areank slates and that our experiences aloneour behavior, while others have argued thathavior is predetermined by our genetic code.ow known that both nature (genetics) and

(experience) contribute to behavior. Our s provide us with certain reflexes and some

tendencies, but these can be influenced byg. Learning also influences our morery, goal-directed behavior. When it comes toversus nurture for behavior, you cannot havehout the other.

pecies, dogs (and other animals, includings) come with a biological makeup thats the tendency to use aggressive behaviors.sive behavior i s adaptive. That is, animals

ave made use of aggressive behaviors incircumstances have been successful in

cing and passing their genes on to the nexttion, including the genes that allow for sive behaviors. By this mechanism, genesated with aggressive tendencies becomeommon in the population.

context of an individual dog, aggressiveors are also often adaptive. Aggressiveor is just behavior, obeying the same rules aser behavior. It occurs because it is efficient

ective in allowing the dog to achieve certainThere are broadly only two functions for anyor, including aggressive behaviors:

to allow the dog to gain access tomething

to allow the dog to avoid or escapemething.

l explore these functions in greater depthFor now, it is important to appreciate thatse aggressive behavior either because theyng to access something they want, or they areo escape from or avoid contacting somethingslike or fear. If you can really internalize thist, you will have gone a long way to learningexplain, predict and change dog behavior. I

end a big part of this book reinforcing theseprinciples because they are the key toanding behavior and changing it.

havior is problematic, you should first look tosure it is not being facilitated by a medical

m. Once your veterinarian has ruled that out,n steps to cure the medical problem involved,ed to look at why the dog is performing theor. What is she getting out of it? That is theestion. She may or may not be motivated bymatic emotional responses like fear. Either here is something she wants to access or ing she wants to avoid or escape.

people seem to see all behavior in terms of ance.” People with this mindset interpret mostors as an indication that the dog wishes to bess” or the “alpha wolf” and is staging a coup.elieve that there must be a winner and a loser y relationship and that each party is naturallyagainst each other to be the winner. In my, this perspective has done nothing but pit

an against dog in an adversarial relationship.gestion, if you are inclined to think in terms of



nce, is to drop it completely. There is nothingin this approach at all. In fact, not only will ite an adversarial relationship, but it will

you from the vastly more straightforwardch of identifying the actual problem behavior things and events in the environment that areng it. There is no scientific support for

ance as it relates to companion dogs andng their behavior, but there is vast support for ple principles of behavior as I am describinghere. Dominance is a popular notion,arly among those who are looking for a hookmore books or a new TV show. You’ll getgood from seeing relationships as win–lose

os. Instead, see social relationships asuals seeking reinforcers (rewards). We are allng what it takes to get us what we want. If og is aggressing, it is not because she isnt over you; it is because this has simplyto be an effective means of accessing

ers. Identify those reinforcers, adjust them soome other, more acceptable behavior issful, and the behavior will change. How to doescribed i n detail later in this book.

people may also be thinking that the dog isful, spiteful or angry. It is questionabler a dog can be grateful or spiteful. Anger, if xperience it, is probably an expression of on when they are prevented from gainingto reinforcers. No-one is plotting to hurt your

s, and you cannot hold lack of gratitudea dog. These perspectives are just not

Resist the urge to indulge in them.

eting a Dog’s Communication Signals

mportant that you are able to interpret your ommunication signals because they help youthe behavior she will show in the near future.elp you determine whether she is likely tos or whether she is fearful. They also help youne what things in the environment are

ated with the aggressive behaviors and howtions are impacting on the dog. Interpreting aommunication signals takes practice.

interpreting communication signals, it isnt to look at the whole dog, not just a single

nd to look for clusters of signals, and not justal signals. The reason for this is that these

are complex, and they are constantlyng as the dog’s motivations change. Thereo often conflicted or mixed signals to dealy looking at the whole dog and clusters of n signals, you improve the odds that you are

bout what the signals are indicating about theear-future behavior. Furthermore, you shouldtake the whole context into consideration. A

or set of signals can indicate one thing in onement and another in a different environment.

ok at the whole dog, look for agreementsignals and also look at the environment.

y, a dog’s communication signals can be

as agonistic signals, affiliative signals, or s of both. Agonistic signals are signals thataggressive intentions or fear/appeasement.

ve signals are signals that communicate then to engage in prosocial (cooperative,) contact. First, examine the diagram belowthe relationship between these categories of .

. Arousal and postural communication signals in dogs,affiliative and agonistic signals, including aggressive

s and appeasement signals.

ook at the dog in the center. This dog is. As arousal (readiness for activity) rises,further from the center will become obvious.ll also notice the conflicted or ambivalentbetween the main categories. Let us look at



ategory in turn.

ve Signals

ve signals express the dog ’s nonfearful andressive intention to interact in a friendlyr. Simply put, they usually serve the function of g the dog to approach another animal. It isnt that you can recognize affiliative behaviorsyou can take advantage of the opportunity to

ce prosocial behaviors, and can distinguishsignals from agonistic signals, often

ated with aggressive behavior.

p position in the diagram (dimension 1 in2) represents high arousal and the absenceeasement signals or aggressive behaviors.osition may best be filled by play signals or,special circumstances (related to season andourtship behaviors. Less aroused affiliative

could include mutual grooming or ance for simple closeness.

ignals

Play signals

seeking to interact prosocially will often usens to play. These invitations might include

ows, eye flashing (you see flashes of theof the dog’s eyes), sneezing, panting and ang gait. Such signals may also be used toe a playmate during play encounters thatther than hostility, is intended. Play betweensually takes the form of mock combat or

and-be-chased games. The communicationused during play effectively inform the

te that the otherwise apparently hostileors are actually meant as play, with no intent. When dogs play, they repeatedly use theseto minimize misunderstanding.

ay bow is a familiar posture in which the doghe front of her body so that her front legs areto the ground, while the hindquarters remain

standing position. The dog may also offer andly barks to encourage a playmate, usuallyer pitch than barks used during agonisticters. While wrestling in mock combat, theeyes will often open wide as she looksys at her playmate, resulting in a flash of the

of the eyes (eye flashing). As most dogs play,ant and often sneeze. The panting usuallyes in pitch and is relatively loud. Another signntention, and hence the intention to approach

ake contact, is the lumbering gait. This usuallywhen one dog is charging at another dog, or hey are running side by side. They seem toor rock forward and backward as they run.

oks very carefree and easygoing, and is thee of the stiff gait of agonistic signals. Playing

will take frequent short breaks in which theyrelatively still, looking away from their nt (these are called cutoff behaviors and areed further below).

roused Affiliative Signals

affiliative signals can be observed in the, confident dog outside play situations. Theseare less aroused and subtler than the play

, again with an absence of agonistic signals.ure 2, these signals would be placed in

ion 1, but closer to the center than playCalm, relaxed dogs have relaxed muscles.

ars are in the regular position for the breedward or held back). Their tail is carried in anosition, not tucked between their legs or heldarly high (taking into account the normal for the breed), and may wag gently, if at all.og is more than merely calm and relaxed butnitiating social contact or responding to contact, she may look at the other individualgentle pant. Her tongue may hang out (notcurled at the tip) and bounce gently with eachIf she is not under stress, her mouth will look(not pulled back in a forced, wide grin withbehind and above the mouth). Her eyes will

, and pupils will appear normal, rather thanShe may raise a paw, and may even burp in

ace (probably derived from food-sharingor). There will be a distinct absence of



ic behaviors.

alent Affiliative/Appeasement Signals

Ambivalent affiliative/appeasement signal s

ension 2 in Figure 2, signals are conflictedn appeasing and affiliative. Dogs in thisy show some appeasement signals (seeand an absence of any aggressive signals.

more confident affiliative signals will be usedame time as some appeasement signals, or

e dog will vacillate back and forth, from morent affiliative signals to appeasement signals.a conflicted state. Most friendly dogs will

use of a few mild appeasement signalsptively to avoid hostility), but are not asy conflicted as a dog in dimension 2. Friendlyying) dogs are just slightly to the right of ion 1 in Figure 2, and usually only mildly or

ately aroused. Cutoff signals (see below) mayseen in this plane.

stic Signals

m includes acts of attack, escape, threat,e and appeasement. Agonistic signals, whicherve various functions, include signals that

aggressive or appeasement behavior. Ine, most signal clusters are ambivalent,g signals from more than one dimension at

ame time. Nevertheless, highlighting theon between signals allows us to appreciateposing motivational state of the dog and

her likely near-future behavior.

sement Signals

ension 3 of Figure 2, appeasement/fear are prominent. Appeasement signals

e a lack of confidence and serve to avoid. The dog may or may not be seeking to

affiliatively, but most importantly, she isg to avoid hostility. These signals are agressive means of achieving escape or ing hostile or aversive treatment.

sement signals can be either active or e.

e Appeasement Signals

Passive appeasement signals

e appeasement behavior includes lying in aent position, exposing the underside of thend sometimes the abdomen. Presenting the

en usually occurs in response to another dogating the genital region. The ears are

d back and down, flat against the head, andis held down, usually between the thighs, andags slightly. Occasionally, the dog will expel a

amount of urine. She will remain motionlesse other dog has finished her investigation.

Appeasement Signals

Active appeasement s ignals

tive appeasement, unlike in passiveement, the dog actively enters the other or person’s personal space. Active



ement seems to occur during greetings or ome incident in which a misunderstanding of

might take place. If an incident occursntally that might communicate a challenge toher dog, the first dog may use activeement signals to prevent the situation movingession. The actively appeasing dog will haveched, diminutive posture, with ears back andclose to the head, and tail in a low position,etween the legs. She will often wag her tail,whole rear-end will wag rather than just the

e may approach the other dog with her bodyn a “U” shape, presenting both her face andal area for inspection. She will push her into the nose or mouth of the other dog and

h short, repeated laps. Active appeasementseem to be modified infantile food-begging

ses. These signals look like groveling.

alent Aggressive/Appeasement Signals

Ambivalent aggressive/appeasement signals

ension 4 in Figure 2, the dog is conflictedn using appeasement signals and usingsive signals in order to increase her distancee other dog or person. This is the position of ssic “fear biter.” The dog will make use of bothsive and appeasement signals, oftenng from one to the other. The closer the dog

appeasement, the more consistent will be theement signals. As the dog swings closer togressive position, the aggressive signals wille more consistent.

ntly, this dog will be diminutive (crouched),re frantic. One of the most reliable indicator in this situation has to do with the shape of uth. Dogs at the appeasing position rarely

any teeth. Dogs at the aggressive positionshow only their canines and incisors, with then a tight, forward “C” shape. The ambivalentoften have an open, wider “C”-shaped mouth, showing more of the premolars and molars.

hter the “C” shape, the closer the dog usuallye aggressive position. She may start to raiseone side or both and growl. In dogs who are

lent between appeasement and aggression,fur on the back of the neck or spinection) often forms a line down the dog’sPiloerection indicates arousal. The pupilslate. This indicates that activation of the

mic nervous system—which is responsible for -flight behavior—is taking place. If this dogescape or make the other animal leave her she may resort to more aggressive signals.ay snarl, lunge, snap or bite.

ssive Signals

Aggressive si gnals

ension 5 in Figure 2, the dog does not usee or appeasement signals. Dogs usuallyextensive use of threat displays beforeg to actual attack. Generally, a threateningpears up and forward, looking as large andul as she can, the opposite of fear or ement. The hind feet will probably spreadroadly, in anticipation of forward lunging. Theride high and often swing back and forth in a

g motion or, alternatively, in a quick, almostg motion. Piloerection will be prominent, andg will become extremely stiff. The dog willdirect, hard eye contact with the target. As

increases, the dog may lower her head,



s as a protective measure for the throat.a dog attacks, she may bite repeatedly, or d hold on, with or without shaking. At a slightlyevel of arousal, the dog may put a chin or pawback of the other dog’s neck or their back.

ay mount the other dog or, if the other dog isown, she may stand over her, attacking if theog attempts to move.

alent Aggressive/Affiliative Signals

Ambivalent aggressive/affiliative s ignals

nsion 6 in Figure 2, the dog is displaying bothve and aggressive signals. Dogs displayingssertive—bordering on aggressive—affiliative

are conflicted between affiliative andc intentions. They are socially awkward or

Behaviors in this category include playingappropriate signals to indicate “play only,” or

to take even a brief turn as the “victim” inombat. In play sessions, it is common for oner to display fewer appeasement signals or tonals such as placing the chin or paw on thent’s back, or standing over the opponent, not

g them to move freely; the dog may becomeggressive or assertive if the other dog doespond exactly as they wish. These signals maye with affiliative signals.

cted Signals

on types of conflicted signals arise inns in which the dog has conflictingions. Motivational conflict falls within one of categories: approach–approach conflicts,nce–avoidance conflicts and approach–nce conflicts. In an approach–approachional conflict, the individual is motivated toch two different goals, where it is impossibleultaneously approach both. In avoidance–nce motivational conflict, the individual ised to avoid two things, where avoiding oneo result in approach to the other. These twoof motivational conflict are not nearly asn as approach–avoidance conflict. Inch–avoidance conflict, the individual isneously motivated to approach and avoid thehing.

tions of motivational conflict, dogs will showlent signals. If the conflict is with a socialmember, the dog may use cutoff signals or

ement activities when she cannot escape, or vated to also approach. These categories of are described below.

alent Signals

alent signals are merely mixed signals (see2 at positions 2, 4 and 6). When a dog haseason to avoid and reason to approaching or someone, she will probably vacillatend forth between affiliative, aggressive andement signals. At any given moment, the dogow signals from any of the dimensions in theMost agonistic behavior is ambivalent; true

ousal aggressive behavior would involveate attack without hesitation, and true high-

appeasement/fear-related behavior wouldimmediate flight without hesitation (where

e). The behavior of a motivationally conflictedn be a risky situation for a person interactinge dog because the dog could go either way. If ake a wrong move, the dog could shift tosive behaviors. A dog who finds herself tooo someone she wants to avoid may escalateto escape or aggressive behavior. If a dog isg ambivalent signals, it is advisable to avoid

movements, ensure that the dog has aavailable escape route, and ensure that she

orced to approach any closer.

Behavior

behaviors appear to be a conflictement strategy that has the aim of reducing. A dog might use cutoff signals to avoidsive encounters in situations where she isg social affiliation or to avoid a chase–attackflees. Cutoff behavior serves to temporarilyoff sensory contact with the other animal,

reducing arousal in both animals. Cutoff ors are different from appeasement signals in



e dog using the behavior is not showingce. These signals seem to relax both ther and the receiver. In dogs, turning the heady away or averting the eyes; quick, nervousor displacement activities such as yawning

ng the ground can serve as cutoff signals.

cement Activities

instances of frustration or approach–nce conflict, displacement activities aren. Displacement activities are behaviors thaterwise normal behaviors for dogs, but theyformed out of context. In other words, when aes a highly stressful or unsolvable conflict thatin frustration, she may perform various outof-

behaviors that may delay or avoid theIn dogs, sniffing the ground or even drinking

an act as displacement activities.

ng Rituals

g rituals are a special class of ritualizedor, used to convey specific information. Whengreet each other, even after very brief es, they will reassess each other with aof mutual probing displays and assessments.are three basic greeting ritual patterns: facial–

inguinal and anogenital. Facial–lingualgs between two dogs involve mutual sniffingvestigation of each other’s faces, particularlyuth and breath. Inguinal greetings involve oneal sniffing and investigating the groin region

other individual. The anogenital greetings mutual sniffing and investigation of the other nal and/or genital region.

eeting routine itself is quite flexible. Most dogsch each other cautiously in an arc, rather than

on. Once two dogs have made their initialment, one or both dogs will often perform play

or they may move on to other activities.dogs perform what we might consider

ating behaviors. They may rest their chin or athe other dog’s back or the back of the neck.

may mount the other dog, or, if the other dogwn, they may stand over them. Dogs withintent” will often stiffen and growl; they rarelythe other dog moving during this process.

her dog may either remain still until theator” disengages, use active or passiveement signals, or perform similar aggressive

ors in return. This can result in a blusteryof lunging, snarling, snapping and

mes biting. Affiliative greeting behavior s often include mild preemptive appeasementff signals, which function to help reduce theof being treated in a hostile manner.

dogs greet people, some variations on theoutlined above are often seen. The dog will

tious or confident, social or aloof, or shadesween. The more cautious dog will rarelych. If she is confident enough to approach,

l use cutoff signals or appeasement signalsand passive). She may approach waggingso vigorously that her entire rear end wags

She may approach with a curved body as if toe person, but also present her anogenitalr inspection. She will often rub her muzzle upthe person or jump up in order to lick the

s face (particularly the mouth). Alternatively,ay approach very slowly and cautiously withad down, ears back and tail down. Thisch is used by fearful dogs, and the persongreeted should avoid sudden movements or

interactions until the dog has “warmed up.”dogs are much more confident and will

ch for social contact with few cutoff or ement signals. They will simply approachiff or seek contact. Many dogs will sendlent signals.

o Handle Aggressive Signals

t priority with a dog who may act aggressivelyrevent the dog from aggressing. You can

e this by making changes to the environmentutines that will make aggressive displays far ely to occur. This means being aware of thece of things and events (i.e., stimuli) that mayevoke the dog’s aggressive behavior, and thearning signals the dog displays.

ccasions when the dog does displaysive signals aimed at escaping or avoidinging, and your safety is accounted for,ly your best bet is to disengage from then early and without fuss. Either remove the

m stimulus from the dog or the dog from thement (see page 62 for a more detailed

sion of this topic).

ng behavior such as growling is a veryn practice. However, one of two things iso occur if these aggressive signals are



ed. The dog may escalate her aggressiveor in order to defend herself, or she mayss her early-stage aggressive signals. Shearn not to growl, for example, and the earlyg signal of trouble has now been lost. Imaginewho does not warn before she bites! I haveis many times, and invariably it has resultedunishment of the warning signals. Even if ment is successful in suppressing aggressiveor, the function for the problem behavior hasen addressed. The dog has not been showno do in that situation, just what not to do.ve techniques cause more trouble than theyss, as a section below explains.

ions for facing an aggressive display that isd at you are as follows:

:

ry to scold the dogun away

screamstare directly at the dogallow the dog to be cornered.

cross your armskeep an eye on the dogmove away slowly to a safe place (withoutning your back on theg). If you move away quickly, the fearful dogay lash out at you,en the deferential one.

d yourself that it is normal to take aggressives personally. However, the dog is merelyng in accordance with the way thement is arranged and what she has learnedthe various options available to her.

sive behaviors are the normal way for dogsmunicate their intention to escape or avoid

ing. Whereas we might say, “Please, you areme nervous, can you not stand so close?” or

step off, Jack!,” dogs cannot do this. Their equest for increased social distance, wheno not feel that they can easily escape (or s to escape have been unsuccessful in the

s to growl, snarl and snap. I encourage you toggressive behavior this way rather thanomorphically as an ungrateful betrayal of your

and Aggressive Behavior

sion is often i nfluenced by stress. We areinterested in what is causing the stress, butvalue in understanding the stress response

is a nonspecific physiological andgical response of the body when any demand

ed upon it. The demand does not necessarilyinvolve aversive stimulation (unpleasant stuff)

e stress. Every minute, new demands—bothcal and psychological—are placed upon allals. Animals respond to these demandsogically, and these responses require effortreparation for energy expenditure. This

ation and activation of internal resourcesute the experience of stress. Normal levels of manageable stress are often thought of asating. When stress is intense or long term, itecome detrimental and is referred to ass. Stress resulting from aversive stimulationso trigger fight-or-flight mechanisms. Theseons can make aggressive responding morele.

s describes the state of an animal when itsal reserves are not sufficient to meet theal cost of the stress response. As a result,es must be diverted away from other al functions such as growth. Distress is aal form of stress that is actually harmful.

nces between animals in what constitutess are largely determined by features of their al nervous systems, and these features canerited. Some dogs may be genetically

posed to develop aggression problems.

6, Hans Selye outlined a theory of stressse called the general adaptation syndromeThe fight-or-flight response, which you havely heard of, is now considered a part of GAS.volves three phases:

alarm phase/fight-or-flight responseadaptation phaseexhaustion phase.

the alarm phase, part of the nervous systemthe sympathetic nervous system is acutelyed. Shortly after this initial activation, thetion phase begins, in which the rapid arousal



nervous system decreases and a return toium begins; this phase can take some time

eve. Finally, the exhaustion phase is the resultheavy toll taken by the alarm and adaptation. Resources become depleted, and theshuts down in an effort to conserve energy

cuperate. In other words, the body mobilizesources to face an emergency challenge

and then suffers a depletion effect (whichecome distress) in order to “pay” for thatation.

urse of GAS can also be thought of in termsacute phase of fight or flight and the chronicof adaptation and exhaustion. I will describelow.

or-Flight Response

a dog experiences a sudden or acute onset of or fear, the body quickly activates its

ency processes. Various chemicalsransmitters and hormones) are released indy that will prepare the animal physiologicallyemergency. The heart beats faster, and bloodguided away from skin and intestines towardscles so that they are ready for action. Somese arousing processes prime the dog for

and aggression. As a result of theseses, the dog may be unable to accessors that rely on inhibition, impulse control andsly learned coping mechanisms. This setsge for fight-or-flight behaviors such as escapedance. The threshold for aggressive behavior red in dogs under stress.

ation and Exhaustion

dogs stay in a chronic state of stress whilee in the adaptation and/or exhaustion phasesS. During this stress response, the bodyns an emergency state for an extended(often resulting in distress), and depletes

f valuable resources, including those thatmmune system health, growth and learning.c stress reduces the body’s energyiture, resulting in lethargy and depression, a

omised immune system and impairedg ability (and perhaps impaired memoryn in old age). The result of continued stress ised sleep patterns, difficulty in thinking clearly,on of the rational activity of the mind,nsitivity to pain, impaired learning, and a lackty to experience pleasure. This is classic

s. Research has shown that aggressiones during chronic stress.

of Stress and Distress

of stress and distress are highly variable.heless, there are some indications from theehavior that stress or di stress may be takingBelow is a list of potential signs of stress.of these behaviors may also function as

ement activities or have other functions. Witht is important to look at the total package of nd the context to determine, with any level of nce, that the signs represent actual stress or s. Some signs involve an increase in activityactivity, while others involve a decrease in

or shutting down. In acute stress, the dogto full “red alert” mentally and physically. Withstress, the dog will shut down.

of appetite. Dogs under stress will oftenfood or treats. Context is important: a dogsatiated because she has just eaten a meal

o refuse treats, and lack of appetite could alsont a distaste for the food offered. In the longogs under chronic stress will eat much lesse weight.

shallow panting or deep, forcefulg. Panting is normal for dogs who have beenng or who are hot, and for certain breeds, buthould be deeper respirations, with a relaxed

During stress (which may, by the way, beby excess exercise or heat), the lips will be

back in a wide grin, causing furrows in theder the eyes and on the forehead. This should

wed in the context of the situation and other f stress.

of focus and attention. If the dog fails tod to cues, she may simply be distracted by a

or some other event. A stressed dog,er, is not ignoring commands. She may notear them, let alone feel she can oblige. Tunneland tunnel attention make it impossible for her ond.

y paws. Dogs get sweaty paws in the same

at nervous people get sweaty palms. When ad dog walks on a hardwood floor or in her or steps off the veterinarian’s exam table,paw prints may be seen. This is a result of



dy forcing fluid out as part of its physiologicale mechanism.

ng. This is a very common sign of stress andliable. Unless the dog is about to settle into awning will often represent stress. The yawnsbe more intense than normal. The dog willtuck her chin into her chest and yawn

y. It is important to look for corroboratingnd context because sometimes a yawn is just

activity. A dog who is acutely stressed maye more active as a defense mechanism. Sheok frantic or panicked or her behavior may beted as fooling around or simple hyperactivity.

the quintessential stress activation, oftenning as a displacement behavior. Dogsmaintain this for long before the system is, a chronic stress sets in and the dog shutsnd becomes inactive.

sed frequency of urination andtion. A dog who urinates and defecatesrequently than normal may be suffering anor she may be suffering stress. If she voidshe house, it may be a house-training issue, or of severe stress. When the body is stressed,orce fluid from itself. The dog will have anable urge to urinate and defecate. This is onewhy voiding should never be punished.

ng and diarrhea. Stress wreaks havoc on

y, and the digestive system is usually the firstto react poorly. There may be many reasons

dog vomits or has diarrhea, including medicalms. It can also be the result of stress.

hing. If the dog wakes up from a nap andes, she is just limbering up, but if she is in an that she finds stressful, then she may beg her stress. Often when faced with a crowdple or other dogs, dogs will stretch to relieveStress tends to make muscles tense, and

ng may be a way to relax tense muscles. Itso be a displacement behavior.

g as if she just came out of water. Dogs

e stressed may attempt to “shake off the” This is often seen in dog classes and a t dogWhen dogs finish with a tense confrontation,l often give a shake. This again may be a waysen up tense muscles, a selfrelaxatione.

sion. A dog who is distressed may actly and in a confused manner. Confusion can

dicate a medical problem, such as a seizureetic emergency, so caution must be used inting this behavior as a sign of stress.

utilation. The behaviors in this category maytail biting, or chewing a paw or the flank.may be many reasons for a dog self ng, including a genetic predisposition or l problems (e.g., allergies). The behavior mayeen unknowingly encouraged and rewarded,

be part of a true compulsive disorder. Theay have an injury or illness that causes pain inea. Arthritis in the front hocks area is a

on reason for geriatric dogs to lick o r bite their gs, for example. Regardless of the cause,is taking place when a dog self mutilates.sensitive dogs will direct their stress inward

self mutilation. It may also be a displacementor.

sive grooming. A dog who excessively

will usually lick at one particular area, suchpaws, flank, or genitals, and may cause

e to that area. Again, the behavior may result injury or illness, or an underlying compulsiver. The most likely culprit is an allergy, buts another possible cause.

sive sleep. Some dogs are lazy. For e, Greyhounds or English Bulldogs may beg a normal level of laziness if they lie on the18 hours a day. Every dog has a different

level, and so this may be a difficult sign toze until after a stress reduction program.people notice in hindsight that their dogd to be shut down, with no energy, before they

managing the dog’s stress level. Shuttings the quintessential sign of chronic stress.

ed dogs usually will not experience ang sleep, and this may be one reason whye always trying to sleep.

sive thirst. A dog who is drinking more than

may be suffering an illness (such ases), but may also be showing a displacementor in an attempt to ease stress.

ulsive or stereotyped behaviors. When an

is stressed, certain behaviors can becomesive. If a dog spends a significant amount of arking, digging or tail chasing, over ated period and without apparent cause, then



ay be suffering high levels of stress. Thesestrategies used by the dog to keep stress atcould also be displacement behavior, or

tically reinforced behavior (that is, reinforcedhe body).

reactive. If the dog cannot relax even under ns when nothing much is happening arounde may be overly reactive. This may relate totive sleep patterns. Breed tendencies to bey reactive must also be taken into account.

d pupils. This is related to the activation of g’s nervous system and indicates significant

and stress. It must be evaluated in theof the ambient lighting.

eye. Whale eye occurs when a dog openses wide and looks to the side, such that thent-moon-shaped whites of the eye can beIn isolation, whale eye resembles “eye

g,” which is used as a play signal. If whites of

are accompanied by other play signals, thene flashing, whereas if they are accompaniedezing, growling or other signs of stress or sion, then it is whale eye.

ss. When a dog is stressed and aroused, thes may become tense and hard, producing aff gait and tail movement.

ing. Many dogs suffering excess stress willContext will indicate whether the dog is coldsed.

cement activity. Displacement activity

s behaviors that would otherwise be normalgs, except that they are performed out of , and hence will often seem strange and oute. If a severely stressed dog is asked to doing, she may perform other behaviors (that is,tention can be held for long enough for her to

he request). Dogs may use displacements when they are conflicted or confused. For e, when two dogs are interacting and one

els intimidated, she may use behaviors suching the ground in order to create a pause in

counter that is acceptable to the other dog.ement activities are often used along withement signals.



CHAPTER 3. PRINCIPLES OFLEARNING AND

BEHAVIOR CHANGE

uction to the Principles of Learning

o put your thinking cap on. This section iso have a lot of jargon and some really toughts to grasp. I will try to make it as painless ase.

s it important to understand the basices of learning and behavior change, and whyust give you the step-by-step instructions onfix the problem? If you can understand theserinciples, you will be able to apply them to thear problems you are facing, and to other

ms in the future. If I were simply to provide a

step set of instructions, it may not addresscific problem you are facing now and it wouldossible to provide step-by-step instructions

possible problems (we would be trying to jampegs into round holes). If, on the other hand, I

m you with an understanding of these basices of learning, as well as strategies andures for applying these principles to change

m behavior, you will be able to understand them behaviors you are working with and decideally with the help of a professional behavior ant—how to change them. We will not beo jam square pegs into round holes, labelingblem as though it is a disease, as in thel model approach. Instead, you will describe

pecific problem behaviors your dog isming, and why she is performing them, and

imply how to change those behaviors. Therestematic approach to addressing the problem,ill require you to apply some basic principlesparticulars. The great thing about grasping

principles is that you can be flexible ing them to any behavior. Nothing will be ay that only a professional can figure out. Youable to look at any problem behavior and

atically identify why it is performed, andwhat you need to change in the environmentge that behavior. These principles of learningbasis both for understanding and explaining

or and for changing it. So, let’s jump right in.

s Behavior and Learning?

imply, behavior is any movement that anperforms. Usually, in the context of changing

m behaviors, we want to avoid interpretationsavior or speculations about private mentalnces the dog might be having, and so wetiate behavior from these other things. Rather erpreting the behavior, try to get into the habitcribing observable, measurable, discrete

ors. The dog is not “dominant,” for example;

the dog performs specific behaviors. Thedominant” in place of a description of theors does no one any favors, least of all theho, as we have learned, is merely doing whato access the things she wants. Nor is the dog. Some of these “feelings” are possible or

robable, but they do not help us in our presentor. Some behaviors are easier than others to. Some are large-scale, goal-directed

ors like biting. Others can be involuntarye responses, such as the variousogical occurrences that take place during

g is an enduring change in behavior due tonce. There are different types of learning, ased below, but in all instances, the change inor results from experience with thement. You cannot have behavior independentnvironment.

pes of learning are respondent conditioningperant conditioning (conditioning is justr term for learning).

ndent Conditioning

probably heard of Pavlov’s dog. Pavlov foundcould condition a dog to salivate in responsemulus that had previously been meaningless) to the dog. He could use a metronome to

a sound, and the dog would drool reflexively.achieved this by repeatedly presenting thestimulus (the metronome sound) immediatelyfood. Food, unlike the sound, is meaningful. Drooling in response to food is a reflex; it’stary. When a dog gets food, she drools. If you

a neutral stimulus immediately before thewhich elicits the drooling, eventually the dog

ol when you present the previously neutrals on its own. This is respondent conditioning.



probably wondering why this is important. It isnt because emotions involve respondents

eflexes). Emotional behavior is actually ae of reflexes and more goal-directed

ors that are motivated by the emotions. For e, fear involves the release of variousansmitters in the brain and hormones into theream. This creates things like narrowedvision and churning stomach sensations, andeactions motivate the dog to act; they trigger ht-or-flight mechanism. The emotion of fear es much aggressive behavior; it makesand avoidance highly rewarding (I’ll use the

term “reinforcing” in place of rewarding fromorward). Through respondent conditioning,emotional behaviors can also occur in

se to a stimulus that was previously neutral.s a dog can be conditioned to drool to theof a metronome, she can be conditioned to

these problematic neurotransmitters andes that create fearful behavior in response tostimuli that were once neutral. For example,g has some unpleasant experience in the

ce of another dog or in your presence or he is wearing a particular collar, she may inure have the same emotional responseby those things. This is all automatic; the dogchoice, just as with drooling when she smellsThis is how emotional reactions are

oned (learned).

u can see, respondent conditioning isnt because this is the process by which many

nal responses are conditioned to new stimuli,gressive behaviors are often motivated by

nal responses. When a stimulus elicitsmatic emotional responses, we need tothat relationship and change it.

as a lot to take in. Let me restate it moreely as a review. Reflexive responses,g those that contribute to emotional

ses like fear, can be conditioned—they cano be elicited by things that previously did notem (how does the mere sound of a dentist’sake you feel?). If a dog associates somesant experience with something else, likers in general or choke chains or hands or ar rooms, then it is likely that those things willso elicit fear in the future. Fear motivates

and avoidance behavior, which oftens aggressive behaviors, particularly whennot likely to be successful. When fear is a

ing force behind aggressive behaviors, wefind out what elicits the fear and we need tothat emotional response.

nt Conditioning

t conditioning is another form of learning.of dealing with reflexes (including emotional

ses), though, operant conditioning is all aboutry, goal-directed behavior. This type of or is influenced by its consequences. When a

ges, bites, snarls or snaps, these behaviorst reflexes; they are voluntary, goal-directedors, or operants. They may be motivated bynal responses, but the voluntary behaviorslves are operants. The most important thing

ember is that dogs, like the rest of us, do whato get them what they want. It is as simple asthe previous section, we addressed changingthe dog wants by changing emotionalses, but now we look at the other part of thebehavior—changing what works. Let’s lookclosely at this type of conditioning, sincesive behaviors are p rimarily operants.

BCs of Behavior

science of behavior, the relationship betweenvior and the environment that influences it isd to as a contingency. The most basicts of this relationship can be rememberedby their acronym ABC. A stands for

dent; B stands for behavior; and C stands for uence. Let’s look at the ABCs of behavior aore closely.

dents are what come before the behavior.ake the behavior more or less likely to occur.clude the stimuli that indicate to the dog that abehavior will probably result in a particular uence. Antecedents can include theate “trigger” that evokes the behavior, as wellmotivational forces for the behavior (includingsponses that we discussed above).

or is the observable, measurable actions thatoked by the antecedents. Operant behaviorsuntary, goal-directed behaviors that operater environment to get the dog what she wants.mber to avoid interpretations and labels asas possible. Stick as closely as possible toc, measurable behaviors.



quences are what happen after the behavior.g that happens right after a behavior thatin the behavior becoming more or less likely

uture is a consequence.

sically, the antecedent sets the occasion for havior , which results in consequences. Allr, this is referred to as a contingency, or theof behavior. Next, let’s try to understand theuences in particular, since these are whatehaviors.

ontingency Table

ontingency table can help us visualize theuences that influence behavior. As you can

Table 10, there are four outcomes for or that can influence the frequency of theor. You can increase or decrease thelity of a behavior. And you can achieve either

se possibilities by adding or removing as. This can be a tough notion to grasp, soreally good look at this table. I will addressturn.

Contingency table

sing the Frequency of Behaviors

cement is what drives behavior. The twories of reinforcement described belowe reinforcement and negative reinforcement)only two functions for aggressive behaviors.

ggression problem you are working on isned through one of these two processes.

ve Reinforcement

e reinforcement is defined as follows:

Performance of a behavior followed by presentation of a stimulusresults in an increased future probab ility of

at behavior.

r words, you present “good stuff for dogs” after vior and the dog is more likely to do i t again.he dog sits and you give her a treat, she is

kely to sit again in order to access the treat.

a behavior increases in frequency due to theation of a stimulus, the behavior has beenly reinforced. Positive reinforcement is thensequence that does not involve the use of ane stimulus—that is, an unpleasant stimuluse animal acts to escape or avoid. Positiveement is the cornerstone of an effectiveure for changing behavior effectively andtly, while avoiding unpleasantness.

e reinforcement can maintain aggressiveor, although it is rare in comparison with thecategory we will discuss: negative

cement. If a dog aggresses in order to gainto something (pleasant) then the aggressive

or is being maintained by positiveement. Look carefully at what follows thesive behaviors. Most serve to allow the dog to

or avoid something, but in some cases,will learn that aggressive behaviors are theffective way to get what they want. Somemight interpret this as “dominance,” but thisparticularly helpful way of seeing it. It is muchto appreciate that we all do what works to

what we want. If aggressive behaviors work,

ill use them. Examples of this might includees where guardians give treats to their dog or when she barks and lunges at people. This iswith the intention of distracting the dog from

arget or counterconditioning a differentnal response (see page 61). In theseos, we can predict that the dog will learn to

m these aggressive behaviors in order to getats or petting. Dogs are not stupid; they learnwhat gets them good things. Always look at

appens after a behavior and at the frequencyehavior. There you will find a contingency thatorting that behavior. Avoid your preconceivedand look at the frequency of the behavior and

nsequences it produces to figure out why aor is being performed.

ve Reinforcement



ve reinforcement is defined as follows:

Performance of a behavior followed by removal of a stimulusresults in an increased future probab ility of

at behavior.

r words, you remove “bad things for dogs” if erform some behavior and they’ll be more

use that behavior again. If, for example, youa dog to something she fears and only allow

escape from it if she performs some specificor, then you are likely to see more of that

ar behavior in the future.1

a behavior increases in frequency due to thewal of an unpleasant stimulus, the behavior been negatively reinforced. Negativeement involves an aversive (unpleasant)nce—you can’t remove somethingsant unless it was presented to begin with.

at, even though the word “negative” is used,y refers to something being removed—it is

value judgment. Remember, negativeement involves removing something, and theor then increases in likelihood.

ve reinforcement is the most commonuence maintaining aggressive behaviors.

e or avoidance behavior is maintained bye reinforcement. The dog will be more likelyorm the behavior if it serves to allow her to

a scary situation she is in or to avoid thatn once she learns to anticipate it. Usually, a learn escape behaviors first and then, once

n predict the scary situation, she can aggressr to avoid getting into it to begin with. If

sive behaviors are effective in getting thehing to leave or allowing her to get away, thenategy will be used again. So, for example, if sive behaviors are successful at convincingstal carrier to leave, or to get a stranger topproaching or move away, or to get you to

pproaching the dog’s food dish, then thesive behaviors are being maintained bye reinforcement. Ask yourself in all cases,the dog getting out of this behavior? When

e reinforcement is involved, she is getting toor escape something; she is convincing thedividual to leave her alone or stop doing whate doing. Some part of their encounter ceasesmoved.

asing the Frequency of Behaviors

a consequence results in a decrease in thecy of a behavior, punishment has takenPunishment, including both the categoriesdoes not drive behaviors in the sense thatement does. Punishment serves to suppressvior, but reinforcement is what was drivinghavior to begin with. Unless you control theement that was driving it, punishment will not

cessful in the long term. In fact, if you removed

inforcement, then you would not needment. People are very fond of punishmente it is so intuitive (and aggressive), but theof behavior change programming is thatement, not punishment, drives behavior.

ve Punishment

e punishment is defined as follows:

Performance of a behavior …followed by presentation of a stimulus …results in a decreased future probability of

at behavior.

r words, make “bad things for dogs” happenately after a behavior and the dog willss that behavior.

a behavior decreases in frequency due to theation of a consequence, the behavior haspositively punished. Positive punishment

s aversive stimulation (unpleasantness).that are commonly used as positive

ment include yelling, hitting, “correcting” withsh and spraying fluid at the dog. Positive

ment can include anything that you do to thet they experience as unpleasant. It can resultematic side effects (explored below). Theseects include a lashing-out kind of aggressiveor (called respondent aggression), disruptionsocial bond between you and your dog, andcontrol.

rcontrol means that the dog learns to workyou or otherwise manipulate you in order tohe punishments. Positive punishment oftento further escape/avoidance behavior,

nly resulting in the dog’s use of aggressiveor, which often then becomes negativelyed; that is, when the dog uses aggressive

or, she is successful in making the



ment stop. This is a vicious cycle that oftenn the aggression problem becoming worse.ultimately lead to euthanasia for the dog andogical trauma for the guardian. Whensive behavior is temporarily suppressed by

punishment, the behavior of the personstering the punishment may also beely reinforced; that is, the person learns thatment of the dog is successful (in the shortn stopping the dog’s aggressive behavior.eates an unfortunate cycle of the person andg manipulating each other back and forth:control.

e punishment might seem like the mostaction to take, but it is fraught with insidious

ations. Fortunately, there are much moree strategies for changing behavior in most

—a constructional approach that we willbelow.

ve Punishment

ve punishment is defined as follows:

Performance of a behavior …followed by removal of a stimulus …results in a decreased future probability of

at behavior.

r words, you remove “good things for dogs”g a behavior and the dog avoids that

or in future.

a behavior decreases in frequency due to thewal of a stimulus, the behavior has beenely punished. Negative punishment involvesersive experience because it involves ansant event. However, negative punishment—if

out properly—is usually not nearly ase as positive punishment or negativeement. It produces less emotionality andside effects).

me-out procedure that is commonly used for with a child’s temper tantrum is an example

application of negative punishment. Another e of negative punishment is playing andng treats to the dog and then, when the dog

ms a behavior you want to negatively punish,n away, staying quiet and motionless, and failer treats for several seconds. Assuming that

cial attention and the treats are pleasant for g in that situation, removing them when therforms the problem behavior motivates thenot perform that behavior, in order to avoid

your attention and the treats.

tion

the consequences described above thatp the four quadrants of the contingency table,on is the absence of reinforcement where it

before. Remember, reinforcement drivesor. If there is no reinforcement available for a

or, there is no reason to perform the behavior.behavior doesn’t work, the dog won’t bother ming it.

t extinction is defined as follows:

Previously reinforced behavior…followed by withholding (not removal) of the

nforcers that were maintaining the behavior…results in reduction in the frequency or

agnitude of the behavior.

onfuse extinction with negative punishment.on involves withholding reinforcement,s negative punishment involves removing aer that was present.

s causing a decline in behavior, extinctionures have a number of other effects. Thinkt. If you usually perform some behavior ino gain access to a reinforcer and all of a

that behavior does not deliver any more,

o you do? Let’s say you press the button for vator and it does not come soon. Do youwalk away? That’s not usually your first

se, is it? Usually you will press the buttonthis time maybe a little harder, or severaln a row. Maybe you even press another and you may even kick the door if it does notoon. Similarly, if putting money in a soft-drinke does not get you the drink, you may clickuttons or give the machine a little shove tooose the drink. One final example: you pullmachine bar and no money comes through.stand up and walk away? No, of course not.

t another coin in and pull the bar again.

dynamic, and everything does not alwaysxactly the same way. Sometimes gettingto the reinforcer you seek requires you to

m the behavior again, or perhaps a slightlyt behavior. Giving up too easily is not



e; you can’t get through life successfully withimple behaviors and giving up the instant oneot work. So, when you first start using anon procedure with your dog, you can expectially the behavior will become more frequentre intense. It will gradually become lesst and intense as the dog learns that nothingo get back the reinforcer and she is wastinge. Do not give in when the behavior initiallyes worse! This will create a bigger problemou had before. Hang in there. You can also

increased variability in the behavior. If g no longer works, then perhaps snarling, or g with a lunge, or snapping, or just growling

might work. This effect will dissipate withs long as you remain consistent with theon procedure. Finally, you will also find that,behavior extinguishes, every now and then the

try it again. This is the “just checking” effect.havior worked in the past so they may give itr shot every now and then. With continuedon, these effects will become less frequent.xpect an initial increase in intensity andty and the occasional “just checking”

or and work through it.

on is frustrating for the dog and can thereforen unwanted side effects (fallout; see page 85).motional reaction of frustration can set theor emotional behavior. If that elevator does

me after an extended period, you may kick theefore the button-pressing behavior is finallyshed and your behavior switches to headingthe stairs. The emotional reaction may set

ccasion for increased irritability and aned probability of responding aggressively totimuli that would otherwise be only slightly

g. Extinction procedures can result in a-out type of aggression, particularly when noive source of reinforcement is readilye as a replacement. Extinction is not

ss and should not be used on its own, only as

a protocol that shows the dog how to accessreinforcers in some other way. In behavior

programming, extinction should only beered for aggressive behaviors that arened by positive reinforcement, and only inction with training the dog to access theer using another, more acceptable behavior .

les Influencing Operant Conditioning

aximize the effectiveness of operantoning, you have to meet a few conditions. This

both to conditioning that takes place withoutarticipation and to training your dog or

ng her aggressive behaviors. The conditions

mmediacycontingencymotivating operationsndividual differences

magnitude.

ore immediate are the consequences, thekely they are to work. If you wait more thanfew seconds, the conditioning may be weak,

urs at all.

gency (in this context) means that the behavior owed by the consequence, and thatuence does not occur unless the behavior d first. Contingent consequences tend tohen conditioning, whereas noncontingentilly) consequences tend not to strengthen

oning. The more times the behavior and theuence are noncontingent, the less likelyoning is to occur.

ing operations refer to how much the dogo access a consequence or wants to avoid auence. If she is satiated (full of treats, for e), then treats will not be that valuable and not work as hard for them. If, on the other

he is deprived of food, then she will be hungryre likely to work for treats. Of course, I am notting starvation at all; perhaps just trainingmeals rather than after.

n individuals, there is wide variation in howe a particular consequence will be. It isant to keep these individual differences inhen working with animals.

ude refers to the amount of a consequence.lly, the greater the magnitude of auence, the more effective it is as a reinforcer sher. An animal will be more likely to respondgger reinforcer than a smaller one, and will bekely to discontinue a behavior for a bigger

er than a smaller one. Also, more frequent buttreats are generally better than less frequenter treats.



nt–Respondent Interrelationships

mportant to note that both operant anddent conditioning are always taking place.are not just things that occur when you areor when the dog is aggressing; they each

ace all the time. Consequences are alwaysg behaviors; those behaviors are alwaysemaining stable, increasing or decreasing inod; and behaviors are always taking place insence of various stimuli that will more or lesso evoke them. Respondent conditioning isking place on an ongoing basis. In terms of nal responses like fear and joy, dogs areexperiencing emotions of various intensities

ey are always learning which stimuli in thement predict them. What will elicit any givennal response is always being maintained,hened or weakened.

s some important implications for your work.

be aware that, for voluntary behaviors, whatthe behavior may increase or decrease its

od in the future, strengthen or weaken it.t comes to emotional responses, we need toure that, if possible, we promote pleasant or ted emotions, particularly in circumstancesave previously elicited fear. Unpleasant

ences will become associated with what ison at the time. If you make use of harshe techniques or even if you simply allow the

have unpleasant experiences, she willate that experience with the common factorsenvironment. That could be other dogs, aar collar or a location, and it can particularlyou, the handler. If you are present each timeexperiences fear, then you will come to elicit

which is obviously not good for your ship. Dealing with problematic emotional

ses is tricky business, so your goal is toze the frequency with which they occur, they of them, what will come to reliably predict

nd, of course, what kinds of consequenceshe behavior the dog uses to escape or avoiding. Always think about what consequencesffecting behaviors and how emotionalses are being conditioned.

at we have a good introduction to the basices of learning, we can proceed to details oncarry out a formal assessment of aggressive

or. Following that, we will explore behavior procedures and how to put all of this

r to construct your plan of action.

me trainers use negative reinforcement to changeve behaviors. They present the feared stimulus in ancremental manner. The dog may or may not aggress,allow the dog to escape if, and only if, she performsbehaviors. There is no guarantee with this approach thats not merely learning to put on a friendly face (so tot is possible that we have not in fact addressed theg emotional response. The fear may remain, andis an open question. Negative reinforcement also

rily involves presenting an aversive stimulus, which maycases result in problematic side effects. Furthermore,reinforcement is only as reinforcing as the aversive isnt, so this means that the procedure will be either

e or highly unpleasant (neither option is ideal). Someclaim that this is a nonaversive approach, but this cannotate. While there are varying degrees of aversiveness, and

approach ensures it is less aversive than some other hes might be, if we are talking about implementing annegative-reinforcement-based approach, then we are

alking about using aversives—that is, using “unpleasantr dogs.” If it was not rather aversive, it simply could notenerally, I suggest you maintain a healthy skepticismg negative-reinforcement-based procedures (and, i n fact,edure that involves “unpleasant things for dogs”) if anyone

them to you, and stick with posi tive reinforcement, whichinvolve any aversive stimulation—no “unpleasant things” At the time of writing, there are no published, peer-research articles demonstrating the effectiveness of

ocedures on aggressive dogs, although we will probablyeing some soon, and certainly there are no studies

the long-term ramifications of this approach on the doghe specific target behavior. Much research is needed tohe various angles of this approach and compare it withs aversive methods, and a process of academic debateysis must take place before we can really know muchadvisabili ty. That will take more than a couple of articles;ke time and, until then, positive-reinforcement-basedhes are probably the best approach to take.



CHAPTER 4. ASSESSMENT

s time to do a formal assessment of them. This is something you should ideally work

a professional. There are different types of ments. Perhaps the most common type

med these days is based on a medical model.assessment style, behavior is seen as

ogical or abnormal and the behavior issed” by labeling the problem with a term inmany classification schemes. For example, itbe labeled as dominance aggression,sive aggression or territorial aggression.stem uses broad, generic terms to describeblem you are facing, and it is usually hit or as most broad generalizations are). Thel model is appropriate for medical conditions

ot for behavior. Far more efficient and

atic is to take a behavioral approach. In aoral approach, we do not apply generic labelsad, we systematically identify the specific

m behaviors and their relationship to thement. That means describing the specific

m behavior and identifying the antecedentsthat come before the behavior) and the

uences (things that come after the behavior).we understand exactly what the specific

m behaviors are, what evokes them and whatns them, we are in an excellent place tothe environment, which in turns adjusts theor. See how much more reasonable this is? Itcific to the problem you are experiencingthan a broad generalization, and it is

atic and research based rather than a grabintuitions and guestimation. The behavioral

ment is called a functional assessment.

se, sometimes, medical conditions contributevior problems. In such cases, behavior is still

or and not a disease, but the medicalon acts as a type of antecedent, making them behavior more likely and affecting howing a particular consequence will be. So,any behavioral assessment is carried out,ust have your veterinarian perform a fullp on your dog, including any necessary tests.an never be sure we have ruled oututions from medical problems, but your arian can help reduce the odds that a medicalm is contributing to the behavior. If a medicalon is identified, this condition should be

as appropriate. You must be sure youand the nature of the medical condition andmight affect your choices regarding how tos the behavior itself.

s a Functional Assessment and How Do Ie?

tional assessment seeks to identify then for a given behavior: why is it being

med? Professional behavior consultantsuse of a behavioral approach will have

ve knowledge of how to carry out thisment. I will briefly describe parts of thes here so that you can understand thes and come to understand better the problemors you are dealing with, but it is best to workprofessional behavior consultant on this.

word on quantifying behavior. Before, duringer a behavior change program, you shoulde incidence of the problem behaviors, ideallyaph. This will help you determine objectivelyr you are meeting your goals and whether the

m is working or in need of adjustment. Theaxis of the graph can represent the

cy, duration or intensity of the behavior., you want to know how often it is occurring in time period, but in some cases, it is morent to know how long the behavior was

med for, or how intense it was. Measuring

y can be tricky and is rather susceptible toecause you will usually be making a judgmentd your criteria may change as time goes on.case, choose the dimension you want to

re for the vertical axis.

rizontal axis often represents time, such asor perhaps hours. In some cases, thetal axis may represent instances of contactn the dog and the stimulus that has provokedsive behaviors in the past. This might be aseful approach when you are taking stepsto avoid the situation rather than using a

or change technique. In that case, the declineency tells you about the relationship between

g’s behavior and the stimulus and not aboutvoidance of the problem. Note that if youre with respect to instances of contact, your cy on the vertical axis will be 0 or 1 in mostes; the aggressive behavior either occurred



d not. Choose what is most informative for rticular case.

ou have set up the graph, place a dot at eachint or instance (on the horizontal axis) to mark

propriate frequency, duration or intensity (onical axis). Continue to monitor the behavior iny throughout your work on the problem. Makecal line to indicate where you made specifics to the dog’s environment. For example, if ve been tracking the behavior and you thenent a behavior change program, draw aline at the time where you implement the

. This way, when you are looking at the graph,n see what has happened to the behavior ou make specific changes. See the exampleelow.

. Example of a graph to track a problem behavior. In thisfrequency of the behavior is measured for each day. On

ere were 3 instances of the behavior and on day 2, therestances. The trend is tracking downward each day in this meaning the behavior is becoming less frequent each

oal in assessment will be to develop ane “contingency statement.” A contingencyent is a single sentence (sometimes more if ary) that states, in plain English, what thedent, behavior and consequences are for them you are facing. Here is an example of aency statement:

When a stranger approaches Fido within 6 feet whileshe is eating from her food dish at home, Fido willfreeze and growl, and if the stranger approaches towithin 3 feet, Fido will lunge and bite the stranger inorder to prevent their approach.

case, we have two sets of behaviors anddents. Antecedent 1 involves strangersching Fido to within 6 feet while she eats

er dish at home. Antecedent 2 is the same buts a distance of 3 feet rather than 6. You can

them together as long as they are clear,se you should divide them into separateents. Notice how specific this is. It is not just, it’s strangers, and it’s not just anywhere, it’se. It is also not just at any time or in anybut while she is eating and also from her

ach of these is what we call a necessaryon; each element must be present as ae in order to provoke the dog to freeze andf strangers approach to within 3 feet, lungingting will be evoked. There can be the

onal exception, but generally, this is theng antecedent that gets the behavior to take

that the behaviors described in theency statement are specific. The statementot refer to spite, jealousy or dominance, or territory or “guarding,” but rather to specific,

able behaviors that we could measure andNotice too that freezing and growling areed here. In this case, they always occur r (they are controlled by the same

dents and consequences), so it is useful tothem as a package. Separated from freezingowling are lunging and biting, which areed by the same consequence but evoked byent antecedent (3 feet proximity rather thannotice that rather than a broad, uninformativeization, we have a specific description of the

m you are dealing with and a statement abouts occurring.

nsequence of the aggressive behavior in thise is to keep strangers away from Fido andd while she is eating. That’s about all we can

ne for sure in most cases. We don’t knowhe is thinking; we just know that, in the past,s been the actual outcome for the behavior.hat this has been a consistent outcome, wesonably infer that it is what is maintaining the

or. We could test it experimentally, but if it isably clear what consequence is maintaininghavior, the test will be part of our behavior

program (if the behavior does not declinewe apply the program, we can suspect wewrong about the consequence in our ment). But for now, let’s try to keep it simpleave the complexities for the professionalbehavior consultant.

o we determine what the ABCs are? Start withhavior. Write down the specific, observable,able behaviors. Write them all down, perhapsorder from most to least problematic. If some



occur only together in a package or ce, clump them together, but still write each.

hat you have a behavior to track, startying it. Prepare your graph and try to acty (with safety precautions, of course) for, say,

currences of the behavior or a week or two.ight need to change the variables in your

as you develop a better understanding of whatthe behavior, and that is fine. If, in your case,acceptable to allow ten occurrences of the

or (as will be the case in many instances),wait before instating your behavior changem. Start right away with the program and theg. At least you will be able to see the trend;whether it is remaining stable, going up or

own. Also, write down now what you believee antecedents and consequences. Butber, be open to the possibility that you might

ong and may have to adjust these ideas.

ue reading for details on how to identify thedents and consequences. For now, writeyour initial thoughts on what you remember e past about what usually comes before ande behavior.

u track the behavior, take notes on thedents. When the behavior occurs, note whating on immediately before the behavior anderal context at that time. Here you are lookingcommon denominators. What evokes the

or? What motivates it? Is the dog displayingfear-related behaviors during the incident?

em all. If it is male strangers wearing hats,st write males or strangers. Be as specific as

n.

e consequences. What exactly follows eache of the behavior? Chances are, the dog isng or avoiding something (some dogs justo love to fight, though, and this may involvekind of physiological automatic positive

ement). What exactly is this dog getting outbehavior? Note exactly what happens eachis is probably what is driving the behavior. Itast, a good hypothesis for now.

you have taken your notes on what theor is, and what the antecedents anduences have been in the past, and also haveaperwork on the ABCs after you have beeng them for a little while, a somewhat clear

should emerge regarding the antecedentsonsequences and their relationship to theors. In the table below, write the ABCs in.

is time to put it all together. Write your ency statement below. Make sure youe, as concisely as possible, but also as

cally as possible, what the ABCs are ince form.



APTER 5. BEHAVIOR CHANGEPROCEDURES

AND CONSTRUCTING YOURBEHAVIOR

CHANGE PROGRAM

at we have a good idea of what the problemor is and why it occurs, we are in a position tochanges to the environment to change thator. The behavior change program is derivedfrom the functional assessment. Unlike in thel model approach, the assessment itself y suggests the approach to changing theor. Here I would like to start with outliningptions, then move to determining goals, thenc principles and strategies, and then outlineost powerful behavior change procedures,

on respondent and operant principles. Finally,with how to put it all together to come up withan of attack. I strongly recommend you work

professional on this. This book is noment for the skill and judgment of aional animal behavior consultant.

ng at Options

lly, here are some of your options:

euthanasia (kill the dog)rehome the dogmicromanage the dog (prevention alone)behavior change program.

he dog is an option, but I certainly hope note you choose. Under what circumstancesyou be forced to consider this option? If theextremely dangerous and has proven that by

g or killing; if the stimulus that evokes thesive behavior cannot be avoided or ed; if medical contributions have been ruledthe best of your veterinarian’s ability; and if is no reasonable way to prevent thesive behavior, including through finding the

new home, then this option could beered as a way to secure the safety of others. If not the case, though, I urge you to take

sibility for the problem. Your friend has someIt’s not her “fault,” and she is counting on youher resolve it.

ing the dog is an option if the aggressiveor is evoked by a stimulus that is present inestyle and you cannot change it or cannot riskthe chance of harm while you work on the

m, and this stimulus is not present in theof someone who would be willing to take the

nd these people know precisely what them behaviors are. For example, thismes occurs when the target is another

old dog, or the family children. In a house wither dogs or children, your dog might have abetter outlook. However, finding these homesmely difficult when people can just go to theand adopt a dog who does not come with

isks. If you do find such a home, ensure inthat the people adopting the dog understand’s history and the risks, and get a copy of that

ent signed to protect you from liability.

e cases, you can simply make changes to thement that effectively minimize or remove the

of the dog performing the behavior, eventhere is no change to the contingencies

d. For example, let’s say two dogs in thehouse fight. Finding a home for theressive dog might be easy. In that case, youkeep the aggressive dog and simply never er access to other dogs. Or if a dog guards arow that toy away—if the behavior hasized to all toys, you can try providing no toys

You have to be creative, and sometimes youe to make sacrifices. It may mean no moren public or at least no more off-leash walks.deal, but you have to weigh the options. If youproceed with a behavior change program for eason, and you are able to use equipment or ling or otherwise arrange things to prevent

g aggressive behaviors, then this option isrth considering.

ucting a behavior change program is theble choice, of course, because it not onlyzes the odds of the problem behavior ng but also allows for a wider range of optionse dog. Instead of introducing a lot of ons, you can construct a program to changehavior and work through it. This does nothat you can let your guard down once youte your protocols. You will have to remainin the future, but this option is best for





ings first. Before you construct a behavior program, your first priority is to ensure that

ne will remain safe. Avoid allowing the dog toerself into situations that may lead tosion. This might require a bit of creativity. Itmean no walks or keeping two dogsed. It might mean not allowing the dog into aar room, or removing all toys, or not using ash at all. It might mean simply walking awayhan stepping over the dog or challenging her ace on the couch. Ideally, prevent the whole, but do not get into a challenge with the dog,will just entrench the problem further and willou or others at risk. You will probably not belet the dog off leash outside of your house or

zle might be needed in certain situationsyou cannot be sure aggressive displays willented. Do not use the elastic-type “muzzles.”ill not prevent bites. The material muzzles that

he mouth closed are okay for brief periodshe weather is not hot and the dog will not being or needing to drink. For other situations,act in most situations, the basket-style muzzle

er. Never leave a dog unsupervised with aon. Introduce the muzzle gradually and pair it

eats and fun like walks or play. (Remember dent conditioning of emotional responses—

m is for the dog to have a positive emotionalse to the muzzle.)

ndent-Conditioning-Based Behavior e Procedures

at we understand the basics of respondentoning (see pages 34), let’s describe theor change procedures that are based on it.ndent-conditioning-based behavior changeures are used to change emotionalses. There are more complicated conceptsore jargon coming, but don’t worry too muchhe words—just focus on getting a handle ond why it works. Also, to prepare you ahead of will be describing here the key behavior procedures and strategies; later, I will

e how you will combine them in most cases.

erconditioning

rconditioning, basically, involves counteringdent conditioning that has taken place; we

problematic emotional responses withing incompatible with them. If your dog has

ped a fear response to, say, people wearingen we would counter that fear response with a

sponse in its place. Or if your dog hasped an anxiety response to something (suchs with separation distress can develop to thes their guardians use before leaving the

then we would counter that anxiety withon. We take a bad emotional response and

e it with a good emotional response.mber that unpleasant emotional responses

s fear can motivate aggressive behaviors.ay to resolve these problem behaviors is to

the motivation for them; if the dog learns toople in hats (or other dogs, or the guardian

up their keys in preparation to leave or er the case may be), then they have noto aggress and the problem is solved. Earlier that dogs do what works to get them what

ant. Our goal with counterconditioning is towhat they want. Our goal with the operant

ch (see below) will be to change what works.

e that a person has come to fear snakes, butstrawberry smoothies. Counterconditioninginvolve presenting a snake, followed

ately by a sip of smoothie, and repeating thiss until the presentation of the snake elicits ant reaction instead of a fearful reaction. The

important: the problem stimulus has to comefore the pleasurable stimulus. L ikewise, i f aearful of other dogs, but is delighted with little

of veggie burger, sessions could beed in which the dog is repeatedly presentedother dog, followed immediately by a piece of burger, until the dog responds to other dogsrather than fear. Don’t get me wrong; it’s notchange an emotional response, and it takes

careful work.

mber, in any instance where fear seems to beent, you need to identify the exact stimuluscits the fear. Don’t define it too narrowly or too. Look at what always leads to the fear se, find those common denominators, andyour working hypothesis for the fearelicitings. You also need to identify what the dogoves too. What will elicit a joy response?games, social i nteraction? Keep in mind, it’s

at you think the dog should find fun or tasty; bee and find what the dog really will work for.nter a strong emotional response, the thing



used to counter it has to be exceptionally

onaldson (1998) coined the phrase “open bar ed bar” to help describe this process, anded it well in her excellent book Dogs are from

ne. When the fear-eliciting stimuli areed, the bar is open, and treats (or games)

eely and continuously. You should put a bign, tell the dog how good she is and dole out

or play a game of tug. When the fear-elicitings goes away, the treat bar is closed, and lifeon the boring side. You may want to actually

mething like “Woo hoo!” when the bar is openummer” when it closes so that the dog knowse when it starts and stops. The contrast helpse the conditioning. Opening the bar andthe bar can be thought of as a hair-trigger

witch, turned on and off by the presence ande of the fear-eliciting stimulus.

there should be a 1:1 ratio between the

ation of fun stuff and the presentation of theciting stimulus. That is, every time the fear-

stimulus appears, so does the fun stuff. Thewill be weaker if one sometimes occursthe other.

f you are performing the procedure and thegresses? We discussed this in Chapter 2 but

like to reiterate it and elaborate on it here.f course, safety is of paramount considerationneed to prepare our procedures accordingly,ing the situation before it happens rather thanding once it does. You should be takinger precautions are necessary to ensurene’s safety—muzzles where necessary,s attached to poles or eye-hooks in wall studst when a dog aggresses and your safety isted for, generally your best bet is to

age from the situation early and without fuss.presenting the feared stimulus, either byng it or the dog from the environment. It is trues might reinforce the behavior, because the

arns that the aggressive behavior “works” toer to escape from the situation. However,an end to the aggressive display early rather owing it to continue prevents escalation of theor and reinforcement of that escalatedor, and reduces the stress and aversiveof the event for the dog. It’s not ideal, and youaim to avoid allowing the dog to aggress or

e fearful, but if you make a mistake, push tooshe does aggress, put a stop to the session.

nize this as a mistake and a setback. If theon leash and the target is not you, walk awayr. If you are the target or the dog is stationary,ove yourself or the target away from the dogately. End the session and don’t perform ithat day; when a dog aggresses or becomesher brain chemistry is all out of whack and ite quite some time to normalize (and during

me she will be primed to aggress further).mber too: intense fear and aggressiveor are the antithesis of counterconditioning.

hole premise on which counterconditioning iss that joy or relaxation is elicited and intensenot. A fear response is a step back, soit where possible. If you accidentally allow

g to become intensely fearful, nothing further al can be achieved in that session. In that

end the session without further fuss and trymore carefully, the next day.

ly other way to avoid reinforcing aggressiveors is to wait through the aggressive displayu get nonaggressive behaviors. You can thene these acceptable behaviors with treats or oving the dog from the situation at that point.are some risks with this strategy, however.that you may actually train the dog to aggressshe can then stop aggressing in order to get

ats (something we call a behavior chain). Thes that keeping the dog in the situation mightgerous and certainly will be unpleasant for the

t, the safest option is to remove the dog andf quickly and early so as not to encouragetense aggressive behaviors. It is the lesser of

deally, the goal is to proactively prevent thesive display altogether through graded andental approaches to training. If aggressiveor is occurring frequently, then you need toup control of the environment. The goal is torough the training at a level that keeps the

elow her threshold for showing aggressiveses so that beneficial learning takes place.s a way to make this process work, and thatwe turn to now.

matic Desensitization

oblem with counterconditioning on its own iswe simply present the fear- or anxiety-elicitings and the treats and games, the fear and

may be so strong that the emotional



se does not change; the treats and gamesust get overshadowed by the emotionalse. Systematic desensitization is the answer.atic desensitization is counterconditioningout in a graded, stepwise (incremental)

r that helps ensure that the process does notershadowed by strong emotional responses.atic desensitization procedures consist of omponents:

promoting or maintaining relaxationconstructing a stimulus exposure hierarchycounterconditioning.

ing relaxation in dogs can mean usingge or TTouchTM, or moderate exercise.r routine and lack of frustration or aversivetion can help ensure that the dog is as as possible for the desensitization

ure. It definitely means trying to avoid things

e dog finds stressful prior to performing theure, and choosing times when the dog is

relaxed. The important thing is to go intoession with the dog as relaxed as possible.

xt component is the construction of a stimulusre hierarchy. This is a list, in rank order, of that cause problems for the dog, from least

matic to most problematic. In constructing thes exposure hierarchy, the aim should be toth a level that elicits the dog’s attention butr. The gap between levels should be small ino avoid a strong emotional response in theoblem stimuli may involve many variables or ions, and it is usually a good idea to identifyiables that can be separated and work witheparately. Some common variables are:

distance (between the dog and the fearedmulus)

duration (for which the stimulus is present)distraction (by other things going on in the

vironment)orientation (for example, of the feared

rson or dog to the subject dog)sudden contrast (such as remaining still and

et versus making quick movements or ise).

og i s a unique individual, as is each problemnal response. Let us assume, for example,og is fearful of strangers. At 20 feet, the dogand attends to the stranger; at 15 feet, sheand stares; and at 12 feet, she snarls. If theis facing her and approaching, she will lunge

eet, biting if she can, whereas, if the stranger g away and remaining still, she will lunge at 7nd snap and bite when the stranger is within

distance at, say, 2 feet. This informationfor construction of a stimulus exposure

hy. The most prominent variable in this caseusually the case) is distance. The degree of eness” or novelty, orientation and suddent are also important. In some cases,

es can be clumped together, as in thee below.

he stimulus exposure hierarchy has beencted, the next step is to work through thehy, with counterconditioning taking place atep. Here is what this program might look like:

Levels 1–10: Semi-stranger (whom the dogs seen on previous occasions), oriented

way and making no sudden movements or ud noises.

Approach to 20 feet.Approach to 18 feet.Approach to 15 feet.Approach to 12 feet.Approach to 10 feet.Approach to 8 feet.Approach to 6 feet.Approach to 5 feet.Approach to 4 feet.

. Approach to 3 feet.

his hierarchy is complete, move on to the next

Levels 11–20: Same as last hierarchy, bute person is oriented towards the dog.


Levels 21–32 : Same as last hierarchy, bute person is oriented towards the dog andeaking to the guardian in a friendly tone, ande final approach is closer.














. Approach to 1 foot. The dog will probablyff/investigate the stranger.


Levels 33–44 : Same as last hierarchy, bute person briefly looks softly at the dog.ration of soft look is increased throughbsequent steps.


Levels 45–90: Repeat the entire process,

s time with a real stranger.


Levels 91–180: Repeat the entire processh yet another stranger to help generalize the

sponse. Carry it out in different locations.ce the hierarchy has been run a couple of

mes, it will become smoother and easier tork through successive hierarchies.

erarchy can, of course, be fine-tuned for your ar goals. If you would like the dog to acceptor handling of some specific kind, you shouldcorporate that, running the exercises of thehy while relaxing other variables.

ucting stimulus exposure hierarchies is a skill,g creativity, experience and good judgment.portant is a thorough familiarity with the dog,

oblem stimuli and the dog’s thresholds for

t types of aggressive behaviors at differentes of exposure to the problem stimuli.

mple hierarchy above could easily have beencted differently, clumping different variablesr and splitting others, or running someces in a different order. You should remainFor example, it may be necessary to break

nto a few smaller steps because the dog isup when a change is made. The goal is to

ough the process with as few aggressivens as possible (none, ideally) and incorporateould be expected of the dog in real life. Youarefully observe the dog so that you can stopercise at the very first sign that the dog’slevel is increasing. If this happens, it should

sidered a setback because there is a risk thathaviors associated with arousal could beed. In this situation, you should learn from the

e and move more slowly at each level nextchoose smaller steps.

pared—systematic desensitization is often

ainstaking work with frequent setbacks. If youthis, you will be more likely to get through itsfully.

portant to remember that what we believe isg or enjoyable and what is actually relaxing or ble to the dog may be two different things.

observe the dog’s behavior for guidance ons relaxing or enjoyable. Relaxation isarly helpful when desensitizing to anxiety-stimuli. Remember that we always need tothese sessions with a relaxed dog. If the

m is anxiety (for example, separation anxiety),e usually just countercondition the anxiety withon. For fear-eliciting stimuli, which aren in aggression cases, something that elicitse is also helpful. This can include favoredverbal praise, social contact and play. So, atevel you are working during a session,ber to pair the problem stimulus withing pleasant. Once you get to a point where

g sees the problem stimulus and immediately

ager or pleased, you know she is making theation: the stranger = treats or fun and games.excellent, and means you are ready to go onnext level in the hierarchy to repeat the

s.

nt-Conditioning-Based Behavior Changedures

ures based on operant conditioning are usedge voluntary, goal-directed behaviors. Belowexplore the most powerful and useful of theseures.

or Replacement

rategy

are two basic philosophies about how to gochanging operant behavior. In the past, the



ative approach” was popular. This involvesng undesirable behaviors to eliminate them.ll, punishment decreases the frequency of

or and that is what we want, right? Right, butaversive techniques leads to some insidiousoral side effects (see page 85) and alsoserious ethical questions. The “constructionalch” replaced this old approach. Thectional approach seeks to increase, rather

ecrease, the dog’s repertoire of behaviors. Itenious, actually. Instead of punishingable behaviors to eliminate them, we replaceblem behavior with a desirable behavior. Theobviously seeking a reinforcer of some kinde is choosing which behaviors to use to get it.ishing the behavior, we not only expose thean unpleasant experience, which leads to

ms, but we usually fail to address the sought-inforcement. In the constructional approach,ake use of that reinforcer or, if that’sable for some reason, we make use of other,lue reinforcers, to reinforce a different

or instead. If we manipulate the environmente some other behavior more worthwhile, thenectively control the behavior. And that iswhat we are going to do—we’ll replace the

sive behavior with something else and makey off big time for the dog.

ed to add another component to this process,We have to arrange it so that the choice to

m aggressive behaviors is as unlikely ase and the choice to perform some other

or is more likely. But we don’t achieve that byng aggressive behaviors. We achieve it byg the new behavior in such small steps that

g has a chance to learn the new contingencydent, behavior and reinforcer) the easy way.small steps are constructed in a similar waye process we used for systematicitization.

goal will be to start out on the edge of the

comfort zone, close enough to the problems that she attends to it but doesn’t becomeand we reinforce a more desirable behavior.

ake this reinforcer highly valuable. Becauseblem stimulus is not at full intensity, the dog isto choose aggressive behaviors.

st task is to identify the undesirable behavior sh to replace. If it is a single behavior, writewn. If it is a sequence of behaviors that occur r, you can write them all down together. Ite a discrete, observable behavior (or list of

ors if they always occur together), not a labeldominance aggression, or territorial

sion or the like) and not an interpretationpite, crazy behavior, flipping out). This is theor or behavior set that we need to avoid byg the dog below her threshold (subthreshold)ressive behavior.

xt task is to identify the replacement behavior.ve some basic choices here. You can choosen these options:

other behavior incompatible behavior alternative behavior.

we target an “other” behavior for positiveement, we set the rule that we will reinforcehavior at all other than the problem behavior ve identified. If you decide to use thisure, you prevent the target aggressiveors, and you offer positive reinforcement for g else that the dog does. The upside of thisis that, if you are reinforcing calm, relaxedgressive and nonfearful) behaviors, then youe reinforcing behaviors that influence theing “mood.” The downside of this option isu are not installing a specific behavior, and sooice may not always be as clear for the dogse to do.

we target an “incompatible” behavior for

reinforcement, we set the rule that we wille a specific behavior that is mutuallyve to the problem behavior. For example, thennot be lunging and biting passersby if she isand watching you. The upside of thisch is that you target a specific behavior and if

g chooses to perform it then there is no wayn also be aggressing. You can train thisbehavior outside of the problem situation tolevel of reliability and then apply it to the

m situation. The downside of this approach isou cannot always identify an incompatibleor that is also a viable option in a givenn.

we target an “alternative” behavior for positiveement, we set the rule that we will reinforce abehavior other than the problem behavior,

is not necessarily incompatible with them behavior. It is not always easy to identify an



atible behavior, and in these instances,ing merely an alternative specific behavior ischoice. Again, you can train this behavior

and and apply it to the problem situationis good and solid.

osing replacement behaviors, the behavior d should allow the dog to access natural,ay reinforcement in the long run (as opposedrived reinforcers like treats). One option is toe nonaggressive investigation of the problems (looking at it nonaggressively, sniffing,ching etc.). Another option is to reinforce anatible behavior, such as looking away fromwalking away from the problem stimulus andhandler instead. The choice of behavior willon the individual dog and the context of the

m behavior. You should write down the stepsiteria for the chosen procedure so that

ne working with the dog can stay clear on theand procedures. Your consultant should

strate the techniques and have you performnder their supervision, at least until they areu understand the process.

cremental, graded approach is all abouting the dog from becoming fearful or sive. If the dog becomes fearful or sive, her emotional response will interferearning. So, the goal when training the dog to

m the replacement behavior is to start at ae that does not elicit fear or evokesive displays; only when you have theor good and solid at that low intensity do youe the intensity a small amount and do itYou arrange the sessions in a graded,

ental fashion so that the dog is not pushedr threshold for aggressing but is still aware of

mulus that usually evokes it, and this gives youance to get and reinforce your replacementor.

s we devised a hierarchy of intensity inatic desensitization, we do the same thing

hile installing the replacement behavior. For e, if the dog attends to approachingrs at 25 feet, stares and stiffens up whenrs approach to 20 feet, growls when they getet, snarls and lunges when they get to 10 feetaps or bites when they get to 5 feet, then youhat you have a better chance of getting your ement behavior instead of aggressiveors if you maintain the stranger at 25 feet.his remind you of systematic desensitization?uld, because both involve a gradual,

ental approach that keeps the dogeshold,” just on the edge of her comfort zone.ves us the opportunity to teach her a better handle her stress without aggressing, and wedo that if she is lunging and snapping. In thise, you would make an arrangement with aer” to approach to 25 feet (perhaps markedpe), and you get and reinforce your targetor. Repeat that many times and you’ll find itasier and easier. In fact, you should start to

at the dog performs the behavior as soon ases the stimulus in question rather than waitingr cue (the stranger becomes the antecedenthan your verbal cue). When that is going welle dog performs the behavior automaticallyhe sees the stranger at that distance, then

ow you are probably ready to take it to, say,. Repeat the process, getting closer each

eauty of carrying out these sessions,ning the dog subthreshold but still attendingtimulus, is that the dog does not aggress, youhe side effects of having to perform aversiveures, you avoid the risk of reinforcingsive behaviors, and you get the job done. Thearns that, if she performs this replacementor when she sees the “stranger,” it will pay off.e we did not push it to what seems to thethreaten her survival, she is more likely to

m that behavior. Wonderful! This gradual,ental approach allows us to train the dog to

m the desired behavior in the presence of them stimulus rather than choosing thesive option; we give the dog a chance toat she can, in fact, make another choice andother choice will pay off!

s something else going on when we arrangeway (which I will elaborate on below under g it All Together” on page 90). Remember I

out that operant and respondentoning are always taking place, at the sameWell, by taking this graded, incrementalch, you are not only installing a desirablement behavior; you are alsoconditioning the emotional response. (At thetime, another learning process called

ation is probably also occurring—the dog getsthe problem stimulus just by being around it

ch.) Think about it; while you are preventing



sive displays and training the dog to performirable, voluntary behavior with positiveement, you are also presenting the

ative stimulus at an intensity that does notage the dog to react aggressively andting pleasurable stimuli (treats or a game or er you use). The provocative stimulus is nowo start eliciting joy rather than fear; she wille “stranger” and think “Yippy, treats are, strangers rock!” That is the genius of thisch. You can achieve the goal of changinge voluntary aggressive behaviors and the

nal responses that motivate them at the same

behavior replacement procedure, then, youy identifying both a specific behavior or set of ors to prevent (by manipulating distance,ion, distraction level etc.) and a replacement

or for positive reinforcement. You can train thement behavior outside of the problem context

d then, once it is good and solid in a wideof contexts, you can start introducing it to them situation. You identify a high-valueer you can use and a behavior that suits your nd is easy for the dog to perform (one thatnatural in the situation, if possible). Then youp the hierarchy of exposure to the problems as it stands now, taking into account thees important to the intensity of exposure (asonstructing the hierarchy for systematicitization). Write it out in steps. Then it is aof carrying out the plan. Present the stimulusel just intense enough to arouse attention but

ough to evoke aggressive behaviors. Get thement behavior and reinforce it. Make it alln. Repeat, working your way gradually througharchy.

I would like to elaborate on manipulatingdents so that you can go in with the best oddse for getting the desirable behavior and notressive behaviors.

ulating Antecedents (Antecedent Controldures)

an do more to encourage the desirableor and discourage the undesirable behavior erely making the provocative stimulus evoke ament behavior in place of an aggressive

or. Remember, to change behavior wethe environment that sustains it. That meanschanges to the A (antecedents—things that

before the behavior), as well as the Cquences—things that come after theor). Although most people are focused on theuences, adjusting the antecedents can reallye your odds. Antecedent control is a termo describe the measures we can take tos what comes before the behavior.

are three types of antecedents:

setting eventsmotivating operationsdiscriminative stimuli.

on’t have to remember all of these categories.ve thought to your own case as you readhem and take notes on how they might applyt you are working on. What they all have inn is that they are things that make a behavior r less likely. That is important because our to make desirable replacement behaviors

kely and aggressive behaviors less likely.the aggressive behaviors less likely and the

ment behavior more likely will go a long wayuring the success of your behavior changem, and you can use all the help you can get;he problem on as many fronts as possible. Icribe each type of antecedent briefly so that

an think about how you can apply thesees and strategies to the problem you face.

g events are the general circumstances

ding the behavior. They may not immediatelythe behavior, but nevertheless, they have

nfluence over it. You may find that the time of ay be relevant—for example, that your dogggresses in the morning, even though she

the same problem stimuli distributedout the day (this may also mean you simplyot nailed down what exactly i s evoking the

or). Pay attention to the generalstances that may influence whether the dog

ms the behavior or not.

ting operations relate to how motivated the

to perform either the desirable or theable behavior; this term specifically relates to

aluable the reinforcer involved is. If you arereats and the dog is full of dinner, then thewill not work as well as a motivator or er. If you are using a toy and the dog has



been playing with it all morning, then it isto be very valuable. Emotional responses

ute to motivation, too. If a dog is afraid of ing, she will be motivated to perform

ors that allow her to escape or avoid it—or avoidance will be a higher value

er than it would be otherwise. If she enjoysing, she will be motivated to perform

ors that help her access that thing. In terms of Cs of behavior, the C reinforces the voluntaryors involved. The stimuli that come before theor (the A) elicit the emotions that then makenforcer more valuable. These stimuli both

e the emotional response (usually fear) ande to the dog that aggressive behaviors will

(enabling the dog to avoid or escape the See how it all fits together? In the frameworkABCs, emotional responses play into the Aotivates the B. The important thing tober here is that emotional responsese behaviors because they make certainers more or less valuable. If we are clever,arrange this in our favor.

minative stimulus is a fancy term for the

s that evokes the behavior, occurringately before it. Many trainers use the term” to describe this stimulus (although this is notince it seems to imply that the stimulustically causes the behavior, whereas it is

a matter of probability). The discriminatives (or evoking stimulus, if you prefer) says tog that behavior X will pay off in this situation.al is to make the stimulus evoke the desirableor rather than the undesirable behavior. As weed above, we do that by repeatedly making

sirable behavior pay off and the undesirableor unlikely.

nse effort is something else you should

er. It refers to how much effort is required to

m a behavior. Ensure that the replacementor you choose is easy to perform; that is, it

be a natural behavior in the situation. If e, make the undesirable behavior requireffort and the desirable behavior require lesst’s more difficult (and near impossible) tot strangers if you are on a leash, for example.

g at your handler as you pass strangers isasy and is often a good choice.

ke-home message here is: don’t just consider ange the consequences; also consider what

before the behavior—what motivates it,es it and generally makes the behavior morelikely to occur, and address these things too.like nutrition, exercise, mental stimulation ande effect of medications or supplements on theogy of the dog are all part of the context inbehaviors are more or less likely. Thisatic approach attacks the problem on all

Common Antecedent Controldures

ng the antecedents to a behavior can meanng setting events, motivating operations or native stimuli. Common procedures for sing setting events are described later in this.

gard to motivating operations, make sure thees not always have access to the reinforcersnt to use to make your replacement behavior r choice. If you use a toy, keep it out of sightf the time. If you use treats, pick the bestand use them primarily for these exercises.sing what comes before a behavior shouldclude addressing the emotional responses

motivate aggressive behaviors (emotionaling operations). Systematic desensitization

ehavior replacement program that also helpsemotional responses is helpful in this regard.

criminative stimulus, as we discussed, is theate antecedent to the behavior. It is the thingmes right before the behavior. For example, itbe other dogs, strangers, or peopleching the dog when she eats. This will be thes we will design the behavior change

m around. If you set up a systematicitization program or a behavior replacement

m, then you’ll design a hierarchy of exposureto full intensity encounters with that stimulus.

designing a behavior change program, youtry to make use of as many of the strategiesed here as possible (the shotgun approach).dent control procedures are particularly usefulused for both desirable and undesirable

ors, in conjunction with one another. For e, a dog will be encouraged to choose a

ble behavior over an undesirable behavior if scriminative stimulus for the undesirable



or is removed while the discriminatives for the desirable behavior is simultaneouslyted, and if it is also easier for the dog tothe reinforcer using the desirable behavior,he value of the reinforcer is also increasedmotivating operations. Dogs always have a

as to which behavior they will perform. Someore strongly motivated, so that it is notnt that there is a choice, but that simplythat the dog’s decision is obvious; one optiontly achieves a far higher value reinforcer, andhe one that will be chosen. By manipulatingecedents, we can arrange the economics of ation such that the dog will be more likely tothe desirable behavior. If you can get into the

f thinking of behavior as always involving aamong alternatives, you will be more likely toking about how you can make a desirable

or a better choice than the undesirableor. This, as part of a behavior replacementure, is a systematic and powerful strategy for ng the behavior of animals. Applyingdent control procedures is a very creatives, requiring knowledge, experience and,mes, some lateral thinking skills.

lowing points are relevant to the decisionwhich, if any, antecedent control procedures toent:

What conditions (e.g., specific places or es) are the problem behaviors correlatedh? Can we prevent access to thosenditions?

What are the reinforcers involved in thesirable and undesirable behaviors? Can weake the appropriate reinforcers more or lessuable, respectively?

What are the discriminative stimulintrolling the desirable and undesirablehaviors? Can we make it so that the

criminative stimulus for the undesirablehavior is removed, either completely or rtially? Can we make it so that thecriminative stimulus for the desirablehavior is present in more (or all) of thepropriate situations? Can we make thecriminative stimulus for the desirablehavior more prominent?

What effort is required for the desirable anddesirable behavior? Can we make it a bit

ore difficult to perform the undesirablehavior and easier to perform the desirablehavior? Can we choose a desirable behavior at is easier to perform?

et’s turn to describing a few standarddent control procedures (the more distantsetting events) that are commonly helpful inng the environment (both within and outside of dy) that sets the occasion for aggressive

ors.mber that aggressive behavior is set in the

of the whole animal. The physiology of thepart of the “environment” in a way, because itutes to the behavior. It is beyond the scope of ok to get too deeply into the physiology of sive behavior, but suffice it to say that we cane physiological states that are beneficial or ntal to the dog’s behavior. One goal is toe serotonin activity within the dog’s brain.nin is the feel-good neurotransmitter (aansmitter is a chemical that communicatesn cells in the brain). Exercise and diet canomote more serotonin activity.

Training

control of any dog who makes use of sive behaviors is important. Verbal controlonly give you a way to prevent or interrupt

m behaviors, but will also allow the opportunity

ll replacement behaviors more easily. A well-dog is also more likely to take direction,can influence the probability of aggressiveor.

r benefit to training in general, as long as thes remains fun and the contingencies ares that the dog becomes empowered. Dogshat they can make effective choices in their and this ability creates confidence andce. Training in this way can be particularlyfor dogs who may have learned that their ment operates outside of their control. For

with various levels of learned helplessness,in a fun way promotes empowerment and

rehabilitating.

classes may be out of the question if your dogessive, but you may be able to find a trainer k one on one with you, or your behavior ant might work with you on the basics. If you’ll





fter 6 weeks of moderate to intense exercises, 5 days per week, for at least 1 hour each. This is only a general recommendation.

must be conditioned gradually for this kind of e, and breeds will vary (often drastically) iney can handle and what they require. Somebreeds, for example, may require moreexercise rather than moderate exercise.

st step in designing an exercise program is tothe dog. The dog should undergo a full

ary evaluation to identify any structural or other l issues that might affect how she should beed. Ensure you include warm-ups and cool-in each exercise session. Dogs under 18of age require large amounts of exercise, butavoid any form of exercise that is jarring on

nts, especially for largebreed dogs. Certain, such as Siberian Huskies and Border

were bred to require extreme amounts of al exercise. Generally, sled dogs, herding

nd sporting dogs require hours of exerciseday. Certain sight hounds, such as theund, are not very active generally but have

of energy, during which they will run around asthey can. It can be difficult to convince somesuch as the English Bulldog to exercise;

he chance, they would choose to lie on theSpeaking of the Bulldog, it is important toat brachycephalic (shortmuzzled) dogs can

ouble breathing when they exert themselves. Itpecially important to be careful whencing physical exercise in these breeds.

ee main variables in an exercise program arey, duration and frequency. The goal will

on the breed and particular dog, but arule might be for a moderate to intense

of 1–1.5 hours per day, four or five times per Some general principles to keep in mind arews:

The duration of exercise should be inverselyoportional to the intensity. That is, if the dog isrking very hard, the session should be short.

During intense exercise sessions, takequent play and rest breaks. Rest breaksould be similar to cool-downs, rather thaning sudden stops.

Cross-training is an excellent way to keepe dog in the game and condition differentuscle groups. Swimming and fetch or jogginga great combination. This helps prevent wear d tear on specific structures due to repetitiveovements.

Always watch for signs of fatigue and useanges in intensity and rest breaks to manageem. A dog who is fatigued frequently maygin to dislike exercise. Look for:

• lying down (often in the middle of a task)or remaining down when encouraged to dosomething• excess panting (perhaps with widening at

the end of the tongue)• yawning• general lack of enthusiasm or energy• stumbling• anxiety, indicated by stressed facialexpression (wide grin with furrows under eyes behind the mouth)• dragging feet when trotting (often youhear the nails scraping on the ground).

Vary the intensity, duration and, to a lesser tent, the frequency of exercise to keep itmulating. These aspects should be varied inapparently random manner, but the averages

ould continue to increase gradually duringnditioning. Once initial conditioning ismplete, intensity, duration and frequencyould stay about the same, but perhaps oney could be moderate intensity for a longer ration and the next day a shorter but moreense session could be used. Amounts of ercise should not vary drastically but justough to keep it exciting and prevent

aleness.

Try to vary the tasks and exercises withindividual sessions in order to help maintainthusiasm and prevent staleness or injury.

Provide some water before, during and after ercise, but avoid allowing the dog to gulpge quantities at once.

Avoid exercising in very hot temperatures. a hot day, reduce the intensity and durationexercise and observe the dog carefully for ns of fatigue. Take frequent rest breaks andto be out of direct sunlight.

e can be overdone. In North America, it isn for dogs to be under-exercised, but in

parts of Europe, it is common for many dogs



over-exercised. Adequate and effectivee is a balance; avoid under- or over-doing it.

pe of exercise done should reflect the dog’se, conditioning and even evolutionary history.dogs will fetch till the cows come home, for e, and so fetch can often be a great way tong with an exercise program. Other dogs doch; although they can be trained to do so,r preference—such as jogging or swimminght be a better choice. To produce calmingand other benefits relating to aggression

ms, the exercise should be aerobic, rhythmicedictable.

e of exercise chosen should relate not only tog’s particular structure, physical condition andctions but also what will be acceptable to you.me, swimming is not possible due to lack of s, and others may find running with the dogible. Here are some ideas:

Mechanical treadmills are great and allowexercise inside when weather is bad.

fortunately, they are expensive, take up a lotspace and may become boring to somegs.

Trotting is great and is acceptab le for mostgs, although it may be difficult for manyople to jog for long enough to providefficient exercise for the dog. Playing fetchring the walk can increase the dog’s exerciseeach walk.

Trotting alongside a bicycle or inline skatesows you to keep up with the dog more easilyt can be risky with most dogs. In most cases,e risks outweigh the benefits.

Fetch is a great way to allow the dog toercise while you remain stationary. Items toch include balls, KongsTM on ropes—whichow you to throw the toy further—anduckItsTM, a plastic arm that grabs a tennis

l and allows the ball to be thrown greater tances. For golfers, Hyper Doggie Driversn be used to drive tennis balls largetances. For some dogs, fetch may be tooense an exercise. Longer duration, moderateercise is beneficial, but intense, short burstsexercise may cause stress.

Swimming is one of the very best exercisescause it has low impact on the joints butovides the same benefits as other aerobicercise programs. Where the facilities exist, itn be a fun and acceptable form of exercise.

wimming can be encouraged by using a fetchy—such as a Cool KongTM or red fetchmmy device (usually good for natural bodieswater)—or by attaching a harness and leashencourage swimming around the edge of

ols. Swimming is particularly reinforcing for gs that were bred to perform in water. Manyrievers are well suited to water exercise.wever, some dogs are fearful of water and

ay have to be gently accustomed to it.

Some breeds with deep chests (such asxers) tend to sink and can have real troubleimming easily. Personal flotation devices canused where necessary. Some dogs, such asskies and Malamutes, love the snow and lovepull. Mushing or skijoring (in which the dogls a person on skis) can be a great way for

ese dogs to get exercise. Many of theseordic breeds respond best to moderatelyense, long-duration exercise sessions likeese. Obviously, many breeds, particularly thees that do not tolerate cold well (such aseyhounds), will not respond well to these

eas, and some dogs are too small.

Agili ty can be a wonderful way to getercise. It promotes cooperation between youd the dog and provides good exercise for th team members. Unfortunately, mostgressive dogs should not be allowed off

ash in public, but it may be possible under me circumstances.

Flyball can be good exercise for somegs, as long as it is not risky to allow them off

ash. Flyball usually involves high-intensityercise, and warm-ups and cool-downs areperative. This option would be best for eeds that are most suited to very intenseercise, such as some terriers.

Dog–dog play can be excellent exercise for gs who do not pose a risk to other dogs. For gressive dogs, it may not be possible to visit

e local dog park, but another option is toange meetings between certain playmatesder controlled circumstances. Some dogsarticularly young dogs) will exercise intenselyaying with other dogs, and they will usuallyanage their own intensity and duration of



ercise. The motivation to continue playing isually quite easy and natural. Dog–dog social

ay also provides a very fun experience,compatible with aggression (unless arousal isproblem).

Play between dogs and humans can be fund provide excellent exercise, if it can berformed safely. Play can also be a good wayreinforce other less reinforcing forms of

ercise. Of course, it is vitally important that theay not provoke the dog to behavegressively or pose a risk to anyone. Somegs like to be chased, and others like toase. Some dogs like to play tug-of-war, whilehers prefer mock combat. I have seen nodence that any of these activities contributesaggressive behavior generally. Rules of

cial play need to be maintained: you shouldiate and terminate all play and should bee to stop play on cue; the dog should never

ven accidentally) bite anyone; if tug-of-war ise game, the dog should take the tug-toy andop it on cue.

e what you eat. There is some support for lation of diet to change behavior. I

mend a diet that is moderate in protein(approximately 18% as fed at 10% moisture)

es not contain corn. Vegetarian diets usuallyrelatively low protein content and higher

ydrate content, and, because many are madeally for hypoallergenic purposes, they oftencontain corn. One choice I would recommendpurpose is Natural Balance Vegetarian Dog

no corn, moderate to low protein).

h it is controversial, it may be useful in someo follow each regular meal within a couple of with a small pure carbohydrate meal,ng as little protein as possible. It has beented that this might increase production of in by the brain, with benefits on the dog’s

Ingredients to consider might include white,ain, instant or parboiled rice, pasta, carrotsnanas. These foods are low in protein andstarch. The carbohydrate meal should includemplex vitamin, or specifically a vitamin B6 at 1bodyweight/day. A folicin supplement and aB12 supplement may also be helpful. Groundds added to the mix can provide a richof omega-3 fatty acids, which may also haveficial effect on mood, and hence behavior.less of whether you change your dog’s diet iny, the dog should preferably be on a high-diet. When checking the label, rice, sweetoats or barley are preferable to corn. If the

not currently on such a diet, switch her to theet gradually, over 10 days. For example,with 90% of the old diet and 10% of the new,

e the percentage of the new diet by 10%ay until the dog is on 100% of the new diet.ill prevent stomach upset and diarrhea. Ay formulated home-cooked diet is p referable

mercial kibble, with variety built into the dietfeasible, but this should be formulated by ad nutrition consultant or veterinary nutritionist

www.PetDiets.com). Otherwise, consider topquality kibble.

Mental Enrichment

a dog is engaged in active mental effort, shelikely to be emotional. You should thereforeme thought to adding some enjoyable mentaltion to the dog’s life. Following are someor increasing mental stimulation in dogs. If theses aggressive behaviors because she isly risk averse, extra care needs to be takenwhich mental enrichment exercises are

mended.

Feed meals in a Buster ® Cube or similar zzle ball. This will allow the dog to work attting her food.

Hide some portion of meals around the

use in small piles. This will encourage theg to forage.Engage the dog in training. This can be

ward formal obedience, or a canine sportch as agility, flyball or freestyle. As long as theg enjoys the training, it will inhibit problematic

motions, such as fear and anxiety. Make itallenging but still lots of fun. I highlycommend clicker training (see the descriptionfree shaping, below).

Take road trips. Visi ting new places for ae or some other activity can be stimulatingmost dogs.

Use free shaping! Free shaping involvesining a new behavior by reinforcing closer d closer approximations to the behavior hout doing anything to prompt the behavior. Itlike a game of hot and cold. Free shapingining engages the dog and actively



courages her to use flexible, experimentalproaches to gain access to reinforcers. Dogso are free shaped are more resilient andxible in their behavior and are less impulsived behaviorally rigid. In my experience, theye less affected by problematic emotionality.ee shaping usually involves use of a clicker (a

mall device that makes a clicking sound) toark” the moment when the dog performed thesired behavior; the click is followed by anforcer, often a food treat. During freeaping, each time that you withhold the click-d-treat for a behavior, you are adding very

mall amounts of stress to the situation. Smallmounts of manageable stress are quiteneficial to learning, and help the dog to learnuable coping skills; the dog is empoweredcause her behavior is more successful under allenge. Free shaping is particularly good for gs with problematic conditioned emotionalsponses because it promotes confidence.u can find instructions for free shaping in

on’t Shoot the Dog by Karen Pryor.

Medication

are no magic happy pills, but there are sometions and nutritional supplements that may, incases, help minimize the incidence of

sion. Discuss your options with your arian if you feel this might be an option youke to explore. Medications have side effects

e not without risk, so they are not to be takenbut they can sometimes be part of the answer.® or ReconcileTM (fluoxetine) is onetion that has been very helpful in aggression

ms.

ot a medication, a readily available over-the-nutritional supplement worth considering is

(5-hydroxytryptophan). It has been shown tohly effective in moderating many behavior

ms, including aggression, with far fewer or oblematic side effects than the heavy-dutyption medications. It is surprising thatarians are not more familiar with thisment, and that they do not take greater age of it, given its effectiveness, its relativelyst and that it works as soon as it is takenmany medications, which can take weeks to

up an effect). It should not be used inction with medications that affect serotonin

The correct dosage is determinedmentally. If the dose is slightly high, the doge initially nauseous. If the dose is too low, no

will be achieved. The dose used at Tuftsity School of Veterinary Medicine for sing aggression is 2 mg/kg, administeredvery 12 hours.

TP is used, you should watch for signs of in syndrome (caused by an excess of in activity in the brain). These includeon/disorientation, agitation/irritability, low

siveness/coma, anxiety, hypomania (elevatedand increased activity), lethargy and seizuresson, 2002). You should also be on the lookoutse signs with the use of medications thatce serotonin activity.

veterinarian is unfamiliar with 5-HTP, you canhem this citation so they can look into it for

Birdsall, T. C. (1998). 5-Hydroxytryptophan:clinically-effective serotonin precursor.

ternative Medical Review , 3(4), 271–280.

available online, you can print the Birdsallfrom:

ww.thorne.com/altmedrev/.fulltext/3/4/271.pdf

Wrong with Aversives?

ersive stimulus i s anything that an individualo escape or avoid because it is painful,

s or unpleasant. So, what’s wrong withally shocking a dog for bad behavior, hittingeven yelling at her, forcing her to remain in ansant situation until she behaves moreably, or producing other unpleasantons for her in order to suppress her sive behaviors? Making use of aversivetion in training dogs has the effect of ing behavior, but it also producesable secondary effects, often referred to as” Following is an explanation of the sideassociated with aversive stimulation and whyadvisable to use this kind of stimulation inor change programs.

r for punishments to work, you must meetnt criteria. It is next to impossible to meetcriteria, and the cost of not meeting them iswill not coach you in these criteria because Iant to encourage anyone to believe they can







ment behavior, making that alternative reallythe dog’s while, which will simultaneouslycondition fearful emotional responses. That’s

y. Aversives are not going to get you wherent to be in your relationship with your dog.

g it All Together

ght feel a little lost at this point, so let me try together much of what we have explored so far.we have talked about why dogs aggress ande reviewed the basic principles of behavior.

ve looked at how to assess the problem youcing and describe in a useful manner theors you want to change. You should now have

solid contingency statement describing theor and its antecedents and consequences.ve also described some of the most powerfulor change procedures (systematicitization and behavior replacement). Now Iike to help put this all together so you can

ct a plan of action, a behavior changem (as it is called i n behavior analysis).

the problem behavior motivated by fear? Is’s motivation to escape or avoid something?ome stimulus get removed as a result of the

or? If so, then that stimulus is obviouslysant for the dog, and her behavior is beingned by negative reinforcement. This meanswill need to address her fear in order to get

root of the problem. Even if the dog looksve and confident, that does not mean she is.mes dogs will look fearful and sometimesl not. Being offensive and confident looking isthe behavior that has worked best for her fearful is not usually very successful athumans stay away). It does not mean she is

one-cold sociopathic killer, just thatement behaviors and fleeing have not

as well as offensive-looking behavior ing her to escape or avoid the problem thing.ore emotional the behavior is, the morent it will be not just to address the operant

ors but also to get at those emotions andthem—in other words, countercondition

Of course, even if fear is motivating theor, there are obviously operants involved too.ise, there would not be aggression. The, snarling, snapping, biting etc. are operants,such they are driven by their consequences.

u do not determine what is maintaining theor solely by whether the dog looks fearful or u determine it by whether the behavior allowsaccess something, on the one hand, or toor avoid something, on the other hand.

tively, if the behavior lacks emotionality (it isned by positive reinforcement, rather thane reinforcement) and is a simple matter of thesing aggressive behaviors to access aer of some kind because she has learneds is the most effective way to do so, then youneed to incorporate counterconditioning into

an. In that case, a straight behavior ment plan is the way to go. Teach the dogggressive behaviors will not work buting else will instead (see the section onon).

vast majority of cases, aggressive behavior involve fear and sometimes frustration.sing the fear is pretty straightforward. Therrently experiences fear in relation to the

m thing, and, as a result, she uses aggressiveors to escape or avoid it. Respondents andts are involved here, so we need to address

She does what works to get her what sheWe will change what she wants and how shewhat she wants.

tion comes from being blocked fromng some goal. The dog is emotional becausebeing prevented from doing what she wants.e cases, you need to be creative. You willteach the dog a more acceptable way to get

he wants. In some cases, the dog may want

ing that you simply cannot provide, buts you can try to satisfy the dog’s needs inays.

frustration or simple desire leads a dog to tryess a reinforcer, and positive reinforcementns that aggressive behavior, try not to allowg to get that reinforcer if she does aggress.flip side, make a more acceptable behavior ell, if not to get that exact reinforcer, then to

mething else that is similar or of high value.teach the dog that aggressive behaviors will

rk (extinguish the aggressive behavior) buting else will instead (positively reinforce acceptable behavior). In behavior analysis, weat procedure differential reinforcement (of alternative or incompatible behavior).

ols do not necessarily have to address onlyt conditioning or only respondent conditioning



ht have been suggested by my description of cedures in their pure form. Most protocols

design in the real world for cases involvingent fear responses include techniques frompproaches and take advantage of the benefitsch provides. Think about the similarities andces between the two approaches:

n allow for the differences and include theties in the same protocol in order to get thes from both. We can change problemnal associations and reinforce more

ble behaviors in the same procedure., the same stimulus that elicits the problemnal response also evokes the aggressiveors. So, that is where we start. Use your dent control procedures to minimize the oddsggressive display. Now figure out the stepsosing the dog to the problem thing in smallYou’ll want to remain flexible, but it is useful tois list as a guideline. For instance, you mighte dog in place and bring the problem thing to

nce at which she notices it but is not yet likelypond aggressively. This is where theure would change if we chose onlydent or only operant conditioning. The focusematic desensitization is to present the fear-

thing (strangers, say) and then the pleasure-thing (treats, play etc.). So: stranger enters,

start flowing, stranger leaves, treats stoprepeat, and on and on at successive levels

sure. The emotional response should changeOh no, strangers; she’s going to try and hurt

“Yippy, strangers! Treats are coming.” Thet approach would be different. You wouldhe stranger in and then either cue a specificor or reinforce anything other than aggressiveul behaviors. In either case, stranger enters,

gressive behaviors are performed, treats areed, stranger leaves, treats stop flowing. Cane how you might get both types of conditioningu are careful? Do you see how the fun and

that are used to reinforce prosocialors are also being paired with the stranger?rconditioning (changing the problemnal response to a desirable emotionalse) is a byproduct of doing your behavior ment procedure, as long as you ensure thatg does not aggress or become excessivelyand that you use pleasure-eliciting stimuli

s high-value treats, play or attention. Now youhe key to constructing your behavior changem. Look over your notes and contingencyent, decide whether emotional responses are

and then construct your procedure, writinghierarchy and target behaviors. Move towarda dog who responds appropriately when

with the previously problematic stimulus.

mary then, dogs do what works to get themhey want. Our goal, if what they want is to

or avoid something (as a result of fear), is towhat they want (make it so they like, rather

ar, the “thing”). Whether fear motivates thesive behaviors or not, we also need toe the environment (antecedents anduences) so that the dog chooses to performother, more acceptable behavior instead of sive behaviors. To achieve all of this, wely and incrementally expose the dog to the

m stimulus (maintaining the dog subthresholdout), pairing it with pleasure-eliciting thingsreinforcing desirable behaviors. Weneously change the emotional response,

changing what the dog wants (approachhan escape/avoid), and change what worksthem what they want (prosocial rather thansive behaviors). We change the antecedentmore pleasurable emotional responses and

behaviors that are more desirable, and wethe consequences to make choosing

al behaviors the more valuable choice.

What? (Generalization and Maintenance)

you have worked through your behavior program and have carried out the

ures to a point where you are makingant progress and are happy with the result,cess is not over. Once you have achievedtial goals, you need to work on generalizingults and maintaining them in the long term.

who use aggressive behaviors often revert tobehavioral strategies if they come up againsting new—a new environment or a variation



problem thing. You want to teach the dog thats you have taught her apply not just to one or row situations, but universally, in all situations.on’t generalize these lessons as well as weke, so you specifically have to cover them.eans carrying out the exercises in a variety of ments so that the dog learns that the sameencies are in place even if the situation is arent. If the program involved strangers, you

ed to carry out the procedure with a wideof strangers, all different in some ways and int places. If it involves stepping over the dog,

ou want her to learn that this means anyoneg over her, not just you; perhaps a toe grazes

metimes. Once you have helped the behavior ize to various environments, you need tothe dog’s memory from time to time. Ensure

u regularly reinforce her for making the rightOnce a dog has been aggressive, you really

to keep a close eye on her behavior ently. Don’t slip into complacency.





or. It is not about preventing the dog froming with the aversive stimulus, but rather it worth her while to respond to that stimulus

ess problematic set of behaviors. In fact, it willabout making the stimulus less scary so the

els less need to escape or avoid it to beginhe key is that it is the dog’s choice to behavese. In many cases, reinforcement of any other or is used; that is, any calm, nonaggressiveor is targeted for positive reinforcement. In theis usually results in shaping looking away,this was not the specific behavior targeted.

er to carry out this particular strategy, youstart by preventing the dog from aggressingou work on training a solid look-away or look-ler cue (which also helps prevent a behavior rom being inadvertently trained). Once the is good and solidly reliable, it is time to

o the next stage.

r excellent book, Feisty Fido: Help for the

Aggressive Dog , McConnell and Londonsuggest the “autowatch.” This refers to

rring the cue for looking at the handler from acue to the presentation of the aversive

s; in other words, the arrival of the “stranger”e dog to watch you rather than you having to

this behavior. This is called transferrings control. In order to transfer stimulus controle stimulus to another, you repeatedly presentw stimulus (the approaching stranger, say),d immediately by the old stimulus (the verbalu have trained for that behavior). This evokeshavior, which is followed immediately by theer. In this case, you present the stranger andve the verbal cue for eye contact, thene eye contact with treats or a play session.number of repetitions, the appearance of ther will control the behavior and the verbal cuet be needed. Note that the dog does nots in this sequence and so the behavior chain

m that was discussed above will not develop.

nell and London (2003) also suggest trainingergency Uturn” and solid sit-and-make-eye-for situations that cannot be avoided in which

g will otherwise be accidentally provoked.a solid sit-and-make-eye-contact could be

e in cases where an offleash dog chargesd your dog-aggressive dog. The emergencys for situations in which you are caught off and the provocative stimulus just seems tot of nowhere. It is most effective to train theU-turn immediately before she aggresses,

han after. You should decide ahead of timeprotocol to use if the dog does aggress. Mymendation is to observe carefully for initialhat the dog is becoming less relaxed, andage as soon as you can. You shouldze this event as an error in the training

m and endeavor to avoid it next time.

me cases, the dog who is motivated by/avoidance makes less use of aggressive

ors like lunging, snapping and biting, andore flight or appeasement behaviors, such aswal, before resorting to active tactics whend; the dog may also seem to bencing a significant emotional response. In

cases, I would design a program that woulde respondent conditioning at the same timening the new behavior. This would involvedent control and replacement of thesive behavior with an incompatible behavior,ncremental, graded exposure to the problems. If possible, the program should make usenteer set-ups, which are easier to control thanal world,” followed by controlled real-life set-er some progress has been made.

ould observe some general guidelines whileg on-leash with the dog. Avoid tightening thewhen approaching or passing other people or A tightened leash sends the signal to the dogu are tense, and can actually come to servecue to aggress, thus contributing to the

m. On the other hand, if keeping the leashs just too challenging, I have trained dogs toway for reinforcement cued by light tension onsh (that is, tightening the leash cues the dogor walk away). More than one cue can be

or the same behavior; that is, looking awaycued by both the problem stimulus and

ndently by tightening the leash.

r general guideline is that you should act calmpy, never tense, nervous or upset. Being

means breathing normally, having looses, walking freely and smoothly, speaking in aor happy tone and having a gentle smile.tense means breathing irregularly, having

muscles and a serious or distressed look onace, tightening the leash, speaking in aned or scared tone, consoling the dog,ng upset with the dog and walking stiffly and

Fake relaxation or exaggerated happiness



elpful. Pay close attention to the signals youending out to ensure that you are notuting to the dog’s tension.

dog–dog on-leash aggressive dog has notwell socialized with other dogs, you might be

improve her social behavior with other dogsremedial socialization. In a section below116), I outline procedures for setting upal socialization between dogs to encourageve interactions and appropriate socialors.

on-Related Aggressive Behaviors

o-called “territorial” aggressive dog usessive behaviors when strangers enter, or evenapproach, the dog’s “territory.” The dog’susually means the house and yard. Location-aggression is usually maintained by negativeement; it functions to ward off strangers.the initial provocative stimulus is a knock ator or ringing of the doorbell, although somere able to see or hear strangers approach. Incases, aggressive displays are positivelyed by guardians. This reinforcement is oftentent; guardians intend their actions as

ment or as calming to the aggressive display.ays, the label of “territorial aggression” is not

because it does not identify what isning the behavior in a particular case; afunctional assessment identifies the specificdents and consequences influencing the

behaviors involved.

g with these dogs often requires somety and flexibility. In many cases, use of e antecedent control procedures can make aant difference. Feeding a low-protein diet,mented with 5-HTP, may significantly reducen-related aggression. Focus on practices thate the activity of serotonin in the brain. Thisnvolve more exercise, and, if the problem is

or intractable, Prozac might be appropriate.dog is able to see strangers approaching,g furniture or drapes may be enough to solve

oblem. In other instances, changing theent of the dog’s bed, so that it is away fromdow or door, can reduce the dog’s ability to

eople approaching. Putting the mailbox at thenstead of at the door can be helpful, as canup a sign requesting no unsolicited visitors or s. If the problem occurs primarily when you or

amily members are not present, you can playio while you are out in order to make other

less obvious. If the dog aggresses froma chain-link fence, a solid fence can solve the

m, or the dog can be kept inside. In manyremedial socialization is also useful. Being

e with antecedent control is often the best to these kinds of problems.

nerally preferred approach to this problem,rom antecedent control procedures, involvesor replacement and counterconditioning. The

motionality is involved, the more care I wouldo ensure that counterconditioning is aent part of the plan. In some cases, you maywant the dog out of the way to greet guests. In

the situation really calls for conditioning. One of my most successful

ols involves training the dog to go to a specificcued by the doorbell and/or a knock at the

You can start by training a solid placementand, so that the dog goes to a specific place

Then you can transfer stimulus control fromrbal cue to the doorbell (remember thece: new cue, old cue, behavior,ement). One trick I have learned is to start thewith a brand new bell ring, getting rid of the. The old ring sound was a discriminatives (“trigger”) for aggressive behaviors. It isto start fresh with a new stimulus for theent training to avoid having to extinguish these to the original bell first. As described

training should be done incrementally,

g the dog below her threshold for aggressiveor and ensuring that she is repeatedlysful. These repeated successes will alsocondition the dog’s emotional reaction.

ry special treats, toys or a game and reallyt worth the dog’s while to sit quietly besidehe door to greet guests, or to go to a crate or r room when the bell rings. Once the dog isquietly beside you or going to a specific placeamily members arrive, trials can be arrangedk with acquaintances and friends, and finallyrangers. You should work gradually, notng the level of difficulty until the dog isanticipating visitors at each level. In somethis process of behavior replacement withconditioning when visitors arrive may bent. In others, it may also be necessary tocondition the dog’s response to guests

y inside the house. Many dogs use aggressive



s only until a person is actually in the house,me remain leery of guests inside the house.rconditioning can be useful in these cases.

process of counterconditioning requiresers. I recommend at least one visitor per day.an arrange for 10 visitors every day, however,gram will progress much more rapidly andy. You may have to use a muzzle through

of these exercises to ensure that everyones safe. If a muzzle is used, you should try thee without the muzzle only after you have run

the program with one and everything hasmoothly. If you have removed the muzzle, youattach a leash so that you can regain controlog if she aggresses.

ould ask the visitor to ignore the dog for theuple of minutes, only greeting the dog after d only if she is calm and quiet. Greetingsbe low key and not threatening. That meansthe dog sniff the visitor and perhaps take a

Quick movements by the visitor or pats on thehe head should be avoided, at least at first.

e for the counterconditioning component isays) as follows: when strangers are present,and games start, and when strangers are not, the fun and games stop. The aim is to havenger come to predict the fun and games. Yoube a little on the boring side except whenare arriving and present so that there is an

s contrast between the two situations.st and repetition are key. You need to payttention to the dog’s arousal level. If the funmes are promoting a problematic level of , you will have to tone it down, focusing onthat create a pleasant experience withoutng aggressive behaviors and arousal. Often,

praise and yummy treats are sufficient.

ould reinforce for calmness, thereby startingociation between visitor and fun, as well asng the frequency of calm behaviors. Visitorse unlikely to cause any reactivity (perhapsand nonresident family members whom theeady likes) can be used first, working up to

wn guests. When the visitor arrives, all the funmes start. Then a few minutes later the visitor and so do all the fun and games. This isd until the dog is visibly eager to have the

arrive. Arousal levels can be managed bybreaks when necessary, and the sessionalways end on a positive note. These visitsbe set up as exercises, lasting 5 minutes

he process is going smoothly, you should beo get the visitors involved, having themate in the fun and games. To begin with, thisnvolve having the visitor tossing a treat gentlyog, but eventually the visitor should be able to

he treats to the dog or play fetch down thewith a favored toy. The visitor could bring a

y or the best treats with them. It is important tothat the dog does not use aggressive

ors to guard valuable resources (such as foods) before doing these protocols.

should avoid directly facing the dog, leaninger or staring at her. Instead, they should faceaway from her and approach in an arc, rather

walking in a straight line towards her.ching a dog in an arc is less threatening, andof the rituals that strange dogs use with oner. Even better, particularly at first, is to notch the dog at all but allow her to come to theof her own volition. Averted eyes will also ben defusing a tense situation. The treat can beto the dog or tossed from the side (nomovements, though). This protocol should,

me, create a beneficial emotional response tors. The goal is to have this reactionize to all strangers with repetition. The dogme to anticipate games and treats whenshow up; visitors will be a “good thing.” The

s takes a significant amount of time andcareful micromanagement and good

ent.

ng Behaviors

guarding is easy to understand. Usingsive behavior in order to avoid having aobject removed is common, and adaptive.he dog already has access to the object inn and the aggressive behavior functions to

de others from approaching and/or removingect, the behavior is maintained by negativeement. Mine! A Practical Guide to Resourceng in Dogs by Jean Donaldson is annt book for those who are experiencing thism.

eral strategy for resource guarding is to useor replacement procedures andconditioning, with incremental gradedre in order to set the dog up for success.



dent control procedures are often helpful.er, my experience has been that guarding isy influenced by the dog’s learning that thech of others is aversive because it reduces

g’s access to reinforcers. This contingency isust change.

ption is to simply remove the object that theards. In some cases, this is plausible, but inases—particularly if the guarded object is a—it is not. Removal of the object may result ing choosing another object to guard. The dogrned the general strategy of using aggressive

ors to guard objects, and this behavior readilyizes to other objects. She has also learnede approach of others when reinforcers areresults in reduced access to reinforcers.

ctions below provide some advice for somen types of guarding behavior. As with all of mple protocols in this chapter, behavior programs must be constructed on the basis

facts of the case. The steps identified hereonly be considered generic examples.

Bowl Guarding

Set the dog up for success. Start theercises with the person who provokes the

ast possessiveness, and generalize to otherser.

Have the dog tethered to a wall, if cessary, near her empty food bowl. Approache bowl as closely as possible without havinge dog become tense, drop or toss a valuedat into the bowl if she is not aggressing in anyy, and walk away.

Repeat this procedure, reinforcing calmerance each time. If you were only able torform the exercises at a specific distance

ay, 10 feet), then you can inch closer eache. Perform the exercises with approachesm different directions to help generalization.ce one person has performed some of theercises, have other family members repeatem.

Still with an empty bowl, approach, bender half way to the bowl, drop in some treatsd walk away. Because the bowl is empty, theg should have no trouble with this. At theme time, she is learning how this gamerks: when you approach, she gets greatats if she is not aggressive, and gets nothinghe is (as always, try to arrange it so that shees not aggress). After several of theseercises, work on different angles as before.

Still with an empty bowl, approach, bender the bowl as you might if you were going tok it up, but do not touch it. Pause and drop ingreat treat or two, then walk away. Repeatveral times and then add in some differentgles. Only proceed to the next level when theg is visibly eager to have you carry out thesk. This will help ensure thatunterconditioning occurs.

Still with the bowl empty, approach, bender and reach for the bowl as if to pick it up.uch the bowl and then drop a few great treatsand walk away. Repeat several times and

en add in some different angles.

Still with an empty bowl, approach, bender, reach for the bowl and touch it, then pausea few seconds. Drop a few treats in the bowl

d walk away. Repeat several times and thend i n some different angles.

Still with the bowl empty, approach, bender, grasp the bowl and pick it up an inch off e ground. Immediately drop in a few greatats, put the bowl down and walk away.peat several times and then add in someferent angles.

Still with the bowl empty, approach, bend

er, pick up the bowl a little further and pauseextra couple of seconds. Drop a few treats

o the bowl, put it back down and walk away.peat several times and then add in someferent angles.

Still with the bowl empty, approach, bender, pick up the bowl and stand upright.mediately place a few treats in the bowl,

ace it back on the ground and walk away.peat several times and then add in someferent angles.

Still with the bowl empty, approach, bender, pick up the bowl, carry it to a nearbyunter, place treats in it and return it to theound, then walk away. Repeat several timesd then add in some different angles.

ng that the dog has no problem with beingd (other than in association with food), we can



art working on the other angle with food bowlbeing touched, as opposed to having the

owl itself touched. These steps are all aboutthe dog up for success and helping her ize the learning.

Still with the bowl empty, approach, pat theg on the back once (let her see you coming,surprises), place a treat in the bowl and walk

way. Repeat several times and then add inme different angles.

Still with the bowl empty, approach, pat theg a couple of times on the back, place a treatthe bowl and walk away. Repeat severales and then add in some different angles.

Still with the bowl empty, approach, pat theg a few times, drop a treat in the bowl andlk away. Repeat several times and then addsome different angles.

Still with the bowl empty, approach, pat the

g numerous times, drop a treat in the bowld walk away. Repeat several times and thend i n some different angles.

stage, the dog can be asked to si t as youch her and the food bowl.

epeat the exercises above with food in theitially, this can be done at times when the dog

as hungry as she might be right before a realA dry kibble that is not as palatable as theusual food could also be used. Usually, itdogs a couple of minutes to eat a bowl of or fast eaters, a large rock can be placed inwl so that the dog has to eat around it,g another minute or so of exercises to ben. Each feeding will probably allow time for

steps, and the process is then continued att meal, starting at a few levels before where itThe treats being used should be very high

Veggie burger pieces are often perfect for

mportant to avoid having the dog becomeed by these exercises! The way to avoidon is simply to make it really worth her while;ans using treats that are much better than thesed for the meal, and observing the dogy so you do not repeat the exercise too many

he sequence has been completed using af less palatable kibble (optional), repeat it

with the dog’s regular, more palatable kibble.r to be sure that the dog is ready for real-liferials, you could even repeat the sequencen extra-special food in the bowl. This requiressolid foundation has been set using the beste treats.

other people in the household should runthe sequence as part of a generalization

m. It should be much easier for the nextto go through the protocols because of the

ant load of learning already in place. The aim

ake sure that the dog understands that thech of any household member predicts good(provided that she does not behave

sively).

n less than about 12 years of age should notough these exercises on their own. An adultdo the exercises with them, and the dogbe tethered to a wall for safety. Children

9 years should probably not perform thees at all under any circumstances. Theybe trained not to approach the dog when sheg, and this should be assured with careful

upervision.

eed to maintain the conditioning you havehed. You should make an effort to have

ne in the household randomly perform at leastwo di fferent kinds of approaches to the dog’s

owl at least once weekly. In a household of eople, that would mean at least three to sixches per week.

Guarding

nciples for object guarding are the same asd-bowl guarding. Only the application differs.hould make a list of guarded objects, and

should start with the least guarded object onThis should be an object that the dog likesto take and maintain contact with but has not

d. If there are no objects that fit thistion, a few sessions can be done with anyhat the dog does not guard, just so that shee hang of the game, even though she mayerest in the object during sessions. For thesessions, the aim should be to start with theuarded object on the list, with the person inusehold who provokes the least aggression,a time of day or in a situation when the dog iskely to guard (for example, this might be after e). Other times and contexts can be used



ut initially, it is important to ensure success.owing exercises assume that you are using an your training.

Train the dog to “leave it” on cue. This canshaped by holding an object that the dog

es not guard and reinforcing when the dogcks away from it. You might have to start bynforcing successive approximations tocking away from the object. Eventually, youn work up to having the dog let go of objectse is holding in her mouth. Add a verbal cue.not train this with any objects that will evoke

gressive behavior. Also train the dog to “takeby reinforcing the behavior of taking treats or guarded objects only on cue.

Approach the dog while she hasssession of the unguarded object andquest her to “leave it.” When she drops them, click and deliver a great treat. Then givee “take it” cue so that she can have the objectck. Walk away. Repeat several times anden add in some different distances and angles

your approach and different durations for ich the dog possesses the object. Ideally, youould only proceed to the next level when theg is visibly eager to have you carry out thesk at the current level.

Do the same as above, but bend half way toe object once it is dropped, then stand back, cue the dog to take it, and click and treat.

Do the same as above, but bend the rest of e way down to the object once it is dropped,and back up, cue the dog to take it, and clickd treat.

Do the same as above, but reach half waythe object once it is dropped, retract your nd, stand up, cue the dog to take it, and clickd treat.

Do the same as above, but reach the rest of

e way, touching the object briefly, beforeracting your hand, standing up, cueing theg to take i t, and clicking and treating.

Do the same as above, but pick the objectabout an inch, place it back down, stand up,

e the dog to take it, and click and treat.

Do the same as above, but pick the object, stand upright, place the object back on theound, cue the dog to take it, and click andat.

Do the same as above, but keepssession of the object for several secondsfore placing it back on the ground, cueing theg to take i t, and clicking and treating.

This time, you have initia l possession of theect. Approach the dog with it. Offer it to her take; when she does, maintain contact with

e object. Do not let go. Cue the dog to leave it.hen she does, immediately click and treat,

d give her the object. Walk away. Bribe (treatered up front for the behavior, not after) only if u absolutely have to in order to get the itemck.

Do the same as above, but allow the dog tove contact with the object for a few moreconds before withdrawing it.

Do the same as above, but let go of theect for a second before gently taking it back.soon as the dog allows you to take it back,

ck and treat.

Do the same as above, but increase theration for which you relinquish possession of e object to a couple of seconds before gentlyking it back.

Do the same as above, but increase theration for which you relinquish possession toveral seconds.

Do the same as above, but after you

nquish possession of the object, take a stepck before stepping back in and gentlymoving the object.

Do the same as above, but take a couple of eps back and increase the duration. You mayd that you have to break the duration and thetance into separate steps. Increasing themth at once may make the dog tense; if thatppens, modify the protocol so that youadually increase duration alone while stillmaining close. Once you have the duration up

say, 30 seconds, you can then relax theration and work on distance. For example, gock to 5 seconds and take one step back.en 5 seconds and two steps back. Then after rking these two variables separately, work

em together.

Approach the dog from a short distance



en she already has possession of the objectd gently remove it (perhaps using the “leavecue when you grasp the object). Immediatelyck and treat, return the object and walk away.

Do the same as above, but approach from aeater distance when the dog has had theect slightly longer. Repeat this several timesdifferent rooms, with different angles of

proach and from different distances.

Next, work on handling and possess ion.hen the dog has possession of the object,proach and pat her gently on the back once,ck and treat, and walk away. Do not try toer the treat to the dog directly from your hand.is may be seen as an attempt to take theect. Although you have already worked on

king the object, touching the dog while shes possession might be too demanding at this

age. Instead, just drop the treat close to theg and walk away.

Do the same as above, but pat a couple of mes.

Do the same as above, but pat severalmes.

Do the same as above, but stroke the dog auple of times on the back.

Do the same as above, but pat the dogce on the back of the neck.

Do the same as above, but pat her a fewes on the back of the neck.

Do the same as above, but pat her severales on the back of the neck.

Do the same as above, but stroke her a fewes on the back of the neck.

Do the same as above, but pat her once one head.

Do the same thing, but pat her a couple of

es on the head.

Do the same thing, but pat her a few timesthe head.

Do the same thing, but pat her several timesthe head.

Do the same thing, but stroke her on thead.

Do the same as above, but pat once on thead and then request the dog to “leave it.” Pickthe item and return it to the dog. Click and

at, and walk away. This step requires a bit of xibility. It involves adding some of theercises together. If you have a good, solidundation, this should go smoothly. If it doest, try making it easier on the dog by pattingd having her drop the object but allow her toke it back herself. Otherwise, go back a fewels and do some more work on themponent parts before trying to add them

gether.Repeat the sequences using the next item

the list of guarded objects (that is, thecond least guarded object). Generalize theining by performing it in different rooms, andproaching from different angles andtances. Repeat the exercises several timesough a few sessions, and do not move on to

e next level until the dog is delighted to haveu perform the various exercises, indicatingat counterconditioning has also beenhieved.

Repeat the exercises with the next item one list, and then the next, until you have workedough all the items that the dog guards.

Have each sequence repeated by eachrson in the household. Successive peopleould be able to work through much more

moothly and quickly. Although the processould not be rushed, if the path is paved with a

eat foundation, it should go quite smoothly for hers because the dog has learned the gamed the lesson is now being generalized toher people. If the dog was tethered throughese exercises, each person should runough the protocols again without tethering.

ake sure you have a solid foundation beforeing this.

hould maintain the learning that you havehed. Make an effort to have everyone in theold randomly perform at least one or twot kinds of object exercises at least onceIn a household of three people, this would

t least three to six approaches per week.

on Guarding

list of the locations that the dog guards isal. Common locations include couches, dog



nder desks and in cars. A written descriptionantecedents that are important for this

ar dog is also required. Variables such asgle of approach, distance of approach andpproaches may be evident to the keener. This information will help you and theor consultant design a better protocol. It maysable to run through the exercises with the

earing a muzzle first and then repeat themthe muzzle.

st few sessions involve training the dog toher nose to your hand, a behavior calledng.” This is done first in a location that thees not guard, and this training is then applied

problem situations. The target trainings a tool to complete the exercises and helpsstart to understand the game.

In a location away from any guarded areas,esent the palm of your hand near the dog’sce. The dog will probably investigate it. If she

uches it with her nose, click and treat. If not,u might have to click a close call or even a

ance and then reinforce closer and closer proximations to touching until she does touchur hand.

Once the dog is targeting your handuching it with her nose), only click and treattouches that occur within, say, 8 seconds. If

e does not touch within this time, pull your nd away, wait a few seconds without sayingdoing anything and present your hand again.

Next, only click and treat when the doggets within 5 seconds.

Next, only click and treat when the doggets within 3 seconds.

Start clicking only for the good ones, rather an clicking and treating all of them. This willcourage the dog to work a little harder and itl make the response more resilient (less

sceptible to extinction).Continue working the exercise until the dog

eagerly touching your palm with her nosemediately you present it.

Practice having the dog displace herself inder to target your hand. Stand a few feet awayd present your hand. The dog will probablyme to you to touch your hand in order to winr treat. Click and treat.

Move a few feet away and repeat. Makere you do not involve any locations sheards, but try having her go to and fromecific places. Once a nice, solid targetingsponse is in place, it is ready to be applied toprotocol for location guarding, as follows:

Start with a place that the dog does notard. Jean Donaldson offers a great tip in her ok Mine! A Practical Guide to Resource

uarding in Dogs, suggesting that if a couch isoblematic perhaps the couch cushion on theor well away from the couch might work. If thatstill too “hot” a location, use some other

ecific location. Now you can incorporate arbal cue. Give the cue you wish to use for tting the dog in or on the location (e.g., “upu go,” “get in”) and then present your hand ate location. The verbal cue must come beforeu present your hand. When the dog targetse hand and hence enters the location, offer ntle praise rather than clicks and treats.

etting into the location is the easy part, and theher value reinforcement should be saved for tting out of it. Once the dog is in the location,mediately give a cue for her to get off or outthe location and then target her to exit theation. When she does, click and treat. Theg will learn over several repetitions that therbal cue means that she can earn treats bygeting your hand. After a few trials, the dogould respond to the verbal cue before youve a chance to present your hand for geting. When this happens, you can startng just the verbal cue. If it does not happenon, pause for a few seconds between givinge verbal cue and presenting your hand to givee dog a chance to respond to the verbal cue. If e does not, do some more trials with bothfore trying again.

Do the same as above, but allow the dog todown in the location before targeting her out.

Do the same as above, but allow the dog tottle down a bit more in the location. This canvariable, and you might have to adjust the

otocol on the fly, but 20 seconds might be aod duration to aim for. Remember that the

mount of settling of the dog in the location isportant and should be worked with gradually.

Do the same as above, but allow the dog to



ttle down and get a bit more comfortable ine location (say 30 seconds). If the dog doest really want to be in the location much at alld just leaves frequently, perhaps a slightlyore attractive location is necessary. For ample, if the location being used is articular spot on the carpet, you could try

acing a folded blanket there to make it slightlyore comfortable, so that the dog will at leastel like remaining there when invited.

Do the same as above, but increase theration (say, to 45 seconds) that the dog isowed to remain in the location before youget her off.

Do the same thing, but allow the dog tottle in a bit more deeply (say, 60 seconds).

Do the same as above, but increase theration slightly (say, to a minute and a half),d in that time walk away and come back.

Do the same as above, but walk out of sightefly.

Do the same as above, but increase theration slightly (say, to 2 minutes).

Target the dog to enter the location andow her to settle down. Then approach her andt her on the back once, withdraw, wait severalconds and then target her off.

Do the same as above, but pat the dog aw times.

Do the same as above, but stroke the dogthe back.

Do the same as above, but pat the dogce on the back of the neck.

Do the same as above, but pat the dog one back of the neck a few times.

Do the same as above, but stroke the dogthe back of the neck.

Do the same as above, but pat the dogce on top of her head.

Do the same as above, but pat the dog aw times on top of the head.

Do the same as above, but stroke the dogthe head.

Target the dog to the location. Once she hasttled down, crouch down 5 feet away (thistance will be variable, based on therticular dog). Get up, wait several secondsd target the dog off. Click and treat.

Do the same as above, but sit down, rather an merely crouching.

Do the same as above, but sit a foot closer the dog.

Do the same thing again, but sit a footser to the dog. Repeat this process until you

e right beside the dog. You might have to

se the distance gradually once you starttting close to the dog.

Do the same as above, but pat the dog one back. Repeat several times. Then do somewhich you pat a few times and then some inich you stroke the dog on the back.

Do the same as above, but work the back of e neck.

Do the same as above, but work the headea.

Carry out this sequence of stages again,s time using the next location on the list (thatthe next least guarded location). Then repeat

e levels for the next location on the list until youve finished working the most guarded

cation.

Have another person in the household runough the sequence.

Once everyone has completed theotocols, everyone should run through themain without the muzzle on the dog.

ore, be careful not to make the dog frustrateds. Make it really worth her while with great,lue treats and prevent her from becominged by all the displacements. You should makert to have everyone in the household randomly

m at least one or two of the exercisesng displacing the dog, approaching the when the dog occupies it, and handling the

hen she is in the location) at least onceIn a household of three people, that would

t least three to six exercises per week.

n Guarding

ay not think of your problem as guarding wheng uses aggressive behavior to avoid having



approach or contact you. You may label ity, but this label is not pa rticularly helpful inting the contingencies that maintain thebehaviors. It would be more useful to view theor as similar to any situation in which the dogses in order to keep others away from a

resource. Person guarding is oftenned by negative reinforcement. That is, thesive behavior reliably results in others movingand this withdrawal (which is what the dogmakes the behavior more probable in then some instances, guardians can accidentallyn these behaviors through positiveement. If you inadvertently reinforce the dogressing—for example, by trying to calm the

own or to avoid a conflict—the aggressiveors can increase in frequency as a result.

why a proper contingency statement isary. Your actual behavior change programbe designed on the basis of that contingencyent. Knowing which form of reinforcementns the behavior can help with formulating aor change program.

havior has some common presentations. Theative stimulus can be the approach of another

or another dog, or specifically physical. The dog will seek to split or otherwisee the person she is guarding from the other or dog. If aggressive behaviors successfully

e this end, a problem is likely to develop.

are many strategic approaches to thism. In one, a more operant approach can be

This involves replacing the aggressiveors with an incompatible behavior, such aspatiently or making eye contact with the, rather than focusing on the other person or

Another approach is to shape prosocialters with the other person or dog, at graduallyng levels of intensity. Alternatively, the focus

e more on a respondent approach. Thiss systematically desensitizing the dog to the

ch and contact of the other person or dog. Ito use a behavior replacement procedure,

the replacement behavior in a graded,ental way (often involving shaping). Thisch achieves both respondent and operantoning goals.

case, the procedure is similar to those usedother forms of guarding described above. It

s starting with a rank-order list of the dog’see reinforcers and a list in rank order of thens that provoke aggressive behaviors.g these will enable you to formulate a gradedl in which incrementally greater intensities of blem stimuli are presented at the same timereplacement behavior is installed. The

ment behavior can be an incompatible,ive or other behavior. Antecedent controlures should also be used. For example,e and, in some cases, medication can

the dog’s physiology so that trainingds more easily. Tethering or use of a muzzle

helpful for ensuring everyone’s safety.

fore, the process entails presenting thes at a level at which the dog is unlikely to

aggressively, and heavily reinforcing thement behavior. Then the process is repeatedcremental increases in the intensity of thes. The ultimate aim is to transfer stimulussuch that the dog performs the new behavior resented with the problem stimulus.

ory Behaviors

ory behavior, in which a dog behavessively towards another animal that she sees, are a combination of reflexes and operants.ehavior has a strong basis in the dog’s

makeup, as opposed to being learned.er, just because a behavior is genetically“instinctive” or innate does not mean that it is

en to conditioning. Nevertheless, much of theement for predatory behaviors seems to be

or automatic, and this makes theseors difficult to manage effectively throughor replacement.

ortant part of managing predatory behaviorsanipulate antecedents so that the dog is notted to stalk and attack. Other aspects of ement are solid verbal control and guardiane. You should also train the dog in someehaviors such as coming when called (recall),

look (pay attention) to a high degree of y. As well as solid verbal control, the use of ent such as muzzles and leashes will be verynt.

possible to design protocols in whichatible behaviors, such as recalls, are trainedpresence of the problem stimulus, usingincreases in the intensity of the stimulus. In

ases, medications can help modify predatory



or. However, the most common solutions tory aggression are antecedent control

ures, equipment use and solid verbal control.

Dog Aggressive Behavior

sive behaviors between dogs are oftenx. It can be difficult to control the behavior of dogs and hence to control the protocols.e change of the behavior will be less likely if vironment cannot be adequately controlled.s also a significant risk of injury associated

og–dog aggressive behaviors. You need toalistic goals. If the dog is a hard biter (that is,icts bites that cause nontrivial damage), thens environmental management (antecedent

procedures) rather than active behavior protocols is the best approach. These dogs

ever be able to be fully trusted around other nd the risk is significant both for them and for

ctims. For dogs who are not hard biters, more

are available. Often, micromanagement isd, rather than just straightforward protocolson respondent or operant procedures. Twomust-read) books on dog–dog aggression

ght! A Practical Guide to the Treatment of og Aggression by Jean Donaldson, and

g Outnumbered? Howto Manage and Enjoy Multi-Dog Household by Karen London anda McConnell.

e cases, the dog seems to be what someall a “bully,” who uses intimidating behaviorsher dogs. Often, the conciliatory behavior of her dog reinforces this kind of behavior.ial socialization and training the dog to walkrom other dogs on cue can be helpful inaging better social relations with other dogs. Istart these cases with an exercise program,ng of the dog where appropriate, perhapschanges, and training to increase the verbalthat you have over the dog under highlyng environmental conditions. At the same

ou should manage the environment in order tothe dog from behaving aggressively. Once

nterventions are well under way, remedialzation and training protocols can begin.

rehabilitation or remedial socialization is allmproving the dog’s social skills by carefullyrating social interactions between her ed that she does not have a hard bite) anddogs. The aggressive dog has probably

that her intimidation tactics and aggressiveor produce reinforcement, although there maye a genetic component making the behavior ect of the dog’s temperament. Whether shea resource or just the opportunity to intimidate,s come to learn that these behaviors will beed. The goal for social rehabilitation, then, is

w the dog to learn different contingencies. Thisfinding dogs who will provide such alternativeencies. Rather than accepting the dog’sges or bowing to intimidation, these dogs are

socially competent. They are not fazed by ay dog or intimidated easily. They are sociallyd, use appropriate social signals toage play and do not give up easily. Some

call these “bombproof dogs.” The dog to be for social rehabilitation should be the same

r slightly larger than the dog who usessive behavior, not a much smaller dog. Evenbproof dog who is half the size can bed or injured without a single bite taking place.

be very difficult to enlist volunteers for thesees. Not many dogs fit the bill and, even if oned, the dog’s guardian has to be convinced toeir dog to be used. Usually, only diehard dog-sitors or those active in a canine sport or club are able to find such dogs because theynto contact with numerous well-socialized

nd their guardians. If you are not in a positionand enlist such volunteers, that is fine, andspects of behavior change programming willsed on instead.

sential that you are absolutely sure that your oes not have a hard bite before evenering these exercises. If the dog has been inous scuffles but has never delivered a bite thatkin, this is probably a good indication that thesoft and generally reliable. If the dog has

and broken skin (not just a scratch resultinghe other dog pulling away, but an actuale) then do not consider these exercises, as

e just too risky.

guidelines follow for social rehabilitation of who are aggressively intimidating but have a

of softer bites and no hard bites. These plays should be performed immediately after a

xercise session, so that pent-up energy is notcing the interactions but the positive mood-

effects of exercise are. Much of theions presented here I learned from Jeanson’s wonderful books. These exercises



only be performed with the assistance of aional animal behavior consultant.

Do not have any toys present at first. Havehand equipment for breaking up a fight in

se you need it, including a loud air horn (or me stainless steel pots that can be bangedgether), and a large piece of plywood thatay be inserted between the dogs to separateem. You will need at least two experiencedg people—people who understand dogeractions and will be prepared to separatee dogs if necessary. If there are more than twogs in the session, you should have at leaste person per dog. Use a secured place thatbig enough that the dogs can manage their tance properly but not so big they can get far

way from you (in case you need to intervene).very large room or small yard is ideal. Ideally,hould not be the problem dog’s home or yardcause she will usually be less inhibited in

miliar surroundings. If you use a room, theor should not be slippery, so that the dogsve sure footing as they move about.

Let the dogs go all at once without muchss. The aggressor will probably barge righter to one of the other dogs, skip politeeeting rituals and either begin intimidatinghaviors (such as repeatedly putting the chinpaw on the other dog’s back or standing over

em) or perhaps start right in with blusteryhavior. The bombproof dog will ideally ignoree blustery behavior and continue to encourageoper greeting rituals or solicit play. Thembproof dog’s job is to discourage

appropriate behaviors and encouragepropriate ones. They are bombproof cause they are not discouraged by crude or

appropriate behavior from other dogs andep trying to interact with them in a normalcial fashion. The hope is that the bombproof g will manage to punish or extinguish

appropriate behaviors and reinforcepropriate behaviors with social play. Scufflesay break out. These can be a learningperience for the subject dog, teaching her thate cannot just push everyone else aroundhout unpleasant consequences and that

osocial signals can result in fun and games.

If a real fight breaks out, have the two mostperienced people (agreed on beforehand)parate the dogs. The other people presentould collect the other dogs so that they do noterfere with the fight or join in. Allow the dogs auple of minutes to cool down apart, and thensume the play session. If the dogs continue tot into fights, you should separate them for ay or two in order to allow their body chemistryreturn to normal, and then perhaps try again. If e aggressor is getting into repeated fightsh one dog, it is probably best to remove thatg from the sessions. It is difficult to speculate

why two particular dogs may not get along,t repeated fights can undermine thehabilitation efforts.

If all goes relatively well, the dogs will playa while, and you should ideally start to see

ns that the rehabilitation is working (if not ine first session, then in later ones).

ove advice is, of course, only generic. A solidency statement is required in order to knowmaintaining the aggressive behaviors. There

any variables to consider in setting up andthese sessions, and experienced judgment

xibility are necessary. You should alwaysy the aggressive behaviors before, during andis process. Here are some indications that

ss is being made:

increased frequency of nonaggressi vecial communication, including appropriateeeting rituals and tolerance of investigationd other behaviors from other dogs

decreased frequency or intensity of fights.

ral, the more sessions such as these that cannged, the better. Each session should ideallyce the dogs have become bored with oner and are not playing together as much butsniffing around and exploring the environmentSigns of improvement should be seen after assions. If there is no improvement within, say,st five sessions or so, the contingencies to the behavior are not being addressedtely in the present arrangement. In this case,

ay decide to drop the efforts towards socialtation and focus on other aspects of ng the dog’s behavior. If you do seeement, the play sessions can continue, andn experiment with adding in a few moderatelytoys if the aim is for the dog to handle realrk situations at some point.





y of exposure to the other dog, Donaldsonsuggests these addi tional variables:

how passive the other dog is (the moressive, the easier to work with)

size of the other dog (this can be specific toe dog who behaves aggressively, but oftenmilar or slightly smaller dogs are easier for theg to accept than larger ones)

orientation of the other dog (the rear is lesseatening than the front)

number of dogs (generally, the fewer dogsesent, the easier it i s for the dog to accept).lly, protocols should be designed tolate distance incrementally as each of these

es is worked on. Often, more than onee can be manipulated at the same time. How

responds will determine how many variablescombined. For example, the protocol might

ith a single, passive, smallish dog who isd away from the subject dog at 20 feet (or

er the particular distance is that the dog caneasily). At each step of the protocol, this dogoser and closer. The next step might be toell back and have the other dog orientedrather than away from the subject dog. It

hen be possible to do that run-through with active dog also oriented toward the subject

this is too much, the orientation variable mightxed and the activity of the dog could beed, with the dog facing away at this stage.es can be worked together where possible,arated where necessary. The most importantare to avoid aggressive displays and not toon to the next level of intensity until the one

is solid; ideally, the dog should also beg a pleasure-related emotional responseyou proceed to the next level.

cases, you should keep the dog on leash asety and management measure. If thesive behavior includes more extensiveement behavior and emotional responses,

me approach as for on-leash aggression cand. The goal in this case is to train the dog ton eye contact with you when walking pastr dog, to make an emergency U-turn whented by a surprise, or to sit-and-make-tact when faced with an off-leash dog.g the dog to carry out a specific task in thea confrontation instills confidence in the dog,n focus on the task rather than on the other n the other hand, many dogs do better whenare reinforced for paying nonaggressiven to the problem dog. For these dogs,ng to something away from the other dogthem more anxious. For details on training

behaviors, review the on-leash aggressionin this chapter. The best approach willon your goals and the particular problem

encies.

r common problem arising among dogs ise guarding. In most cases, the frequency and

ude of the aggressive displays do not tend toe, and little or no damage is done. Whether ll need to, or choose to, intervene at alls a judgment call. In many cases of resourceng among dogs, an operant conditioningch works well. This involves identifying anatible or alternative behavior to replace thesive behavior. One technique is to train theg dog to walk away from the other dog,

g the resource with her, rather than remainingituation with it. The dog can also be trained to

way and leave the resource with the other dog,h a high value reinforcer will have to bed for this option. The dog should be set up for s by creative manipulation of thedents. The behavior change process involveszing aggressive displays, maximizing thenity for the dog to receive reinforcers for riate behavior, and building up gradually iny. The aim is for the dog to learn that thement behavior pays off better, as quickly andssly as possible.

guarding dog is also showing emotionalses, respondent conditioning is needed as

operant conditioning in the protocols. Thisolve presenting the evoking stimulus (the other

a graded, incremental way to ensure thatmatic emotional responses and emotionalors are minimized. Then, desirable behaviorsreinforced.

s kind of problem, Jean Donaldson (2004)es a respondent approach very similar totages:

Sitting dogs fed in sequence. Have twogs tethered apart, give a treat to the other g and then immediately praise and treat thearder, repeating until the guarder is obviously

eased to see the other dog getting a treat.Decrease distance. Gradually have the

gs closer to one another while repeating the



ove steps.Entrances without resources present.

main in a room with the tethered guarder,ng generally boring for 20 minutes, with noued resources present. Bring the other dog inleash, have her sit, treat her and then

mediately praise and treat the guarder. Thenmove the other dog and go back to beingring. Repeat until the guarder seems happyout entrance and treating of the other dog.

Generalize the step above to other rooms.peat the process in some other rooms tosure the response does not become specificust one room.

Entrances with low-value resource present.peat the process above, but this time allow

e guarder to have a no-value or extremely low-ue resource. Go slowly with this step. When

e other dog comes in, you may have to ensureat she is not directly facing the guarder andat she is not allowed to approach the guarder o closely. Repeat the process, graduallyrking the distance and orientation variables.

Entrances with higher value resource.peat the process, but this time with a slightlyher value resource. Remember to relax theentation and distance variables and any other riables you discover are important and workgradually.

Entrances with high-value resources.peat the process, but this time with a highlyued resource.

Entrances, guarder off tether, other dog onash. For this run, repeat the process throughw- to medium- and high-value resources, buth the guarder off tether. Remember to relaxteria such as distance and orientation andrk up gradually.

Entrances with eye contact. Repeat theocess, but this time encourage the other dogmake eye contact with the guarder. If a solid

motional response has been installed, thisould go smoothly, but remember to relax other riables and work up gradually. Eye contact ismajor provocation, so work this stage

ensively.Generalize. Repeat the process in other

oms to ensure that the emotional responsees not become specific to a particular ation but generalizes to other locations.

Other dog off leash. Use a low-valuesource and repeat the process, this time withe other dog off leash. Ensure that the other g is suitable for these tasks and is not likelycharge right over to the guarder, and is not asource guarder herself. Gradually increasee value of the resource used.

Generalize. Generalize the conditioning toher rooms.

Cold trials. Try the exercises in what seemsore like a real-life event, rather than in assion of repeated exercises. Of course, yountrol the value of the resources present ande type of dog you use, to set the guarder up

success, but these should appear more likeal-life single events to the guarder.

Continue to maintain the conditionedsponse by repeating the cold trials from timetime.

Dog Aggressive Behavior Between Dogsve Together

sive behaviors between dogs who liveer are often associated with female dogs,s aggressive behaviors between dogs wholive together are often associated with intactogs. Intact male dogs should be neutered, asn reduce aggressive behavior in some cases.London and Patricia McConnell wrote abook called Feeling Outnumbered? How toe and Enjoy Your Multi-Dog Household , i nhey outline a basic strategy for working withgressive dogs who live together. London and

nell (2001) were among the first to abandondated practice of “supporting the hierarchy”giving preferential treatment to the dog who

to be the “top dog”). Instead, they outline ant conditioning approach that has proven verysful. This general approach is outlined belowthe approach I take as well. If you have a

m with fighting between your household dogs,ly suggest you read London and McConnell’s

Each Dog Individually

gs who are fighting should be separated, aty least when they are not supervised. This and

management practices will break the cycle of l aggressive encounters. You can then startg on individual training of each dog and solidcontrol. You should arrange to have time



with each dog for training. This should be ant time, and can incorporate walks and plays or exercise sessions as well as training. Itbe made into a real bonding time. When aof dogs is running around all the time, it isr the dogs to get used to not paying attention

ple because your attention is usually divided.ust train each dog individually to a high level of y, in basic control cues that will allow you to

y control each dog. The training will also teachto be patient and show impulse control.

sy to train a dog to come when called or sitasked, but will the dog come away fromwith another dog or from a tense encounter other dog? If not, then you need to train the

ors further. The basic responses of “leave it,”“sit” and “down” should be practiced until the

will perform them under high levels of on. The more individual training sessions

t in, and the more reliable the responses are

ed environments, the more effective theor change program will be.

n Pairs

ou are at a reliable point in individual training, start training the dogs in pairs, even if you

everal dogs. The training involves reinforcingog for tolerating attention paid to the other ue the dogs to sit, using the name of eachfore the cue, so that they know that the cue ism. Then release and treat one dog, and thener. This training should start when both dogseptive, and with the dogs far enough awayach another that they are not aggressing.ou have worked with one pair, you can workother pair if you have more than two dogs.n start with the easy dogs and work your way

more difficult ones. If it is only one dog who isn problem, the focus should be on that one,should still perform the training with each pair ation.

n also work on group commands, using aame such as “everyone,” followed by the cue.

hose dogs who perform the behavior areThis group command will come in handy

ou want all the dogs to respond to a cue. “Sit”ed to all dogs at once, for instance, can bee.

n Groups

you have worked your way through trainingpair combination to a reliable level of on, you can start combinations of three

The training will proceed in much the samewith pairs; that is, with the dogs at a distance

ach other, and working with each dog in turn.ignificant progress has been made in theseroups in each possible combination of three,n start adding in any other dogs within theold, until you have your whole group workingr. You should maintain the training byng to work with the dogs individually and as aand applying the training to everyday lifeossible.

ny dogs dislike head halters. If your dog finds thisnt, you have to decide whether to use it or not. If you feely need it, then desensitize the dog to it gradually and onlyyour protocols when and if the dog comes to like it;

e you will be violating the principle of using only pleasanton and going into the protocols with the dog relaxed.



ECOMMENDED RESOURCES

e Culture Clash by Jean Donaldson (the greatest dogok ever written). Mine! A Practical Guide to Resourcearding in Dogs by Jean Donaldson. Fight! A Practical ide to the Treatment of Dog–Dog Aggression by Jeannaldson. How Dogs Learn by Mary Burch and Jon Baileyore details on how dogs learn).Feisty Fido: Help for theash-Aggressive Dog by Patricia McConnell and Karenndon.

eling Outnumbered? How to Manage and Enjoy Your lti-Dog Household by Karen London and PatriciaConnell.e Power of Positive Dog Training by Pat Miller.n’t Shoot the Dog! The New Art of Teaching and Training Karen Pryor.p for Your Fearful Dog by Nicole Wilde.

ites

ernational Institute for Applied Companion Animalhavior http://www.IIACAB.com

ernational Association of Animal Behavior Consultants://www.IAABC.org

sociation of Pet Dog Trainershttp://www.APDT.com

mpanion Animal Sciences Institute (distance learning)p://www.CASInstitute.com

ademy for Dog Trainers (hands on, on site)p://www.sfspca.org/academy/

rtificate IV in Companion Animal Services (Australian)p://www.deltasocietyaustralia.com.au/canine_good_citizens_instructor course.htm



GLOSSARY OF TERMS

ve Signals. Affiliative signals function to

e friendly, cooperative social encountersn individuals who are meeting for the firstor to provide recognition and continuedn for those in established relationships. Theyserve an approach/contact function. Contrast

gonistic Signals.ssion. For the purposes of this workbook,sion is defined as “attacks, attempted attacksats of attack by one individual directed atr individual.” Structurally, threat or attackor. In dogs, this usually refers to snarling,g, lunging, snapping and biting. Functionally,sion is threat or attack behavior that functionseve access to a stimulus, or escape from or nce of a stimulus.

ssive Signals. Communication signalsg a threat of attack. A type of agonisticthe other type being appeasement signals.

ggression and Agonistic Signals.stic Signals. Includes attack, escape, threat,e, and appeasement behaviors. Contrast withve Signals.edent. Conditions present prior to the

or in question. Antecedents that influencet behavior are generally divided into threeies: setting events, motivating operations

scriminative stimuli. They each contribute toely a behavior is to occur.edent Control Procedure. Any procedureanipulates antecedents in order to increase or se the likelihood of a target operant behavior.nvolves changes to discriminative stimuli,ing operations, setting events or response

al. Activation of the nervous system generally.tes action, or even inaction.ve Stimulus. A stimulus that an organism

evade, escape from, or avoid. Aversivetion can result in some problematicary effects, such as aggression,control, social disruption and emotional/avoidance behavior. Aversive stimulations fearor pain-eliciting stimuli.ng (or Behavior Chaining). A procedure inan animal is trained to perform a chain of ors in sequence. Each behavior provides thethe next behavior, and only the last behavior hain results in delivery of a primary reinforcer.ioned Emotional Response. Form of

oned response whereby emotional reactionss fear, anger or joy are elicited.gency. In respondent conditioning,ency refers to a positive correlation betweennditioned stimulus and the unconditioneds. In operant conditioning, it refers to aship between an operant and a

uence, in which the consequence occurs if,y if, the operant occurs. Generally, it refers tolationship between a behavior and itsng environmental variables.gency Statement. A concise statement of aar behavior problem, identifying the behavior

estion as well as its antecedents andning consequences. It is constructed basednctional assessment.erconditioning. A respondent conditionings in which the animal’s previous conditionedse to a stimulus is changed or reversed withnditioning. In most cases, counterconditioningto change a conditioned emotional response

arful to joyful, or anxiety to relaxation. It is thee underlying systematic desensitization.minative Stimulus. An antecedent stimulus

icates that a specific contingency is in effect.“sit” indicates to a dog that, if they sit now,

given schedule of reinforcement will be inWhen the word “sit” is not given, this

ency is not in effect.werment. A state of confidence in one’so operate on one’s environment effectively

o create reinforcing contingencies. Whileerment is conducive to psychologicalng, learned helplessness is its antithesis.An emotional response, involving both

ts and respondents, characterized by signs of hetic nervous system arousal, stress, andor avoidance behaviors.haping. A training procedure in whichsive approximations to a terminal behavior nforced. Successive approximations to thel behavior are captured; that is, the trainer ot prompt responses, but rather waits for themation and provides reinforcement when itOnce the approximation is stable, a closer

mation is required for reinforcement. Thises until the terminal behavior is achieved.



ation. Emotional behavior resulting fromblocked from achieving one’s goals.

tion can precipitate aggressive responses.onal Assessment. Term used to describe a

of evaluation strategies and techniques, allto identifying the ABCs of a behavior.

ed Helplessness. When an animal is

d to uncontrollable and severe aversivetion, they will frequently abandon efforts to

or avoid it and will not be able to learnor avoidance behaviors, even when thesebecome readily available. Learning is

d, and behavior tends to be suppressed.ve Punishment. A procedure in which a

or results in the withdrawal of a stimulus and,result, future frequency of that behavior ses. It is also a basic p rinciple of behavior.ve Reinforcement. A procedure in which aor results in the withdrawal of a stimulus and,result, future frequency of that behavior

es. It is also a basic principle of behavior.nt. Behavior that operates on the environmentuce consequences. Goal-directed behavior.nt Conditioning. A change (increase or se) in the frequency of an operant as an of its consequences.ve Punishment. A procedure in which aor results in the presentation of a stimuluss a result, future frequency of that behavior ses. It is also a basic p rinciple of behavior.e Reinforcement. A procedure in which a

or results in the presentation of a stimuluss a result, future frequency of that behavior es. It is also a basic principle of behavior.

cial. Friendly or otherwise seeking anch or contact function.rcement. Increase in the future frequency of

vior resulting from it’s consequences.ndent. An unconditioned response (reflex) or

oned response that is elicited by a stimulusditioned or conditioned).

ndent Conditioning. Occurs when a neutrals is paired with a stimulus that elicits ae response. After conditioning has occurred,utral stimulus itself elicits the same type of se. How we make previously meaninglesselicit reflexive behaviors.ng. A process whereby successive

mations to a target behavior are reinforced inents until that target behavior (called thel behavior) is achieved. The behavior may be

ed as it occurs or prompted. See also Free-g .us. A thing or event that can influenceor.

matic Desensitization. A procedure, usually

g deep relaxation training; construction of ahy of stimuli that elicit fear, anxiety or phobia;unterconditioning through the hierarchy.



REFERENCES CITED

dley, J. (2005). Dogs bite: But balloons and slippers arere dangerous. Berkeley: James & Kenneth.dley, J. (2006). Dog bites: Problems and solutions.licy paper). Baltimore: The Animals and Society Institute.naldson, J. (1996). The culture clash. Oakville, Ontario:mes and Kenneth.naldson, J. (1998). Dogs are from Neptune. Montreal,nada: Lasar Multimedia Productions.naldson, J. (2002). Mine! A practical guide to resourcearding in dogs. San Francisco: San Francisco SPCA.naldson, J. (2004). Fight! A practical guide to theatment of dog–dog aggression. San Francisco: Sanncisco SPCA.najs, S. (2006). Language of dogs (DVD): Blue Dogining & Behavior.duced by Media Paws.

ndon, K. B., & McConnell, P. B. (2001). Feeling numbered? How to manage and enjoy your multi-dog usehold . Black Earth: Dog's Best Friend, Ltd.Connell, P. B., & London, K. B. (2003). Feisty Fido: Helpthe leashaggressive dog. Black Earth: Dog's Best Friend,

llips, K. (2005). Avoiding liability when you train, shelter adopt-out. Seminar and essential legal documents (DVDd CD).or, K. (1999). Don't shoot the dog! The new art of teaching

d training . New York: Bantam Books.or, K. (2002). Getting started: Clicker training for dogs

ew expanded ed.). Waltham: Sunshine Books, Inc.man, M. (2000). Coercion and its fallout (Revised ed.).ston: Author's Cooperative, Inc. Publishers.renson, S. (2002). Serotonin syndrome. Utox Update, Ablication of the Utah Poison Control Center for Healthfessionals, 4(4), 1–2.

Documents

The Dog Aggression Workbook - James O'Heare