The Earliest Societies

Approximately 5000 years ago the first complex, politically centralized civilizations began to crystallize independently along a number of river valleys throughout the organization and centralization of human economic, political, religious, and social institutions and practices.

These politically centralized civilizations materialize along rivers, because, rivers supplied water for farming and human consumption. These rivers along with climate, vegetation, geography, and topography shaped the development of the early river valley civilizations.  However, while people of these civilizations were dependent on the rivers, the rivers also inspired new technological, economic, institutional, and organizational innovations and developments.

Between 3000 and 2000 B.C.E. such river valley civilizations formed independently of each other along the Indus, the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, and the Yellow Rivers.  These civilizations shared certain characteristics that distinguished them from the collections of Neolithic communities that preceded them.

   

Nile River valley civilizations

The Nile River was the axis of two early African civilizations, Egypt and Nubia .  The Nile River shaped the development of both civilizations, providing a reliable source of water for farming and linking them to sub-Saharan Africa and the Mediterranean Sea .  The Nile gave them limited access to various Bantu peoples to the south and various Mediterranean peoples to the north.  Although both civilizations crystallized along the Nile , they developed along different lines.  Egypt unified politically earlier and more effectively than Nubia .  The ruler-conqueror first united Egypt about 3100 B.C.E.  Subsequently, the institution of the pharaoh as deified ruler developed during a period known as the Archaic Period(3100-2660 B.C.E.).

Ancient Egyptian history is chronologically divided by dynasty and “kingdom”.  The three principle periods are the Old Kingdom(2660-2160 B.C.E.), the Middle Kingdom(2040-1640 B.C.E.), and the New Kingdom (1550-1070 B.C.E.).  In a number of ways the Old Kingdom is considered the classic era in ancient Egyptian history.  This period is marked by the power and influence of the pharaoh being at its height, as manifest in the construction of massive pyramids for burial of the pharaohs.  While pyramids were constructed during all three kingdom periods, Egyptians built the largest pyramids for their pharaohs during the Old Kingdom .  Of course, these massive monuments have come to define ancient Egypt in popular culture.  Arguably the most famous pyramids were constructed between 2600 and 2500 B.C.E. at Giza , two of the best known being the Great Pyramid of the ruler Khufu and the Great Sphinx.

The periods of the Middle and the New Kingdoms are defined by greater contact with various peoples around the Mediterranean .  During the period of the New Kingdom ancient Egypt was at the height of its imperial power in northern Africa and the Mediterranean basin.  After the end of the New Kingdom Egypt came under the control of a succession of foreign powers in northern Africa, the Mediterranean basin, Anatolia, and western Asia.  Despite long periods of political and/or military subjugation, significant remnants of ancient Egyptian culture survived and even thrived.

 

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia is a Greek word that means “land between the rivers”, referring to the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers.  These two rivers were the axes of one of the most influential ancient civilizations in history.  With the development of irrigation around 6000 B.C.E. farming villages appeared and grew into larger communities and then cities along these rivers.

Political centralization first occurred in Mesopotamia in much the same way that it took place along the Nile River .  From approximately 3200 to 2350 B.C.E. various Sumerian cities dominated Mesopotamia .  During this period these cities, ruled by monarchs, came to control surrounding economic hinterlands, and, in the process, evolved into city-states.  These city-states were rivals who vied for influence throughout, even dominance of Mesopotamia .  In the twenty-fourth century B.C.E. Sargon, the ruler of the city of Akkad , became the first man to unify Mesopotamia under his control.  From 2350 to 1600 B.C.E. Mesopotamia was dominated by Babylon , a city that straddled the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

Mesopotamia left a number of important cultural legacies for Western civilization.  Mesopotamia culture was a synthesis of both Sumerian and Semitic forms.  One of these legacies was various legal codes developed by a succession of Mesopotamian rulers.  Most notably among these rulers was Hammurabi(r. 1792-1750 B.C.E.), a Babylonian ruler who had various legal codes, guidelines, and precedents compiled.  This compilation was part of his larger effort to standardize the administration of his kingdom.  Another legacy was the Epic of Gilgamesh, a collection of stories about ancient Mesopotamia which centered around a legendary king of Uruk, who was part god.  These stories became one of the models for later heroic epics which celebrated the exploits of rulers and their champions.

 

Harappan civilization

From roughly 3000 to 1500 B.C.E. a complex, urbanized civilization existed along the Indus River in what is today northern India .  This ancient Indus River valley civilization was dominated by several large cities, including Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, and today

is known by the name of the former.  The people of this civilization were known as Dravidians.

For a number of different reasons we don’t know as much about Harappan civilization as we do about its counterparts along the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, and the Yellow Rivers .  Unlike these other civilizations the language of ancient Harappan civilization cannot be deciphered.  Our knowledge of this civilization is based almost entirely on various physical remains.

   

The Xia, the Shang, and the Zhou Dynasties of Early China

Early Chinese civilization developed along the same lines as that of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia .  Between 7000 and 5000 B.C.E. agricultural villages appeared and grew along the Yellow and Yangzi Rivers .   Ancient Chinese history is marked by three successive dynasties that would become the roots of Chinese culture and civilization.  Little is known about the Xia Dynasty(2200-1766 B.C.E.), the first of these dynasties.  The Shang Dynasty(1766-1122 B.C.E.) built on the base established by its predecessor, with the help of various technological advances, including bronze metallurgy and horse-drawn chariots.  The Zhou Dynasty(1122-256 B.C.E.) expanded upon Shang accomplishments.  One of the Zhou Dynasty’s best known achievements was articulation of the concept of the Mandate of Heaven as a justification for the overthrow of an unpopular and/or unsuccessful dynasty.   These three dynasties established many of the threads of Chinese civilization.

 

These civilizations laid the foundations for political centralization and organization upon which nearly all subsequent civilizations are built.  They also provided many of the roots of human civilization all the way to the present including the practices of monument building, written articulation of legal codes, and the construction of the legal and political infrastructures necessary to run a central government of a state.  If one were transported back in time to one of these early civilizations, one would find much that was familiar.

Meso-America

Meso-America is the term used to describe the ancient settlements of Mexico and Central America. Civilization arose in the Americas much later than in the Middle East. Whether Native Americans reinvented the tools of civilization, such as farming and writing, or whether they were brought from older societies is a topic of debate among scholars.

The earliest elaborate civilization known in the Americas is that of the Olmec of central Mexico. The Olmec lived in the lowlands of present Veracruz and Tabasco states from about 1200 BC. They left artifacts ranging from tiny jade carvings to huge monuments such as the volcanic rock statues at San Lorenzo. These monuments suggest the existence of an organized and diverse society with leaders who could command the work of artisans and laborers. Other early civilizations in the Americas include the

Chavin of Peru, the Chono of Chile, the Tehuelche of Argentina, the Tupians of Brazil, the Maya of the Yucatan Peninsula, and the Inca of Peru.

Only four ancient civilizations--Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, and China--provided the basis for continuous cultural developments in the same location. After the Minoan society on Crete was destroyed, its cultural traditions and legends passed into the life of mainland Greece. As for Meso-America, its cultures were submerged by the Spanish conquerors of the 16th century

The First Cities

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia (from a Greek term meaning "between rivers") lies between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, a region that is part of modern Iraq. By about 5000 BC, small tribes of farmers had made their way to the river valleys. On the floodplains they raised wheat, barley, and peas. They cut through the riverbanks so that water for their crops could flow to lower lying soil.

These early irrigation systems were more fully developed by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia, who drained marshes and dug canals, dikes, and ditches. The need for cooperation on these large irrigation projects led to the growth of government and law. The Sumerians are thus credited with forming the earliest of the ancient civilizations.

The land of the Sumerians was called Sumer (Shinar in the Bible). Their origins are shrouded in the past. They were not Semites, like most of the peoples of the region; they spoke a language unrelated to other known tongues. They may have come to southern Mesopotamia from Persia before 4000 BC.

Sumerian towns and cities included Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Kish, and Ur. The cities differed from primitive farming settlements. They were not composed of family-owned farms, but were ringed by large tracts of land. These tracts were thought to be "owned" by a local god. A priest organized work groups of farmers to tend the land and provide barley, beans, wheat, olives, grapes, and flax for the community.

These early cities, which existed by 3500 BC, were called temple towns because they were built around the temple of the local god. The temples were eventually built up on towers called ziggurats (holy mountains), which had ramps or staircases winding up around the exterior. Public buildings and marketplaces were built around these shrines.

The temple towns grew into city-states, which are considered the basis of the first true civilizations. At a time when only the most rudimentary forms of transportation and communication were available, the city-state was the most governable type of human settlement. City-states were ruled by leaders, called ensis, who were probably authorized to control the local irrigation systems. The food surplus provided by the farmers supported these leaders, as well as priests, artists, craftsmen, and others.

The Sumerians contributed to the development of metalworking, wheeled carts, and potter's wheels. They may have invented the first form of writing. They engraved pictures on clay tablets in a form of writing known as cuneiform (wedge-shaped). The tablets were used to keep the accounts of the temple food storehouses. By about 2500 BCthese picture-signs were being refined into an alphabet.

The Sumerians developed the first calendar, which they adjusted to the phases of the moon. The lunar calendar was adopted by the Semites, Egyptians, and Greeks. An increase in trade between Sumerian cities and between Sumeria and other, more distant regions led to the growth of a merchant class.

The Sumerians organized a complex mythology based on the relationships among the various local gods of the temple towns. In Sumerian religion, the most important gods were seen as human forms of natural forces--sky, sun, earth, water, and storm. These gods, each originally associated with a particular city, were worshiped not only in the great temples but also in small shrines in family homes.

Warfare between cities eventually led to the rise of kings, called lugals, whose authority replaced that of city-state rulers. Sumeria became a more unified state, with a common culture and a centralized government. This led to the establishment of a bureaucracy and an army. By 2375 BC, most of Sumer was united under one king, Lugalzaggisi of Umma.

Babylon

The Sumerians were conquered by their Semitic neighbours. But their civilization was carried on by their successors--the Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Chaldeans.

The Babylonians made distinct contributions to the growth of civilization. They added to the knowledge of astronomy, advanced the knowledge of mathematics, and built the first great capital city, Babylon. The Babylonian King Hammurabi set forth the Code of Hammurabi in about 1800 BC. (This was the most complete compilation of Babylonian law and one of the first great law codes in the world (see Hammurabi; Law).

Egypt

Egyptian farmers had settled in the long and narrow valley of the Nile River by 5000 BC. Within 2,000 years they had invented writing, built massive irrigation works, and established a culture that bequeathed the pyramids and other magnificent monuments to posterity. The primitive farming settlements of Egypt were concerned with the raising of vegetables, grains, and animals. These settlements slowly gave way to larger groupings of people. Probably the need to control the Nile floodwaters through dams and canals eventually led to the rise of government in the region.

By the end of the prehistoric period before 3100 BC, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms. Lower Egypt had its capital at Buto, while Upper Egypt was centred at Hierakonpolis. In this period travellers brought in ideas from Sumeria, including the concepts of writing and the pottery wheel.

Egyptian civilization began with the unification in 3100 BCof the upper and lower regions by King Menes. He established a new capital at Memphis. In this era the Egyptians developed the first 365-day calendar, discovered the plough, made use of copper, developed hieroglyphic writing, and began to build with stone. Trade and exploration flourished.

The Egyptians were ruled by kings known as pharaohs who claimed to be descended from the god Horus. These kings, supported by a priestly class, lived in splendour; and they saw to it that after their deaths they would be buried in splendour. The tombs built for them were designed as storehouses to hold all the things that the kings would need in the afterlife.

The earliest royal tombs foreshadowed the later great monuments, the pyramids. By about 2700 BCthe first pyramid was built, in Saqqara. The three great pyramids still standing near Cairo were built between 2650 and 2500 BC.

Early Egyptian history is divided into three major eras: the Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BC), the Middle Kingdom (2050-1800 BC), and the New Kingdom (1570-1090 BC). By the dawn of the Old Kingdom, the characteristics of Egyptian civilization had already been firmly established. The periods not accounted for by the dates are believed to be times of decline known as the Intermediate Periods.

The Indus Valley Civilization cities

The Indus Valley Civilization was extended from Baluchistan to Gujarat, with an upward reach to the Punjab from east of River Jhelum to Rupar on the upper Sutlej. The coast settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at Iranian border to Lothal in Gujarat. The following are some of the important sites of Indus Valley civilization: Harappa : It was one of the two most significant cities of the Indus valley civilization. The other important city was Mohenjodaro. In the 1920s, Indus Valley Civilisation was rediscovered after excavations at Harappa, in west Punjab south of Lahore and Mohenjodaro in Sindh near Sukkur. From 3300 BC till 1600 BC, Indus Valley civilization was also known as the Harappan culture and it had as many as 40,000 residents. The origin and the race of the Harappans are not known properly. While one section of scholars believes that they were Dravidian, definitely Indo-Aryan, while other group believes that they were the same as Sumerians or the Cretans.

Culture of Harappa Scholars suggest that the two cities of Indus Valley Civilisation were closely associated both culturally as well as politically. The civilisation of Harappa was mostly an urban culture maintained by additional agricultural production, trade and commerce. Both Mohenjodaro and Harappa had similar town planning with well laid out streets, separate living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and efficient drainage system and ventilation. Craft of the Harappan civilisation was very advanced. Iron as a metal was unknown to the Harappan people but copper and bronze were used in making statues.

Music and dance appear to be the main sources of entertainment. Agriculture was their main occupation. There has been enough evidence of the cultivation of wheat, barley, peas, mustard, cotton and rice. Enough evidence of religious practices was not found as no temples have yet been discovered. From the Pashupati seal, it appears that they worshipped Lord Shiva. Many earthenware figurines of Mother Goddesses have also been found. It is also said that nature worship had been a significant part of their ritual as discovered in the seals.

Crafts of Harappa Further excavations have yielded a prosperous group of objects in terracotta, stone and bronze. One of the most identified figurines is probably the `dancing girl` in bronze metal. The figure of Mother Goddess found from excavation is also an exemplary piece of craft form. The stone figures of torso in red sandstone and the other of a bust of a bearded man bear ample testimony to the exquisite art form of the civilization. The people also made rough terracotta statuettes of men and women. Moreover, a terracotta mask of a horned deity has also been found after excavations. Thousands of seals with

stunning figures of animals, such as rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, unicorn bull, bison, goat, buffalo etc have also been discovered by the archaeologists. The most amazing seal is `Pashupati Seal`. Some seals have also been found in blue or ivory, gold or white. The seals also carry figures of animals including bull, elephant, tiger, with or without hump, goat and also monsters. They also made several terracotta toys with variations.

Mohenjodaro

Mohenjodaro or the `mound of the dead` was one the significant city settlements in Indus Valley Civilisation. The site of Mohenjodaro is important as several interesting complexes have been discovered here. The Great Bath, built of burnt brick and surrounded by an open brick-paved courtyard, is one of the most significant buildings to be excavated at Mohenjodaro. Its access was made easy by a flight of stairs. These steps had wooden covers fixed by bitumen or asphalt. The sides of the pool had another set of walls surrounding them, with the intervening space between the two being filled with a bitumen coating and earth. Water was drained into it by a large corbelled drain and this water was probably drawn from the well that was found in a room at the open courtyard.

Another important unit discovered at Mohenjodaro is the granary that is located in the south-west direction of the Great Bath. This complex was made of 27 mud-brick blocks with passages between them for smooth air-flow. Built integrally with it in the north was a loading platform made of burnt-bricks. In the southern sector of the western mound is the Assembly Hall. Almost square in shape, this hall has 20 rectangular brick piers arranged in rows of five each and dividing the hall from east to west into five aisles or corridors. This Indus valley city stands out amongst the other cities because of such non-residential buildings that also include the `collegiate building` and the complex with eight bathrooms besides the residential complexes. Mohenjodaro is also well known for its well planned roads.

Kotdiji: Kot Diji, 40 km east of Mohen-jo-Daro on the left bank, is one of the earliest known fortified city. It was a startling discovery which gave new evidence of pre-Harappan culture and pushed back Pakistan`s history by another 500 years. It was an important site in Sindh having a citadel and the lower town. It had defensive wall with a mud brick revetment in the exterior with bastions and the inner face was enforced at intervals with a stone revetment bounded with stone courses at the bottom.

Naushero: The site of Naushero, located six km away from Mehargarh had developed Kotdijian settlement. Blocks of mud houses divided by roads and streets were found during the excavation. The typical Indus pottery was associated with the monumental structures of Indus culture. , Historians were found many large sized structures of mud bricks and platforms and a 7.25 m wide wall. In comparison to Daborkot, it was a smaller settlement but sharing fully the developmental process towards maturity of urbanization.

Kalibangan: This pre-historic town is located 205 Km from Bikaner. Kalibangann, literally means `black bangles`. It got

its name from the myraid pieces of terracotta bangles excavated here. Kalibangan was an early Harappan fortified settlement, having houses on both sides of streets, brick on edge platforms, bathrooms and drains of baked bricks. In the succeeding Harappan period, Kalibangan had a citadel in the west and fortified chessboard patterned city in the east. The citadel had an impressive gateway in the south with a flight of steps to climb up to the platforms. The citadel was divided into two parts, i.e., one having platforms and other having a residential complex for the elite, separated by a wall. The site had a cemetery. Between 2600 and 1900 BC, Kalibangan witnessed about nine reconstructions.

Banawali: Banawali Mound previously called Vanawali, lies 14 kms, north-west of Fatehbad on the right bank of the Rangoi Nala, This ancient mound spread over an area of one sq. km., rose to a height of about 10 meters due to successive settlements on the earlier rubble. The archaeological excavations have revealed a well-constructed fort town of the Harappan period overlying an extensive proto-urban settlement of the pre-Harappan culture. If the discovered ancient relics are pieced together, a fairly coherent picture emerges and it can be conjured up that if Kalibangan was a metropolitan town over the lower middle valley of the Saraswati, Banawali was possibly one over the upper middle course of that river. The civilization seems to have been conversant with the technology of copper smelting. Among personal ornaments, beads of gold, semi-precious stones, terracotta and steatite and bangles of clay, shell, faience and copper have been. recovered during the course of excavation.

Lothal: Lothal, one of the most interesting remnants of the ancient Harappan civilisation, is situated in Gujarat. The unique dockyard is perhaps the greatest of maritime architecture from the ancient world.

The citadel was obviously separated an acropolis, with its own paved baths, and a lower town more humble residential quarters, coppersmithing workshops, sheds and bead factories. The whole system exhibited an excellent of sanitary drainage. A museum was also discovered. The archaeological findings offered an insight into the Indus Valley period.

The Lower City The Indus Valley Civilisation at Lothal was a trade centre for the Indus valley civilisation when it moved down from Sindh to theSaurashtra coast. Rangpur and Lothal, were among the first two places where the Indus valley civilisation was discovered in India. While this proves that the Harrapans had maritime tendencies, depended on water sources for their survival and navigated rivers and sea water for trade and communication, none of these ancient cities became a major scientific port like Lothal.

It is believed that Lothal was the site of the Red Ware culture, named for its vivacious pottery, until 2400 BC when the Harappans arrived here from the Indus Valley in search of more fertile lands and potential ports. Gradually they colonised many areas along the Gulf of Cambay, forming citadels that include the southernmost outpost of the Indus Valley civilization, which spanned an area larger than those of the Nile Valley civilization and Mesopatamian civilization.

The Dockyard Lothal developed as the most important port and a centre of the bead industry until 1900 B.C. A long wharf connected the dockyard to the main warehouse, which was located on a plinth of some 3.5 meters above the ground. The whole town was situated on a patch of high ground, rising up from the flat alluvial plains of Bhal, a wall was erected to encircle the town and a platform was built for the warehouse where goods were checked and stored.

Surkotada: It is located 160 km., northeast of Bhuj, in Rann of Kacch. Surkotada had a citadel and a fortified residential annexe. The citadel had an imposing gateway complex. It was built over a platform. The entrance to the citadel was provided with a ramp, barbican, steps and guard rooms. "The site had a cemetery. A common 7m. thick wall with an opening, separated the citadel and the Lower Town.

Dholavira: Of all the harappan sites the site of Dholavira locally known as kotada, is in the Khadir island of Kutch. It is remarkable for its magnificent planning and enormity of area and deposit. The latest excavations at Dholavira measures about 600m. on the north-south axis and 775 m. on the east-west. Inside the general fortification, there are three distinct complexes-An Acropolis, a middle town and a lower town, the first two of them strongly fortified. The acropolis was provided with one gate at each side. Of the two gates, one each on the east and north are exposed and found furnished with a flight of steps, a sunken passageway flanked by elevated chambers, and a high front terrace-a remarkably elaborate layout. Further, use of highly polished stone-blocks and pillars along the passage-may speak of architectural achievement without parallel at any Indus site so far. In the centre of the citadel, there is an almost 13 m wide water reservoir along with a feeder channel covered with slabs and provided with manholes for occasional desilting. Besides, there are two lapidary workshops. The most outstanding discovery is the find of a large sized inscription of ten Harappan signs which may be a signboard.

Rojdi: The excavation at Rojdi, besides the discovery of imposing architecture e.g, fortification, gateway, the large square build in and houses built of stone rubble has given new insight in the evolution of Harappan Culture of Saurashtra which the excavators feel is a "newly discovered regional expression of the Harappan urban phase appears to be an addition to the settlement type and evolutionary process in Saurashtra.

Kuntasi: The Harappan site Kuntasi, seven km from the Gulf of Kutch, (District Rajkot), was basically not an agricultural settlement but appears to have been a centre for procuring raw materials and processing them into finished products primarily for exporting them to Sindh and West Asia. In Kuntasi a mound measuring 150 by 125 metres and four metres high, has been found to be a trading settlement, as the archeologists have found remains of a landing platform 30 metres long, warehouses and workshops. The

settlement was a port and a manufacturing centre. The Harappans of Kuntasi manufactured pottery, copper articles, bangles and beads made of agate and carnellian and lapis lazuli, the last of which was brought to Kuntasi as a raw material from Badakshan in Afghanistan. Large interconnected rooms for workers, a large common kitchen and workshops have led to the theory that Kuntasi was not a regular Harappan settlement but meant to house artisans who crafted the wares.

New Kings and Kingdoms

The Mauryan Empire : Although Indian accounts to a large extent ignored Alexander the Great's Indus campaign in

326 B.C., Greek writers recorded their impressions of the general conditions prevailing in South Asia during this

period. A two-way cultural fusion between several Indo-Greek elements-especially in art, architecture, and

coinage--occurred in the next several hundred years. North India's political landscape was transformed by the

emergence of Magadha in the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain.

As the overextended Hellenistic sphere declined, a king known as Chandragupta swept back through the country

from Magadha (Bihar) and conquered his way well into Afghanistan. This was the beginning of one India's greatest

dynasties, the Maurya. In 322 B.C., Magadha, under the rule of Chandragupta Maurya, began to assert its

hegemony over neighboring areas. Chandragupta, who ruled from 324 to 301 B.C., was the architect of the first

Indian imperial power-the Mauryan Empire (326-184 B.C.)--whose capital was Pataliputra, near modern-day Patna,

in Bihar.

Situated on rich alluvial soil and near mineral deposits, especially iron, Magadha was at the center of bustling

commerce and trade. The capital was a city of magnificent palaces, temples, a university, a library, gardens, and

parks, as reported by Megasthenes, the third-century B.C. Greek historian and ambassador to the Mauryan court.

Legend states that Chandragupta's success was due in large measure to his adviser Kautilya, the Brahman author

of the Arthashastra (Science of Material Gain), a textbook that outlined governmental administration and political

strategy. There was a highly centralized and hierarchical government with a large staff, which regulated tax

collection, trade and commerce, industrial arts, mining, vital statistics, welfare of foreigners, maintenance of public

places including markets and temples, and prostitutes. A large standing army and a well-developed espionage

system were maintained. The empire was divided into provinces, districts, and villages governed by a host of

centrally appointed local officials, who replicated the functions of the central administration.

Ashoka, was the most trusted son of Bindusara and grandson of Chandragupta . During his father's reign, he was

the governor of Ujjain and Taxila. Having sidelined all claims to the throne from his brothers, Ashoka was

coroneted as an emperor. He ruled from 269 to 232 B.C. and was one of India's most illustrious rulers. Under the

great king Ashoka the Mauryan empire conquered nearly the entire subcontinent, Ashoka extended the Maurya

Empire to the whole of India except the deep south and the south-east, reaching out even into Central Asia.

Ashoka's inscriptions chiseled on rocks and stone pillars located at strategic locations throughout his empire--such

as Lampaka (Laghman in modern Afghanistan), Mahastan (in modern Bangladesh), and Brahmagiri (in Karnataka)--

constitute the second set of datable historical records. According to some of the inscriptions, in the aftermath of

the carnage resulting from his campaign against the powerful kingdom of Kalinga (modern Orissa), Ashoka

renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of nonviolence or ahimsa, espousing a theory of rule by righteousness.

His toleration for different religious beliefs and languages reflected the realities of India's regional pluralism

although he personally seems to have followed Buddhism. Early Buddhist stories assert that he convened a

Buddhist council at his capital, regularly undertook tours within his realm, and sent Buddhist missionary

ambassadors to Sri Lanka. His rule marked the height of the Maurya empire, and it collapsed only 100 years after

his death.

Under his reign Buddhism spread to Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, Central Asia, Burma. For propagation of Buddhism,

he started inscribing edicts on rocks and pillars at places where people could easily read them. These pillars and

rocks are still found in India, spreading their message of love and peace for the last two thousand years. To his

ideas he gave the name Dharma. Ashoka died in 232 BC. The capital of Ashoka pillar at Sarnath is adopted by India

as its national emblem. The "Dharma Chakra" on the Ashoka Pillar adorns our National Flag.

Kushan Dynasty : After the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire in the second century B.C., South Asia became a

collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries. India's unguarded northwestern border again attracted a

series of invaders between 200 B.C. and A.D. 300. The invaders became "Indianized" in the process of their

conquest and settlement. Also, this period witnessed remarkable intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by

cultural diffusion and syncretism. The Indo-Greeks, or the Bactrians, of the northwest contributed to the

development of numismatics; they were followed by another group, the Shakas (or Scythians), from the steppes of

Central Asia, who settled in western India. Still other nomadic people, the Yuezhi, who were forced out of the Inner

Asian steppes of Mongolia, drove the Shakas out of northwestern India and established the Kushana Kingdom (first

century B.C.-third century A.D.). The Kushana Kingdom controlled parts of Afghanistan and Iran, and in India the

realm stretched from Purushapura (modern Peshawar, Pakistan) in the northwest, to Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) in

the east, and to Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) in the south. For a short period, the kingdom reached still farther east,

to Pataliputra. The Kushana Kingdom was the crucible of trade among the Indian, Persian, Chinese, and Roman

empires and controlled a critical part of the legendary Silk Road. Kanishka, who reigned for two decades starting

around A.D. 78, was the most noteworthy Kushana ruler. He converted to Buddhism and convened a great

Buddhist council in Kashmir. The Kushanas were patrons of Gandharan art, a synthesis between Greek and Indian

styles, and Sanskrit literature. They initiated a new era called Shaka in A.D. 78, and their calendar, which was

formally recognized by India for civil purposes starting on March 22, 1957, is still in use.

The Classical Age - Gupta Empire and Harsha :

Gupta age - Under Chandragupta I (320-335), empire was revived in the north. Like Chandragupta Maurya, he first

conquered Magadha, set up his capital where the Mauryan capital had stood (Patna), and from this base

consolidated a kingdom over the eastern portion of northern India. In addition, Chandragupta revived many of

Asoka's principles of government. It was his son, however, Samudragupta (335-376), and later his grandson,

Chandragupta II (376-415), who extended the kingdom into an empire over the whole of the north and the

western Deccan. Chandragupta II was the greatest of the Gupta kings and called Vikramaditya. He presided over

the greatest cultural age in India. From Pataliputra, their capital, he sought to retain political preeminence as much

by pragmatism and judicious marriage alliances as by military strength. The greatest writer of the time was

Kalidasa. Poetry in the Gupta age tended towards a few genres: religious and meditative poetry, lyric poetry,

narrative histories (the most popular of the secular literatures), and drama. Kalidasa excelled at lyric poetry, but he

is best known for his dramas. The Indian numeral system--sometimes erroneously attributed to the Arabs, who

took it from India to Europe where it replaced the Roman system--and the decimal system are Indian inventions of

this period. Aryabhatta's expositions on astronomy in 499 A.D. gave calculations of the solar year and the shape

and movement of astral bodies with remarkable accuracy. In medicine, Charaka and Sushruta wrote about a fully

evolved medical system. Indian physicians excelled in pharmacopoeia, caesarean section, bone setting, and plastic

surgery including skin grafting.

The Guptas fell prey, however, to a wave of migrations by the Huns, a people who originally lived north of China.

Beginning in the 400's, the Huns began to put pressure on the Guptas. In 480 AD they conquered the Guptas and

took over northern India. Western India was overrun by 500 A.D., and the last of the Gupta kings, presiding over a

vastly diminished kingdom, perished in 550 A.D. Over the decades Huns gradually assimilated into the indigenous

population and their state weakened.

Harsha Vardhana : The northern and western regions of India passed into the hands of a dozen or more

feudatories. Gradually, one of them, Prabhakar Vardhana, the ruler of Thanesar, who belonged to the Pushabhukti

family, extended his control over all other feudatories. Prabhakar Vardhan was the first king of the Vardhan

dynasty with his capital at Thanesar now a small town in the vicinity of Kurukshetra in the state of Haryana. After

the death of Prabahakar Vardhan in 606 A.D., his eldest son, RajyaVardhan, became king of Kananuj. Harsha

ascended the throne at the age of 16 after his brother Rajya Vardhana was killed in a battle against Malwa King

Devigupta and Gauda King Sasanka..

Harsha, quickly re-established an Indian empire. From 606-647 AD, he ruled over an empire in northern India.

Harsha was perhaps one of the greatest conquerors of Indian history, and unlike all of his conquering

predecessors, he was a brilliant administrator. He was also a great patron of culture. His capital city, Kanauj,

extended for four or five miles along the Ganges River and was filled with magnificent buildings. Only one fourth of

the taxes he collected went to administration of the government. The remainder went to charity, rewards, and

especially to culture: art, literature, music, and religion.

The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics, art, and

Sanskrit literature and drama. The religion that later developed into modern Hinduism witnessed a crystallization

of its components: major sectarian deities, image worship, bhakti (devotion), and the importance of the temple.

Education included grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. These

subjects became highly specialized and reached an advanced level.

Because of extensive trade, the culture of India became the dominant culture around the Bay of Bengal,

profoundly and deeply influencing the cultures of Burma, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka. In many ways, the period

during and following the Gupta dynasty was the period of "Greater India," a period of cultural activity in India and

surrounding countries building off of the base of Indian culture.

The history of the Kingdom of Kanauj after the death of Harshavardhana can be said to have been uncertain till the

year 730 AD, when Yashovarman is said to have ruled till 752 AD. This was followed by the Ayudha dynasty which

comprised three kings. The first was Yajrayudha who is said to have ruled in about 770 AD. After Ayudhs,

Prathihara King Nagabhatta II annexed Kannauj. North and north west part of India after Harsha Vardhana was

mostly controlled by Pratihara Kings while Central India and part of South was mostly under Rashtrakutas dynasty

(753-973 AD ). Pala Kings (750-1161 AD) ruled the Eastern part of India (present Bengal and Bihar).

Pala and Sena: 730-1197 A.D. - The Pala empire was founded in 730 AD. They ruled over parts of Bengal and

Bihar. Dharmapala (780-812 AD) was one of the greatest kings of the Pala dynasty. He did much to restore the

greatness of Pataliputra. The Nalanda university was revived under their rule. The Palas had close trade contacts

and cultural links with South-East Asia.

In the early twelfth century, they were replaced by the Sena dynasty. In early 13th century, Tughan Khan defeated

the Sena king, Laxman. After this defeat the Nalanda University was destroyed.

Pratiharas 750-920 AD - The greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Mihir Bhoja. He recovered Kanauj

(Kanyakubja) by 836, and it remained the capital of the Pratiharas for almost a century. He built the city Bhojpal

(Bhopal). Raja Bhoja and other valiant Gujara kings, faced and defeated many attacks of the Arabs from west.

Between 915-918AD, attack by a Rashtrakuta king, to the weakening of the Pratihara Empire and also who

devastated the city of Kannauj. In 1018 AD, Mahmud of Gazni sacked Kannauj then ruled by Rajyapala Pratihara.

The empire broke into independent Rajput states.

Rashtrakutas 753-973 A.D. - Dantidurga laid the foundation of Rashtrakuta empire. The Rashtrakuta's empire was

the most powerful of the time. They ruled from Lattaluru (Latur), and later shifted the capital to Manyaketa

(Malkhed).

Amoghavarsha (814-880 A.D) is the most famous Rashtrakuta kings. His long reign was distinguished for its royal

patronage of Jainism and the flourishing of regional literature. Indra III, great-grandson of Amoghvarsha defeated

the Pratihar king Mahipala. Krishana III was the last great king of Rashtrakuta dynasty. Rashtrakutas were great

patrons of art and architecture. Krishana I, built the Kailasa Temple at Ellora. The caves at Gharapuri (Elephanta

near Mumbai) were also built by this dynasty.

The South Indian Rulers

During the Kushana Dynasty, an indigenous power, the Satavahana Kingdom (first century B.C.-third century A.D),

rose in the Deccan in southern India. The Satavahana, or Andhra, Kingdom was considerably influenced by the

Mauryan political model, although power was decentralized in the hands of local chieftains, who used the symbols

of Vedic religion and upheld the varnashramadharma. The rulers, however, were eclectic and patronized Buddhist

monuments, such as those in Ellora (Maharashtra) and Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh). Thus, the Deccan served as a

bridge through which politics, trade, and religious ideas could spread from the north to the south. Further south

were three ancient Tamil kingdoms- Chera (on the west), Chola (on the east), and Pandya (in the south)--frequently

involved in internecine warfare to gain regional supremacy. They are mentioned in Greek and Ashokan sources as

lying at the fringes of the Mauryan Empire.

Peninsular India was involved in an eighth-century tripartite power struggle among the Chalukyas (556-757) of

Vatapi, the Pallavas (300-888) of Kanchipuram, and the Pandyas (seventh through the tenth centuries) of Madurai.

Their subordinates, the Rashtrakutas, who ruled from 753 - 973 AD, overthrew the Chalukya rulers. Although both

the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava

and Chalukya realms.

The Satvahana Dynasty : The Satvahanas (also known as Andhras) established their kingdom in the Deccan after

the decline of Maurya Empire. The kingdom was in the present Maharashtra state. The founder of the Satvahana

dynasty was Simuka in 40 B.C. Satakarni I was the most distinguished ruler of this dynasty. Satakarni I allied with

powerful Marathi chieftain and signaled his accession to power by performing ashvamedhas (horse-sacrifice). After

his death, the Satvahana power slowly disintegrated under a wave of Scythian invasion. The Satvahana dynasty

lasted until the 3rd century AD.

Pallava dynasty: They established a capital at Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu state) and came to hold sway in the south.

They were defeated by the Guptas in about 360 AD but continued to rule until the Cholas finally conquered their

lands. They ruled from the 4th century to the 9th century although some remnants survived till 13th century. The

dynasty was at its peak under Mahendra-Varman I (600-630 AD), when architecture flourished, notably in temples

such as Mahabalipuram. During the 7th and the 8th centuries, this dynasty ruled over a region extending from

center of Andhra Pradesh far to the Kaveri River; Later, in the 9th century, the Pallava themselves were definitely

conquered by the Chola from Tanjore and became their vassals.

Pandya (around 200s B.C to 1378 AD): They were the longest ruling dynasty of Indian history. They ruled the

southern most part of India and the capital of the Pandya kings was Madurai (Tamil Nadu). First Indian Ambassador

from Pandya Dynasty is sent to Rome. (26 BC). The dynasty extended its power into Kerala (southwestern India)

and Sri Lanka during the reigns of kings Kadungon (ruled 590- 620 A.D), Arikesar Maravarman (670-700 A.D),

Varagunamaharaja I (765-815A.D), and Srimara Srivallabha (815-862 A.D). Pandya influence peaked in Jatavarman

Sundara's reign 1251-1268 A.D. After forces from the Delhi sultanate invaded Madurai in 1311, the Pandyas

declined into merely local rulers.

Chalukya Dynasty 425 - 753 AD and 973 - 1190 AD: After Satvahan, the next great empire in the Deccan was the

Chalukya empire. Pulakesin I, first ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. Pulakesin II was the greatest ruler of the Chalukya

dynasty. He consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts of the Deccan. His greatest

achievement was his victory against Harshvardhan in 620. However, Pulakesin II was defeated and killed by the

Pallava king Narasimhavarman in 642. His capital Vatapi was completely destroyed. His son Vikramaditya was also

as great a ruler. He renewed the struggle against Pallavas and recovered the former glory of the Chalukyas. In

753A.D, his great grandson Vikramaditya II was overthrown by a chief named Dantidurga. Chalukyas constructed

many temples at Aihole. Some Ajantha caves were also built during this period.

During Rashtrakutas rule, the Chalukyas were a minor power. For 200 years, they survived the Rashtrakutas. In 973

AD Tailap Chalukya of the Kalyani branch gained power and restored the Chalukyan rule. They gained supremacy

for about 200 years to be partitioned into: Yadavs of Deogiri, Kaktiyas of Warangal and Hoysalas of Belur.

Yadavas of Devagiri : Yadavas extended their authority over a large territory. Their capital was situated at

Chandor (Nasik district). They built the Deogiri fort in 11th century. Marathi language received the status of a court

language in Yadava rule. The Yadava king Singhana was great patron of learning Sant Dnyaneshwar belonged to

this age. In 1294, Alla-ud-din Khilji laid four sieges to Deogiri. Finally, the Yadavas were defeated and the strong

fort of Deogiri fell into the hands of Muslim rulers. The riches of Deogiri were looted. By 1310 the Yadav rule came

to an end.

Kakatiyas of Warangal :

Telgu language and literature flourished under Kakatiyas. They also built many forts . The last king Prataprudra

defeated Allaudin Khilji when he was first attacked in 1303. In 1310, after another war, he agreed to pay heavy

tributes to Malik Kafur (Alladin's general.) In 1321 Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq marched with a large army, and took

Prataprudra as a prisoner to Delhi. Prataprudra died on the way to Delhi.

Hoysalas of Belur-Halebid : King Sala was the founder of Hoysala dynasty. Hoysalas built as many as 1500 temples.

The style of their architecture became famous as the Hoysala style. Most famous are the temples of Belur and

Halebid with intricate carvings. Allaudin Khilji, defeated this kingdom between 1308-1312.