THE EXTRA-MUSICAL ASSOCIATIONS OF THE FLUTE

AND THEIR ORIGINS

Allison Q. Kessinger

Research in Music 401

October 24, 2012

1

Introduction

The flute is the world’s oldest musical instrument, dating as far back as 53,000 years

ago.1 The oldest found specimens are made of bird bone, cave bear bone, and mammoth ivory,

and were fully developed musical instruments, indicative of an advanced musical tradition.2

Throughout history, the flute has been a major part of the ceremonies and recreation of nearly

every culture. They play an integral role in ritual, courtship, entertainment, dancing, signaling,

and communication.3 It was only natural that, over time, certain associations would form

between the flute and the legends and doctrines of the cultures that it was a part of. These

associations, which relate to objects in the natural world, personalities, and ideas, came into

being as a result of observations of the forces of nature interacting with natural objects.

Associations Relating to the Forces of Nature

It is believed that the earliest flutes were made because ancient peoples were inspired by

wind blowing through reeds to produce whistling.4 In many ancient cultures, wind (and, by

association, breath) was regarded as the source of every being’s life-force. In Hindu culture, for

example, every function in the body was referred to as a different kind of “wind.”5 As a result,

the flute is often seen as the ultimate symbol of life because it, like everything that has life, must

1. Dennis Slifer, Kokopelli: the Magic, Mirth, and Mischief of an Ancient Symbol (Salt Lake

City: Gibbs Smith, Publisher, 2007), 15.

2. Nicholas J. Conard and Maria Malina, “New Evidence for the Origins of Music from Caves of

the Swabian Jura,” in Challenges and Objectives in Music Archaeology (Rahden/Westfalen: M.

Leidolf, 2008), 14-16.

3. Slifer, 15.

4. Brian D. Lee, program notes to “The Mythical, Mystical Flute,” Unitarian Universalist Church

of Rockville, Rockville, MD, May 15, 2011.

5. Jeffery Ruff, interview by the author, Huntington, WV, October 10, 2012.

2

have wind or breath to function.6 It has even been prominently featured in the creation myths of

many ancient cultures. Native American mythology says that “the first people came up through a

great hollow reed, aided by cicada and wind. Moreover, the reed of emergence is a great flute,

whose music is the breath-wind of the ancestors.”7

The flute came to be an important part of spiritual activities that incorporate breathing

exercises, such as meditation. Beginning in the thirteenth century, the Shakuhachi flute of Japan

was used by some Buddhist sects as a part of their practice of “blowing mediation,” called

suizen. (This meditation practice later came to be the basis for the performance practice of the

Shakuhachi flute.) 8 In Native American culture, the utilization of breath by a flute player is

indicative of his personal character. Native American flutist Robert Mirabal asserts that breath

“indicates the honesty of the player. Choppiness of breath indicates lies. Breath honors

creation.”9 These ideals have been passed down to modern players of both traditional and

modern flutes, who still sense the spiritual nature of flute playing. Brian D. Lee notes that “there

is something primal and mysterious about an instrument that can turn wind directly into musical

tone without any visible, tangible parts vibrating together like lips or reeds or a hammer on a

string.”10

With such an important relationship to wind, it is not surprising that the creatures who

live in the sky and fly with the wind should come to be associated with the flute. Even without

6. Ibid.

7. Slifer, 23.

8. Akiko Shimada, “Cross-Cultural Music: Japanese Flutes and their Influence on Western Flute

Music,” The Flutist Quarterly (Winter 2009): 27.

9. Iris Brooks, “Native American Flutists: Sacred Spirits, Tribal Winds,” Rhythm 6 (1997): 33.

10. Brian D. Lee, email message to the author, September 13, 2012.

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any symbolic imagery, the parallels are obvious – the pitch, range, and tone of the flute are all

similar to that of most birds, particularly the lark and the nightingale.11 The ease with which a

flute can execute technique also lends itself to rapid, “flighty” passagework that either imitates

birdsong or evokes the image of a bird in flight. The flute is often called upon to play “chirping

acciaccaturas,” “warbling trills,” “simple repeated-note rhythmic figures,” and “soaring

melodies.”12

When the anatomy and physiology of a bird is examined, the parallels become even more

defined. The vocal organs of birds do not vibrate together to produce sound, like those of most

animals, including humans. Instead, sound is produced when air from the bird’s lungs flows

through the syrinx (located at the base of the trachea), in effect creating the same phenomenon

that occurs when air is blown through a flute.13 Birds whistle, just as the flute whistles.

Symbolically, the flute’s association with birds goes much deeper. The bird’s link with

the sky, and by association with rain and fertility, provides common ground because of the

flute’s associations with the same concepts.14 Bird imagery was often used in conjunction with

prayers and supplications to the gods, “perhaps in part because birds can fly and carry one’s

prayers into the sky, whence rain and clouds originate and where supernatural powers who

11. John Hinch, “Musical Flights of Fancy,” Pan 23, no. 2 (June 2004): 33.

12. Ibid., 37.

13. J. K. Terres, The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds (New York:

Knopf, 1980).

14. Slifer, 113.

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control these things reside.”15 Frank Waters, a storyteller of the Hopi people, voices this myth

quite beautifully from the Eagle’s point of view:

You may use my feather any time you want to talk to our Father Sun, the Creator, and I

will deliever your message because I am the conqueror of air and the master of height. I

am the only one who has the power of space above, for I represent the loftiness of the

spirit and can deliver your prayers to the creator.16

The “loftiness of the spirit” mentioned in Waters’ tale became interwoven in the shamanism of

the Hopi, embodying the magical concept of “soul-flight.”17

The tradition of linking birds with the flute in European art music can be traced back to

the ancient Greek play The Birds by Aristophanes, where a nightingale is depicted by the flute.18

The nightingale in particular has always been closely associated with the romantic notion of

love19, hence linking the flute to that same notion. This idea of the nightingale representing love

was even utilized by Shakespeare in Romeo and Juliet,20 and was taken up again more than a

century later by Vivaldi, Handel, and Mozart in their operas.21 Albert Roussel depicted this idea

beautifully in his musical setting for flute and voice, Deux Poèmes de Ronsard, Op. 26, which

“[represents] the nightingale singing songs of love, and [represents] the connection to elements

15. Ibid.

16. John J. White, “Interpretation of Rock Art Figure ,Kokopelli’: A Connection with the EMSL

Sun God,” Migration and Diffusion 24 (2005): 48-49.

17. Slifer, 103.

18. Hinch, 35.

19. Ibid., 34.

20. William Shakespeare, “Romeo and Juliet,” in The Riverside Shakespeare, edited by G.

Blakemore Evans (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1974), 1081.

21. Hinch, 35.

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of nature.”22 The first movement, Rossignol, features jagged rhythms and rapid flourishes of

notes that evoke the idea of the nightingale’s song.23 Other pieces for this same instrumentation

and with the same theme predate Rossignol by a considerable period of time, going as far back as

the early eighteenth century.24

Just as natural, although perhaps not quite so obvious, is the flute’s association with water

and agriculture. If considered from a Native American perspective, the concept of this link can

be thought of as parallel to the water cycle itself. Rain falls from the sky because of the

supplications of the flute-playing shamans, who send their prayers to the gods via the eagles. The

rain nourishes the rivers, in which grow the reeds that are used to make the flutes.

It seems that all nature-related associations of the flute lead back to the themes of

fertility, moisture, and warmth, which all have water at their core.25 Many ancient cultures,

particularly those of Mesoamerica, related music itself to rain and water; the two were

inseparably intertwined through the concept of both being a sort of magic.26 The flute player that

is depicted in the wide-scattered rock art of the Southwestern United States of America has

“been interpreted as a rain priest who calls the clouds with his flute. The flute societies at Hopi

play the flute over springs to bring rain.”27 This obsession with every aspect of agriculture is

22. Lee, 2011.

23. Wendell B. Dobbs, “Roussel: the Flute and Extramusical Reference,” The Flutist Quarterly

22 (Winter 1996), 52.

24. Ibid.

25. Slifer, 31.

26. Ibid., 11.

27. Ibid., 26.

6

directly correlated with every culture’s obsession with its own preservation – without successful

crops, there is no successful, long-lived culture.28

Associations Relating to Specific Personalities

When one thinks of personages associated with the flute, the first that comes to mind

will, in all likelihood, be Pan, the ancient Greek god of herding, nature, the wilderness, and rustic

music. He was a satyr, having the legs, hindquarters, and horns of a goat with the torso, head,

and arms of a man (see Fig. 1). Pan was something of a lady’s-satyr, and would often chase the

wood nymphs in an effort to charm and ultimately seduce them. There was one nymph in

particular that he was enamored with, named Syrinx. Despite Pan’s many advances, Syrinx

wanted nothing to do with him. When at last it looked like Pan had her trapped, she begged her

sisters, the water spirits, to turn her into a reed so that she might be concealed from him.29 Ovid,

in his epic narrative poem Metamorphoses, describes Pan’s reaction to this turn of events:

And so, when Pan had caught her

And thought he held a nymph, it was only reeds

That yielded in his arms, and while he sighed

The soft air stirring in the reeds made also

The echo of a sigh. Touched by this marvel,

Charmed by the sweetness of the tine, he murmured

This much I have! And took the reeds, and bound them

With wax, a tall and shorter one together,

And called them Syrinx, still.30

28. Ibid., 83.

29. Lee, 2011.

30. Ovid, Metamorphoses (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1955), 24-25.

7

Figure 1: Heliodorus of Rhodes, Pan, circa. 2 AD. Marble, 1.58m high. Musée du Louvre, Paris,

France.

This story serves as a kind of unifier for all of the concepts that the flute is usually

associated with. The connection to water is there with Syrinx’s transformation into a reed, as

well as the connection to wind and breath, which inspired Pan to make the flute. This association

became so permeated into our culture that the vocal organs of birds are referred to as the

“syrinx” even now.31 It has been argued that Pan’s breath was the source of her true

transformation; it would seem, at first glance, that cutting down the reeds would have killed

Syrinx, but when the poet’s words are examined it becomes clear that he speaks not of a literal

31. Lee, 2011.

8

death, but of a transfiguration.32 This is the same sort of transfiguration that Wagner alluded to in

his opera, Tristan und Isolde – it is a union that can only be ultimately fulfilled by death.33 This

allegory ties the two concepts of death and sexual climax, two distinct ideas that are often

associated with the flute independently, together (something that has been done throughout the

history of Western art music).

There is another Greek flute-playing satyr who is not nearly as well known as Pan, named

Marsyas. He was particularly masterful of the aulos, a two-piped flute with a sound rather like

that of the modern bagpipes, that Athena was said to have cast away. Marsyas challenged Apollo

to a duel of aulos verses lyre, with the condition that the winner could treat the loser in any

fashion he wished (see Fig. 2). The muses, acting as judges, declared Apollo the winner. In

consequence, Marsyas was flayed alive as an example to those foolish enough to challenge the

gods.34 Although some versions of the tale make Marsyas out to be an arrogant, self-important

fool, there are some more sympathetic versions that portray him as a hero who died for the cause

of music.35 The story is also an example of Wagner’s ideas of death being the perfect unifier.

32. Laurel Astrid Ewell, “A Symbolist Melodrama: The Confluence of Poem and Music in

Debussy’s La Flute de Pan” (DMA diss., West Virginia University, 2004), 16.

33. Ibid.

34. Anna Rebecca Monsma, “Hubris, Narcissism, and the Flute: Bariller’s Le Martyre de

Marsyas and Musgrave’s Narcissus” (master’s thesis, California State University, 2012), 5.

35. Ibid., 12.

9

Figure 2: The Pothos Painter, Marsyas Challenges Apollo to a Musical Contest, date unknown.

Red-figure pottery. Musée du Louvre, Paris, France.

On the other side of the world from ancient Greece, a wholly different sort of culture was

thriving. These were a predominantly desert people, whose survival was almost entirely centered

on their ability to provide themselves with food and water sources (hunting and gathering being

largely unprofitable in such climates).

Much of the rock art of the ancient Native American tribes, scattered throughout the

southwestern United States of America, depicts a flute player in various forms and situations. He

is usually portrayed as phallic and humpbacked, and sometimes has either insect-like antennae or

wears a feathered headdress (see Fig. 3). The exact origin of the humpbacked flute player is

uncertain. The prevailing theory is that the tradition of depicting him as being humpbacked came

from traveling merchants hailing from Mexico and South America, carrying their goods in sacks

on their shoulders.36 He is “probably a complex merging of various myths, deities, personalities,

36. Slifer, 23.

10

and traits that evolved over a period of at least a thousand years.”37 He came to be referred to as

“Kokopelli,” the name of a Hopi katsina or spirit who was known for several of the same

characteristics, although “the real Kokopelli” never plays a flute.38

Figure 3: Early Ancestral Pueblo rock art, Monument Valley, Utah.

Kokopelli was an integral part of the sun-worshiping religion that the tribes of the

Southwest inherited from their ancestors, giving it their own personal touches over time.39

37. Ibid., 3.

38. Ibid.

39. White, 46.

11

Artifacts found in this region suggest at least a 2,000-year history of flute making and flute

playing being an important part of the lives of the Native Americans.40 Kokopelli has many

different personas – he is known as a symbol of fertility, an itinerant musician, a trader and

merchant, a rain priest, a shaman, a hunting magician, a trickster, and a seducer of maidens.41 He

is most commonly considered to be conjurer of or messenger to the gods, a task that is always

the responsibility of the human priests.42 It is clear that he is always related to creatures of both

the natural and supernatural worlds simultaneously.43

Kokopelli is most closely associated with fertility, regarding both agriculture and human

fertility. “According to some people at Hopi, he is concerned with increase and fertility among

the people, animals, and plants. In his role as a god of human fertility, he heard the prayers of

Hopi women desiring a child.”44 Because of the strong link to human fertility, Kokopelli is often

depicted as phallic, and has been depicted in a few examples in sexual intercourse with a young

female. In time he came to be regarded as a sort of promiscuous troublemaker.45 This side of

Kokopelli is displayed in the traditional dances of the Hopi and Zuni tribes in particular, where

the dancers would either be nude or sporting exaggerated false genitals made from gourds.46 It is

estimated that 50% of Kokopelli rock art images are not portraying any kind of sacred activity.47

40. Slifer, 12.

41. Ibid., 4.

42. White, 50.

43. Slifer, 27.

44. Ibid., 38.

45. Ibid., 40.

46. Ibid.

12

Asian cultures have many of the same physical and ideological associations with flute

playing, but with their own sets of legends, personalities, and deities. In Hindu mythology, the

god Krishna is always portrayed as holding a flute. Krishna is the god of “play,” but is also an

avatar of the supreme god, Vishnu. Like Pan, he is also associated with shepherding and is

beloved by woman, although is he actually androgynous (see Fig. 4). Hindu mythology centers

around the idea that the universe is a sort of play of the gods – it is a comical, strange place that

is meant to be entertaining and light-hearted.48 As previously stated, music is directly linked to

life in Hindu culture; the flute is again the instrument of choice because of its direct associations

with wind and water, the two things absolutely vital for the sustaining of life.49

Figure 4: Artist unkown: Krishna, 14th century AD. Fresco, interior wall of City Palace, Udaipur.

47. White, 51.

48. Jeffery Ruff, interview by author, Huntington, WV, October 10, 2012.

49. Ibid.

13

In Japan, there is a popular legend known as “The Ghost Story of the Flute’s Tomb” that

tells of a blind flute player, named Yoichi, who was killed by his wife, Asayo, and her lover,

Tamataro. He appears as a spirit to his good friend, Okuda Ichibei, who travels to see the Asayo

and Tamataro, now married (see Fig. 5). They spin a web of lies to him, and he wonders how he

should go about exposing them for the liars that they are. At exactly midnight on the night of his

arrival, a windstorm suddenly blows into the house, and in the midst of the wind the sounds of

Yoichi’s flute can be heard. When the sound reaches its crescendo, the apparition of Yoichi

appears to them. It so terrifies Asayo and Tamataro that they are paralyzed with fear. When

Tamataro throws a lamp at the apparition, the house goes up in flames. Okuda Ichibei makes his

escape, but Asayo and Tamataro are consumed in the flames. When all is over, Okuda Ichibei

has all of the ashes, along with the flute of the blind man who is now at peace, placed in a tomb.

On the site of the burned house, he erects a monument, sacred to the memory of Yoichi.50

This story embodies the belief in Japanese culture that the music of flutes can exercise

the spirits of the dead,51 a belief that mostly likely originated in the same way as the Native

American concept of “soul-flight” by linking life-giving breath with the breath utilized to

produce sound on the flute. There are sacred masked dances still performed in the more tradition-

grounded villages of Japan, such as the jaqui ikatú, where the sacred jaqui flutes are played to

“invite the various spirits to enter their village from the surrounding forests and streams.”52 The

beliefs of flute music reaching the spirits of the dead can even be seen in Japanese-inspired

50. Richard Gordon Smith, Ancient Tales and Folklore of Japan (Fort Worth: Hotho and Co.,

1986), 27-35.

51. Jonathan Hill, “Kamayurai Flute Music: a Study of Music as Meta-Communication,”

Ethnomusicology 23, no. 3 (September 1979): 419.

52. Ibid., 418.

14

Western art music. Composer Kazuo Fukushima wrote his Mei for solo flute in tribute to the life

of Dr. Wolfgang Steinecke. In the summer of 1962, shortly after the piece’s premier, the piece

was performed at Steineck’s grave “as an offering to the profound repose of his soul” because

the composer believes that if listeners and performers together pray for it while Mei is played, his

soul will find peace.53

Figure 5: Richard Gordon Smith, The Ghost of Yoichi Appears to His Friend Ichibei and Asks for

Revenge, 1918.

Associations Relating to Ideas and Concepts

The most prevalent conceptual association of the flute is fertility in agriculture, because

of the symbolic linking of breath and wind.54 Wind brought the clouds, which produced the all-

important (and, in some climates, fairly scarce) rain that is so vital to successful crops.55 This

need for plentiful crops (which, as previously explained, was directly connected in their minds to

53. Mihoko Watanabe, “The Essence of Mei,” The Flutist Quarterly (Spring 2008): 20.

54. Slifer, 10.

55. Ibid.

15

the preservation of their people) permeated every aspect of their culture. Even seemingly

mundane activities like corn-grinding were accompanied by flute playing and prayers for warm

weather.56 Echoes of such beliefs can still be seen in the shepherding peoples of Norway, where

small flutes made of bark have been formulated and played with by young children for time out

of memory.57 The idea of transfiguration also comes into play here; speaking of the folk

melodies that are sometimes sung during the process of flute-making, Ola Ledang observes that

“Not only the verbal content of the most jingles, but even more the way they are used, evidence

their basic nature as conjuration, applied to augment the transforming experience of bark-flute

making.”58 The transformation of water and sunlight into a reliable food source is a phenomenon

that is revered as a kind of magic in every ancient culture.59

The concepts of fertility in an agricultural sense and fertility in a human sense cannot be

separated. Again, breath is at the core of this connection. The same wind that brings rain-giving

clouds was “connected with the idea of the breath-spirit, which was instilled in a person at birth

and leaves at death … Because breath symbolized life and a spiritual medium, a strong link

developed between flute playing and notions about fertility and creation.”60

56. Ibid., 13.

57. Ola Kai Ledang, “Magic, Means, and Meaning: an Insider’s View of Bark Flutes in

Norway,” Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology 8 (January 1990), 114.

58. Ibid., 121.

59. Slifer, 93.

60. Ibid., 11.

16

It stands to reason that if the flute has such strong associations with fertility, it would also

be a symbol of the act that brings about creation. The flute has long been a strong phallic symbol.

The first and most obvious reason lies in its shape.61 It is believed that certain phallic depictions

of the Native American flute player were “created as a joyous celebration of life, love, and

pleasure. Others served symbolic religious and ritual purposes to ensure the continuity of all life,

since the complementary principles of male and female are the obvious partners of creation …

Themes of sexual potency, eroticism, copulation, pregnancy, and birth abound in the rock art

record.”62 The flute playing persona is unquestionably the most potent and recognizable symbol

of fertility among the world’s mythic and supernatural figures.63

As previously discussed, death and sexual intercourse share a close, personal relationship.

Some philosophies demand that “the human longing for a perfect sexual union is unfulfilled

within a mortal existence because once completed desire always returns. A perfect and perpetual

sexual union may only be obtained in death.”64 The key to this connection again lies in

transformation – just as the flute “magically” transforms air into sound, sexual union

(symbolically) transforms two beings into one, while death transforms a being of flesh into

spirit.65 Flute music has been used by many cultures to open portals to the spirit world (whither

our souls fly after death) because the trances that shamans enter into to gain temporary access to

61. Jeffery Ruff, interview by author, Huntington, WV, October 10, 2012.

62. Slifer, 83.

63. Ibid., 81.

64. Ewell, 10.

65. Ibid., 8.

17

the spirit world often begin with aural hallucinations of rings, whirring, and buzzing.66 It

represents but a small taste of the “eternal union in measureless space, without barriers, without

fetters, inseperable.”67

Madness is, in all likelihood, the conceptual association that is the least easy to connect

with the flute. But when the aforementioned associations of nature and sexual climax are

reflected on, the connections begin to become apparent. The primal, animal-like instincts that

humans still possess and that can be triggered by dangerous situations, as well as the feelings

induced by sexual climax, verge on a sort of temporary madness that one can utilize (and enjoy),

but afterwards safely put away again. Ancient Greeks associated the flute with wildness,

madness, and ecstasy because of the nature of the gods Pan and Marsyas – three topics that have

very fine lines of separation.68 Aristotle claimed that the flute was unsuitable for education

because it is “not formative of moral character” (lack of moral character is often considered to be

the predecessor and catalyst of madness), and that this was Athena’s reason for rejecting the

aulos that was later picked up by Marsyas.69 The flute is regarded in this context as representing

the untamed wildness of human nature.

66. Slifer, 13-15.

67. Ewell, 17.

68. Charles Segal, “The Gorgon and the Nightingale: the Voice of Female Lament and Pindar’s

Twelfth Pythion Ode,” in Embodied Voices: Representing Female Vocality in Western Culture,

ed. Leslie C. Dunn and Nancy Jones (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 31.

69. Ibid.

18

Conclusion

The flute’s way of imitating the mysterious forces of nature has made it stir something in

humans since the dawn of man’s history. As the world’s oldest musical instrument, it has been an

important part of the beliefs, ceremonies, and musical life of every culture, both ancient and

modern. The way that the flute represents nature lends itself to be representational of life as a

whole, and all of the many experiences that it contains. It is a phenomenon that is firmly stamped

in our memory and that is alive and well in today’s music and traditions.

19

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brian D. Lee, email message to the author, September 13, 2012.

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Conrad, Nicholas J. and Maria Malina. “New Evidence for the Origins of Music from Caves of

the Swabian Jura.” In Challenges and Objectives in Music Archaeology, 13-22.

Rahden/Westfalen: M. Leidorf, 2008.

Cornsweet, Amy. “Handel’s Use of Flute and Recorder in Opera and Oratorio.” DMA diss.,

University of Arizona, 1990.

Dobbs, Wendell B. “Roussel: the Flute and Extramusical Refference.” The Flutist Quarterly 22

(Winter 1996): 50-57.

Ewell, Laurel Astrid. “A Symbolist Melodrama: The Confluence of Poem and Music in

Debussy’s La Flute de Pan.” DMA diss., West Virginia University, 2004.

Hill, Jonathan. “Kamayurai Flute Music: A Study of Music as Meta-Communication.”

Ethnomusicolgy: Journal of the Society for Ethnomusicology 23, no. 3 (September 1979):

417-432.

Hinch, John. “Musical Flights of Fancy.” Pan 23, no. 2 (June 2004): 32-38.

Jeffery Ruff, interview by author, Huntington, WV, October 10, 2012.

Katherine Hoover, email message to the author, September 19, 2012.

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Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology 8 (January 1990): 104-124.

Lee, Brian D. Program notes to “The Mythical, Mystical Flute,” Unitarian Universalist Church

of Rockville, Rockville, MD, May 15, 2011.

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and Musgrave’s Narcissus.” Master’s thesis, California State University, 2012.

Ovid. Metamorphoses. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1955.

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Twelfth Pythion Ode.” In Embodied Voices: Representing Female Vocality in Western

Culture, edited by Leslie C. Dunn and Nancy Jones, 17-34. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1994.

20

Shakespeare, William. “Romeo and Juliet.” In The Riverside Shakespeare, edited by G.

Blakemore Evans, 1055-1100. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1974.

Shimada, Akiko. “Cross-Cultural Music: Japanese Flutes and Their Influence on Western Flute

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God.” Migration and Diffusion 24 (2005): 41-54.