The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying … · on impulsive buying is represented by the interaction of dispositional factors (i.e. impulsive personality trait) and situational

THE IMPACT OF POSITIVE

URGENCY ON IMPULSIVE

BUYING BEHAVIOUR A potential predictor of impulsive purchases

for fashion products

Master Thesis Exposé

Felicia Berto

European Master in Business Studies

The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour

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ABSTRACT

Title: The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour: a potential predictor of

impulsive purchases for fashion products.

Keywords: Impulsive buying behaviour; positive urgency; impulsivity; impulsive buying

precursors; urge to buy; impulsive buying tendency.

Background: Impulsive buys account for a significant amount of purchases, and fashion

merchandise proved to be one of the main items subject to this behaviour. The greatest impact

on impulsive buying is represented by the interaction of dispositional factors (i.e. impulsive

personality trait) and situational factors. Regarding impulsivity, this is a multifaceted construct,

originally based on a four-factor model: urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance,

sensation seeking (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001). From among these facets, only urgency,

correlated to negative mood, is a predictor of impulsive buying. In 2007, Cyders and

colleagues included a fifth dimension, called positive urgency: this trait proved not to overlap

with elements of behavioural activation system (Gray, 1987), nor with the four facets of

impulsivity defined by Whiteside and Lynam (2001). Moreover, positive urgency is a valid

predictor of risky behaviours and positive mood-based rash actions. However, the impact of

positive urgency has not been studied yet in the field of impulsive shopping.

Purpose: Therefore, the aim of the research is to study the relationship between impulsive

buying and the positive urgency trait, possibly activated by a strong positive mood caused by

external triggers. The goal of the research is to prove the influence of this specific impulsivity

trait on IBT, filling the gap of the theoretical framework related to antecedents of impulsive

buying on the one hand, and providing store managers with advices and suggestions on the

other. In particular, managerial implications may include how to induce the customer to feel

the urge to buy and increase the likelihood of impulsive purchases.

Research question: The impact of the impulsivity trait called “positive urgency” on impulsive

shopping behavior: is it a potential predictor?

Methodology: Respondents have to fill in an online questionnaire, spread via email or on

social networks and based on Lykert-style scales assessing shopping habits, impulsivity traits,

reaction to stimuli, and tendency to adopt an impulsive buying behaviour. Subsequently, the

data collected will be used to create a multiple linear regression model explaining the

phenomenon of impulsive buying in relationship with certain factors regarded as antecedents,

with a focus on positive urgency. A qualitative analysis of the results will follow, in order to

prove the role played by the positive urgency trait as a predictor of impulsive buying.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ 2

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... 4

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... 4

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. 4

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 5

1. Background ................................................................................................................ 5

2. Problem statement ..................................................................................................... 5

3. Purpose ...................................................................................................................... 6

4. Structure ..................................................................................................................... 6

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................ 7

1. Impulsive buying behaviour ........................................................................................ 7

i. Definition of impulsive buying .................................................................................. 7

ii. The separation between feeling the urge and engaging in an impulsive purchase .. 9

iii. Motivations behind impulsive shopping ............................................................. 11

2. Impulsivity ................................................................................................................ 11

i. Dimensions of the impulsivity trait ......................................................................... 11

ii. Scales and measures of impulsivity ...................................................................... 13

iii. The introduction of a fifth facet: positive urgency ............................................... 15

3. Precursors of impulsive buying ................................................................................. 17

i. Dispositional variables .......................................................................................... 17

ii. Situational variables .............................................................................................. 18

iii. Sociodemographic variables .............................................................................. 20

RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESES ................................................................... 25

METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................ 27

1. Sample and data collection....................................................................................... 27

2. Research instrument ................................................................................................ 27


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3. Variables definition and corresponding scales of measurement ............................... 28

4. Data analysis method ............................................................................................... 31

PLAN OF WORK ................................................................................................................ 32

OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS ...................................................................................... 33

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 34


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CI: consumption impulse

CIFE: consumption impulse formation and enactment

IBT: impulsive buying tendency

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. The CIFE framework.

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. UPPS impulsive behaviour scale.

Table 2. Items for measuring Positive Urgency.

Table 3. Items for assessing IBT.

Table 4. Purchasing pleasure scale.

Table 5. Measurement of neuroticism trait.


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INTRODUCTION

1. Background

Nowadays, unplanned purchases form part of everyone’s daily life: many consumers report

they frequently buy items on impulse, due to triggers that facilitate spontaneous shopping, like

the diffusion of 24-hour retailing stores, credit cards use, e-commerce, home shopping

networks, etc. (Gardner & Rook, 1993; Rook, 1987). Specifically, impulse purchases can

account for up to 60%, and many shopping decisions are made once in store, without previous

buying intentions (Amos, Holmes, & Keneson, 2014). As argued by Rook (1987), situational

stimuli normally trigger automatic responses that lead the individual to act on impulse, with

any or little premeditation nor consideration on the consequences of this behaviour in the short

and long term. This reaction is driven by a specific feeling, regarded as the urge to buy

impulsively, that the consumer experience as irresistible, persistent and powerful (Amos et al.,

2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Rook, 1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995). Although

situational factors have a relevant impact on this urgency feeling, contributing to the creation

of a consumption impulse, the likelihood of an impulsive buying behaviour increases when

these variables interact with dispositional elements characterising the individual (Amos et al.,

2014). In fact, personality demonstrated to play a role in the natural disposition of enacting

behaviours driven by stimuli and impulses (Shahjehan, 2012; Thompson & Prendergast, 2015;

Verplanken & Herabadi, 2001). The main influence is brought by impulsivity, a particular

personality trait for which people tend to follow their impulses and take rash-actions as a

response to certain provoking elements (Amos et al., 2014; Evenden, 1999; Eysenck,

Pearson, Easting, & Allsopp, 1985). Specifically, the impulsivity dimension called “urgency”

proved to be significantly related to impulsive and compulsive buying, explaining the consumer

tendency to surrender to strong negative emotions with automatic responses (Billieux, Rochat,

Rebetez, & Van der Linden, 2008; Whiteside & Lynam, 2001; Whiteside, Lynam, Miller, &

Reynolds, 2005). However, individuals can react on impulse also after experiencing strong

positive emotions, and as a result, a specific dimension called “positive urgency” was

developed (Cyders, Smith, Spillane, Fischer, Annus, Peterson, 2007; Cyders & Smith, 2007).

This trait presents a strong impact on mood-based rash actions, although the current state of

research has not investigated its influence on impulsive buying in particular.

2. Problem statement

Due to its significant relationship with mood-driven rash actions, the positive urgency trait has

the potentiality to predict impulsive buying behaviour, by inducing the consumer to feel a

powerful urge to buy and subsequently to purchase an item on impulse in order to react to an

emotionally charged shopping experience. In fact, consumers characterized by this specific


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personality trait, are expected to be triggered by external stimuli, which provide a sense of

arousal or immediate gratification, consequently causing the urge to buy. Pleasure feelings

and a positive affective state may have the function of activating the latent positive urgency

trait in the individual, who is unable to resist to the temptation and eventually react to these

stimuli with an automatic and spontaneous response, consisting in an impulsive purchase.

This hypothesis is supported by the fact that, on the one hand, negative urgency – regarded

as the reverse impulsivity facet of positive urgency – showed a strong relationship with

impulsive buying (Billieux et al., 2008). On the other hand, several studies analysed and

compared the impact of positive and negative emotions on consumer behaviour and mood-

based actions, and key findings argued that positive affective state has a stronger influence

on the urge to buy (Gardner & Rook, 1993).

3. Purpose

Building on previous research and the abovementioned problem statement, the purpose of

this study is to investigate the linkage between the impulsivity facet of positive urgency, which

will be further described in the chapter dedicated to the literature review, and impulsive buying

behaviour, as applied towards fashion products. Specifically, the aim is to contribute to the

current theoretical framework with a model that provides a comprehensive description of

impulsive buying with its main antecedents. Moreover, since this personality trait is activated

when the individual experiences strong positive emotions, this research addresses the most

relevant elements causing positive mood in the consumer (i.e., money availability, time

pressure and marketing stimuli).

Apart from its theoretical implications, the outcome of the study can be exploited by store

managers, in order to influence the consumer’s affective state through specific features of the

retail environment, that can increase the likelihood of perceiving the urge to buy on impulse.

4. Structure

In order to introduce the topic in depth, a review of the literature on impulsive buying, the

personality construct of impulsivity with its different dimensions, and main precursors of

impulsive purchase behaviour is presented. The research question follows, accompanied by

a detailed explanation of the hypotheses that will be tested by the study. The third chapter is

dedicated to the methodology: it includes data collection method, data analysis approach and

an exhaustive description of the variables under consideration. This part is followed by the

analysis and interpretation of the results, based on the development of a multiple linear

regression model on impulsive buying; also, respondents are segmented based on their

shopping habits, and an initial discussion of key findings of the research is provided. Finally,


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a chapter will provide the reader with the conclusions of the research, consisting of theoretical

and managerial implications, limitations of the study, and suggestions for further research on

the topic.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

1. Impulsive buying behaviour

i. Definition of impulsive buying

Nowadays, impulsive buying accounts for a significant amount of total purchases, more

specifically for some determined product categories (i.e. fashion merchandise and jewellery),

consistently with the widespread phenomenon of in-store decision-making process (Amos et

al., 2014; Dittmar, Beattie, & Friese, 1996; Hausman, 2000). A comprehensive definition of

this kind of consumer behaviour includes the experience of a sudden, irresistible, and

persistent urge to buy an item immediately, characterized by the lack of pre-shopping

intentions and by any or little regards for the consequences. Normally, this feeling is powerful

and leads the consumer to engage in an unplanned and impulsive purchase, with a short time-

gap between the consumption impulse and the enactment of the behaviour (Amos et al., 2014;

Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Rook, 1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995). However, it is

observed that feeling the urge to buy not always turns into an impulsive buying behaviour:

specific normative and cognitive evaluations are applied by the consumer (Beatty & Ferrell,

1998; Dholakia, 2000; Hausman, 2000; Rook & Fisher, 1995), and a more detailed review of

the different resistance strategies will be presented in this chapter. Further features of the

impulsive buying behaviour are the following: spontaneity, immediate gratification, temporary

hedonic temptation, positive affect or emotional charge, and potential post-purchase

justifications without a true remorse (Amos et al., 2014; Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Beatty &

Ferrell, 1998; Dittmar et al., 1996; Liu, Li, & Hu, 2013; Rook, 1987).

Impulsive buying behaviour finds its first roots into a specific socio-psychological framework,

represented by the so called symbolic consumption. Dittmar et al. (1996) stated that

“consumers do not just consume actual products, but also - or even instead - consume the

symbolic meanings of those products” (p.188). Therefore, the aim of an item’s purchase and

subsequent consumption is not to satisfy a specific need, but to create, reinforce and maintain

the consumer’s identity, as a way for expressing the self. This directly recalls the symbolic

self-completion theory conceived by Wicklund and Gollwitzer (1982), successively deepen by

Dittmar et al. (1996) with the construct of self-discrepancies perceived by an individual with


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respect to his or her image and the ideal self. Building on this theory, the acquisition of goods

and subsequently material possessions have the function of fulfilling these discrepancies

(Dittmar et al., 1996). Another construct of the framework that correlates with impulsive

shopping is hedonic consumption, defined as “those facets of consumer behavior that relate

to the multisensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of one's experience with products”

(Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982, p. 92). In this case, a consumer purchasing items seeks the

experience of shopping itself, and obtains satisfaction from that event and not just from the

consumption of the product (Dittmar et al., 1996; Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982; Rook, 1987).

Despite its simple definition, hedonic consumption can assume different forms, represented

by six broad categories: adventure shopping, social shopping, gratification shopping, idea

shopping, role shopping, and value shopping (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003).

Moreover, the impact of personality needs to be taken into account when describing the

framework of impulsive buying (Thompson & Prendergast, 2015; Verplanken & Herabadi,

2001). Building on the personality structure regarded as the Big Five Personality Traits –

extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism or emotional instability, and

openness (Goldberg, 1990) – the specific relationship between impulsive buying behaviour

and personality was more deeply studied and the findings brought a relevant contribution to

the corresponding theoretical framework. The Big Five personality traits proved to explain one

third of the total variance of impulsive buying behaviour, and the main elements were

openness and neuroticism (Shahjehan, 2012; Sharma, Sivakumaran, & Marshall, 2010;

Thompson & Prendergast, 2015). This results in the fact that consumers regarded as

imaginative, artistically sensitive and intellectual (openness to experience), but also nervous,

anxious, tense and insecure (emotional instability) are more likely to display impulsive buying

behaviour. Furthermore, many studies highlight the impact of the impulsivity trait of personality

on impulsive shopping (Dholakia, 2000; Liu et al., 2013; Rook & Fisher, 1995), which mainly

relates to neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001;

Whiteside et al., 2005). A specific chapter will be dedicated to impulsivity and its relationship

with impulsive buying.

Even though impulsive buying behaviour appears similar to compulsive buying behaviour, due

to similar roots in the symbolic self-completion theory and the common features of hedonic

temptation and short-sighted decision-making process, the two constructs are distinct.

Obviously, both tendencies are driven by precursors such as socio-demographic factors and

personality traits. However, compulsive buying differentiates from impulse buying as it is

caused by internal triggers of identity confusion and anxiety (Claes, Müller, & Luyckx, 2016;

DeSarbo & Edwards, 1996). In addition, it is characterized by an addictive behaviour that leads

the consumer to feel an uncontrolled, repetitive and excessive urge to buy, followed by an


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immediate positive sensation that eventually turns into distress, guilt, and negative mood.

Therefore, compulsive buying behaviour has a detrimental effect on the individual, which is

not experienced in the case of impulsive buying (Amos et al., 2014; Shahjehan, 2012; Claes

et al., 2016; DeSarbo & Edwards, 1996; Mueller, Mitchell, Peterson, Faber, Steffen, Crosby,

& Claes, 2011). Before the sense of euphoria and distress relief that characterise that post-

purchase consumer’s mood, the most common antecedent of compulsive buying behaviour is

represented by negative emotions (Miltenberger, Redlin, Crosby, Stickney, Mitchell,

Wonderlich, Faber, & Smith, 2003), whereas impulsive buying is explained by a broader pool

of precursors that will be studied in another chapter.

ii. The separation between feeling the urge and engaging in an impulsive

purchase

Although the impulse purchase is always preceded by feeling the urge to buy, due to a certain

degree of impulsive buying tendency characterizing the individual, it is necessary to separate

the impulse to buy and the action of the actual purchase. Obviously, the felt urge fosters the

decision to buy on impulse, and these elements proved to be positively and significantly

correlated (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). In addition, these impulses normally entail a sense of

anticipated gratifying experience, for which the consumer finds it difficult to apply a strategy of

impulse control (Rook, 1987). However, as stated by Rook and Fisher (1995), “[t]he probability

that consumers actually engage in impulse buying presumably depends both on the degree

to which they possess impulsive buying trait tendencies and on their normative judgments that

may proscribe or permit a particular impulsive purchase” (p. 305). Therefore, Rook and

Fisher’s theory (1995) argues that normative evaluations on the appropriateness of making

an impulse purchase play a significant role as to mediate the relationship between IBT and

the actual impulsive purchase. In addition, these evaluations are driven either by personality

traits or by situational norms. More specifically, the theory concludes that positive normative

evaluations reinforce the impulsive purchase behaviour, consistently with the personality trait

described by impulsiveness. On the other hand, negative normative evaluations attenuate the

relationship and causality between IBT and the impulsive purchase. However, if the negative

influence is weak, the individual may respond with an impulsive purchase anyway, violating

the norms and subsequently feeling an additional arousal that is not caused by the shopping

experience only. This happens under a certain normative threshold, beyond which the impulse

is completely dissipated and the individual does not eventually enact the behaviour (Rook &

Fisher, 1995). This moderating role of normative evaluations proved to be valid also in an

online context (Liu et al., 2013).


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Building on Rook and Fisher’s theory (1995), in 2000 Dholakia designed an integrated model

of consumption impulse formation and enactment (CIFE), illustrated in Figure 1. According to

this model, the process always starts with perception and recognition of a consumption

impulse (CI), followed by an automatic response consisting in the evaluation of potential

constraining factors (i.e., time limits, money availability, long-term consequences of enacting

the behaviour and related anticipatory emotions). If this assessment results in the lack of

constraints, the individual proceeds by enacting the CI, adopting a consonant behaviour.

Conversely, if limitations do exist, the process continues with a cognitive evaluation of

consequences: if these are regarded as positive, the CI is enacted and results in a dissonant

impulsive behaviour; on the other hand, if the evaluation has a negative outcome, the volitional

system intervenes and the individual exploits resistance strategies. These tactics will manage

to dissipate the impulse depending on the expectancy of resisting to it: if the probability to

resist is unfavourable, the individual engages in a dissonant impulsive behaviour and an

impulse purchase is made; contrarily, if the expectancy is favourable, the CI results in a non-

behaviour and is dispelled (Dholakia, 2000).

Figure 1. The CIFE framework. Source: Dholakia, 2000, p. 960.


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iii. Motivations behind impulsive shopping

In contrast with previous psychological studies that regarded impulsive buying behaviour as

irrational, immature, wasteful and wrong (Ainslie, 1975; Levy, 1976), Rook and Fisher (1995)

provided a different perspective on the topic. Accordingly, consumers implement normative

evaluations to assess if a certain behaviour (i.e., impulse purchase) is appropriate in a given

situation, and these judgments moderate the intercurrent relationship between the urge to buy

and the action of buying. However, impulsive purchases account for a significant amount of

buying, since negative evaluations are frequently weak and can be easily overcome by certain

justifications (Hausman, 2000; Rook & Fisher, 1995). Consistently with the above-mentioned

theory of hedonic consumption, for which the acquisition of the product is secondary to the

experience provided by the shopping activity itself (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Hirschman &

Holbrook, 1982), hedonic needs are identified as basic motivators of impulsive buying. In

particular, consumers engaging in impulse purchases are driven by needs of novelty, variety,

fun, surprise and social interaction (Hausman, 2000). Moreover, Hausman (2000) proved that

impulsive buying also aims at satisfying needs of esteem, related to the desire to be fashion-

conscious and keep abreast with latest trends, and self-actualization, as theorized by

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1968). Finally, “impulse buying . . . represents a

rational alternative to more time-consuming search behaviours” (Hausman, 2000, p. 413).

2. Impulsivity

One of the main drivers of impulsive buying is the personality trait of impulsivity, also called

impulsiveness, which has been studied in several research fields. In general, the construct

proved to form part of extraversion (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1968, 1977) and to strongly correlate

with traits of novelty-seeking and sensation-seeking (Cloninger, Przybeck, & Svrakic, 1991,

1993; Zuckerman, 1994). As studied by Tellegen (1985) and Cloninger et al. (1991),

impulsivity represents an automatic response to stimuli provided by the environment, and the

manner and the intensity of the response depend on individual biological tendencies. Amos et

al. (2014) presented a comprehensive definition and analysis of this psychological construct,

regarded as “lack of behavioral control and an immediate preference for surrendering to

temptation” (p. 88), in contrast with the tendency to follow self-regulation of impulses or

planned actions.

i. Dimensions of the impulsivity trait

Regarding the components of impulsivity, researchers developed several theories. Eysenck

and Eysenck (1977) initially defined the construct as composed by four dimensions – narrow


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impulsiveness, risk-taking, non-planning, and liveness, but further research subdivided

impulsivity into only two dimensions, called venturesomeness and impulsiveness (Eysenck et

al., 1985). Subsequently, components of impulsivity were described as attentional impulsivity,

in relationship to cognitive instability and the capability to focus on tasks; motor impulsiveness,

as to explain the tendency to engage in rash actions; finally, non-planning, for the lack of

premeditation (Patton, Stanford, & Barratt, 1995). A more detailed theory was proposed by

Evenden (1999), who contributed with a definition of impulsivity and its dimensions, and also

studied the construct in relationship to psychiatric disorders and to its effect on behaviours.

Specifically, impulsivity trait is divided into lack of premeditation before acting and

consideration of the outcome, often resulting in risk-preference. Moreover, the construct may

affect individual behaviour in three different stages: impulsive preparation, leading to

premature responses, driven by expectations created before gathering all the necessary

information; impulsive execution, causing distraction, inability to wait, tendency to interrupt

other people and not to follow given instructions; and impulsivity in outcomes, bringing to the

inability to delay gratification (Evenden, 1999).

The latest theory on impulsivity, on which the present research is based, was developed by

Whiteside, Lynam and colleagues (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005). The

multifaceted construct of impulsivity derives from the five-factor model of personality and, in

particular, it can be explained through a four-factor model: the UPPS behavioural scale

(Whiteside & Lynam, 2001). According to this scale, impulsivity consists of four dimensions,

defined as it follows:

Urgency, refers to the tendency to engage in impulsive behaviours under conditions of

negative affect, perhaps in order to alleviate negative emotions, despite the potentially

harmful longer-term consequences.

Premeditation . . . refers to a difficulty in thinking and reflecting on the consequences

of an act before engaging in that act.

Lack of Perseverance . . . refers to an individual’s inability to remain focused on a task

that may be boring or difficult.

Finally, Sensation Seeking . . . has two aspects: (1) a tendency to enjoy and pursue

activities that are exciting, and (2) an openness to trying new experiences that may be

dangerous. (Whiteside et al., 2005, p. 561).

As regards the correlation with the Big Five personality traits, urgency mainly correlates with

neuroticism, sensation-seeking with extraversion, while lack of premeditation and lack of

perseverance correspond to low scores of conscientiousness (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001;


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Whiteside et al., 2005). Furthermore, a more detailed definition of the urgency trait was

provided, by combining impulsivity with negative affect, as “it involves difficulty in controlling

or coping with urges to act in response to unpleasant emotions” (Whiteside et al., 2005, p.

569). Consistently with this definition, urgency proved to be a strong predictor of compulsive

buying tendency (Billieux et al., 2008) and of troublesome and risky behaviours (Sperry,

Lynam, Walsh, Horton, & Kwapil, 2016).

ii. Scales and measures of impulsivity

As previously explained, according to Whiteside and colleagues the psychological construct

of impulsivity is described by four facets: urgency, (lack of) premeditation, (lack of)

perseverance, and sensation-seeking. The UPPS scale that summarizes these dimensions

consists of 43 items, divided into four groups as presented in Table 1.

Table 1. UPPS impulsive behaviour scale. Source: Whiteside and Lynam, 2001, p. 682-683.

Premeditation

1. I have a reserved and cautious attitude toward life.

2. My thinking is usually careful and purposeful.

3. I am not one of those people who blurt out things without thinking.

4. I like to stop and think things over before I do them.

5. I don't like to start a project until I know exactly how to proceed.

6. I tend to value and follow a rational, “sensible'' approach to things.

7. I usually make up my mind through careful reasoning.

8. I am a cautious person.

9. Before I get into a new situation I like to find out what to expect from it.

10. I usually think carefully before doing anything.

11. Before making up my mind, I consider all the advantages and disadvantages.

Urgency

1. I have trouble controlling my impulses.

2. I have trouble resisting my cravings (for food, cigarettes, etc.).

3. I often get involved in things I later wish I could get out of.

4. When I feel bad, I will often do things I later regret in order to make myself feel better

now.

5. Sometimes when I feel bad, I can't seem to stop what I am doing even though it is

making me feel worse.

6. When I am upset I often act without thinking.


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7. When I feel rejected, I will often say things that I later regret.

8. It is hard for me to resist acting on my feelings.

9. I often make matters worse because I act without thinking when I am upset.

10. In the heat of an argument, I will often say things that I later regret.

11. I am always able to keep my feelings under control. (R)

12. Sometimes I do things on impulse that I later regret

Perseverance

1. I generally like to see things through to the end.

2. I tend to give up easily. (R)

3. Unfinished tasks really bother me.

4. Once I get going on something I hate to stop.

5. I concentrate easily.

6. I finish what I start.

7. I'm pretty good about pacing myself so as to get things done on time.

8. I am a productive person who always gets the job done.

9. Once I start a project, I almost always finish it.

10. There are so many little jobs that need to be done that I sometimes just ignore them all.

(R)

Sensation-seeking

1. I generally seek new and exciting experiences and sensations.

2. I'll try anything once.

3. I like sports and games in which you have to choose your next move very quickly.

4. I would enjoy water skiing.

5. I quite enjoy taking risks.

6. I would enjoy parachute jumping.

7. I welcome new and exciting experiences and sensations, even if they are a little

frightening and unconventional.

8. I would like to learn to fly an airplane.

9. I sometimes like doing things that are a bit frightening.

10. I would enjoy the sensation of skiing very fast down a high mountain slope.

11. I would like to go scuba diving.

12. I would enjoy fast driving.

In particular, after the development of the UPPS behavioural scale, Whiteside et al. (2005)

validated this scale. The four traits proved to be intercorrelated, especially Perseverance and

Premeditation, but it is observed that they must be kept distinct. In particular, when assessing


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the impact of impulsivity on individuals affected by psychopathological disorders, the

corresponding personality traits appear to be essential features. Nevertheless, the level of

significance of each impulsivity dimension varies depending on psychopathology groups, thus

it is possible to conclude that the four facets do not overlap with one another (Miller, Flory,

Lynam, & Leukefeld, 2003; Whiteside et al., 2005).

iii. The introduction of a fifth facet: positive urgency

The UPPS scale was subsequently updated by introducing a new dimension called positive

urgency, that proved to be a symmetrical facet of urgency as initially defined (Cyders,

Littlefield, Coffey, & Karyadi, 2014; D’Orta, Burnay, Aiello, Niolu, Siracusano, Timpanaro,

Khazaal, Billieux, 2015). In fact, in the original scale, urgency was regarded as the inability to

repress automatic responses driven by negative affect (Whiteside et al., 2005). Nonetheless,

it is observed that the same behaviour is implemented by individuals in response to positive

emotional contexts too, thus it is necessary to distinguish between negative and positive

urgency in the description of the multifaceted construct of impulsivity.

Specifically, Cyders and colleagues (2007) theorized the construct of positive urgency as a

personality trait describing a determined attitude towards rash actions, characterized by lack

of intentions and mood-based drivers. Normally, individuals engage in impulsive actions due

to the positive urgency trait as to enhance their own positive mood. Therefore, this dimension

may lead to maladaptive and sometimes risky behaviours, in response to emotionally charged

situations characterized by positive feelings that make the individual surrender to tempting

stimuli. In fact, positive urgency proved to be correlated to risky and impulsive behaviours such

as gambling, alcohol abuse, smoking dependence, internet addiction, etc. (Cyders et al., 2007;

Cyders & Smith, 2007; D’Orta et al., 2015).

The validation of positive urgency as the fifth facet of the impulsivity trait is based on the fact

that the construct do not overlap with any element of the two prominent models of impulsivity,

represented by Gray’s behavioural activation system (1987) and Whiteside and Lynam’s four-

factor model of impulsivity (Cyders et al., 2007). Moreover, when studying the relationship

between impulsivity and risky behaviours or psychopathological disorders, positive urgency

proved to explain an additional variance of these phenomena. In particular, it represents a

strong predictor of risky behaviours (i.e., gambling, problem drinking) driven by positive mood

(Cyders et al., 2007; Cyders & Smith, 2007; D’Orta et al., 2015). Items describing and

measuring positive urgency are listed in Table 2.


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Table 2. Items for measuring Positive Urgency. Source: Cyders et al., 2007, p. 110.

Positive urgency

1. When I am very happy, I can’t seem to stop myself from doing things that can have bad

consequences.

2. When I am in great mood, I tend to get into situations that could cause me problems.

3. When I am very happy, I tend to do things that may cause problems in my life.

4. I tend to lose control when I am in a great mood.

5. When I am really ecstatic, I tend to get out of control.

6. Others would say I make bad choices when I am extremely happy about something.

7. Others are shocked or worried about the things I do when I am feeling very excited.

8. When I get really happy about something, I tend to do things that can have bad

consequences.

9. When overjoyed, I feel like I can’t stop myself from going overboard.

10. When I am really excited, I tend not to think of the consequences of my actions.

11. I tend to act without thinking when I am really excited.

12. When I am really happy, I often find myself in situations that I normally wouldn’t be

comfortable with.

13. When I am very happy, I feel like it is OK to give in to cravings or overindulge.

14. I am surprised at the things I do while in a great mood.

Further research contributed to the theoretical framework of positive urgency with the creation

of a model explaining mood-based rash actions. The behavioural components are urgency,

distinguished into positive and negative according to the affective state; sensation or

excitement seeking; and deficit of conscientiousness, which can be displayed in the form of

lack of premeditation or lack of perseverance (Cyders & Smith, 2007). Building on this

classification of components, two possible models fit the representation of mood-based rash

actions: a three-factor model, composed by the abovementioned elements, or a five-factor

model, in which the two forms of urgency and the two forms of deficit of conscientiousness

represent distinct components. In any case, even though positive and negative urgency are

aggregated in the first model, because of parsimony reasons, they proved to explain different

behaviours: positive urgency characterizes behaviours driven by positive mood, whereas

negative urgency explains actions caused by negative affect, thus a distinction is necessary

(Cyders et al., 2014; Cyders & Smith, 2007; D’Orta et al., 2015).


17

3. Precursors of impulsive buying

This chapter will be dedicated to an overview of the main antecedents of the impulsive buying

behaviour, classified into three categories as presented by Amos et al. (2014):

Dispositional variables, including elements for which each individual differs from

another due to specific personal permanent features or biological tendencies.

Situational variables, which characterize the context of the action and are not

necessarily under the control of the individual (i.e., external stimuli, affective state,

limitations, etc.).

Sociodemographic variables, explained by age, gender and income.

The most significant impact on impulsive buying is driven by the interaction of dispositional

and situational variables, specifically IBT, positive social influence and retail environment

(Amos et al., 2014). In addition, both positive and negative affective states play an important

role as to mediate the urge to buy, in particular positive mood represents a more stable

precursor for this type of behaviour (Gardner & Rook, 1993; Flight, Rountree, & Beatty, 2012).

A detailed explanation of the different variables and their impact on impulsive buying will follow

in this chapter.

i. Dispositional variables

Impulsive buying tendency (IBT). IBT forms part of the personality trait of impulsivity, and it

was defined by Gerbing, Ahadi and Patton as the “tendency to respond quickly to a given

stimulus, without deliberation and evaluation of consequences” (1987, p. 357) . Therefore, this

trait has an impact on the manner and the intensity with which individuals respond to stimuli

and subsequently engage in an impulse buying in their daily life, and it differs from one person

to another (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Rook, 1987). IBT results related to

elements such as materialism, shopping enjoyment, and sensation seeking trait (Beatty &

Ferrell, 1998; Dittmar et al., 1996; Hyo-Jung, Ruoh-Nan, & Eckman, 2014; Rook, 1987;

Sharma et al., 2010). Due to its nature, a high level of IBT leads the consumer to feel more

frequent urges to buy, thus to engage in in-store browsing and finally make an impulsive

purchase (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). However, the effect of IBT on impulsive buying behaviour

can be moderated by other factors. On the one hand, positive mood and positive social

influence endorse IBT and foster the behaviour; on the other hand, negative affect and

negative social influence may diminish the intensity of the felt urge, bur normally with a lower

intensity than their reverse constructs (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Flight et al.,

2012; Rook & Fisher, 1995).


18

Shopping enjoyment. The pleasure perceived by the consumer during the shopping

experience is another endogenous variable that, together with IBT, addresses an individual

difference in the impulsive buying behaviour. Shopping enjoyment is related to hedonic

shopping and represents an important antecedent of impulse buying, due to its effect of

immediate gratification and emotional arousal. This effect induces the consumer to spend

more time in the store and increases the likelihood of feeling the urge to buy and subsequently

making an impulsive purchase (Amos et al., 2014; Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Beatty & Ferrell,

1998; Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982).

Other psychological constructs. Finally, there are other psychological factors that may play a

role in the perception of the urge to buy and in the implementation of an impulsive purchase.

In general, they are related to personality traits of novelty and variety seeking, esteem,

openness, emotional instability, susceptibility to influence, and they represent precursors of

urgency feeling and impulse buying as to foster the behaviour. On the other hand, the ability

to maintain self-control, price consciousness and self-monitoring of impulses play the role of

inhibitors of this type of consumer behaviour (Amos et al., 2014; Shahjehan, 2012; Dittmar et

al., 1996; Sharma et al., 2010; Thompson & Prendergast, 2015; Verplanken & Herabadi,

2001).

ii. Situational variables

Constraints: time and money availability. As exogenous variables, time and money availability

directly explain the duration and the amount of money spent in a store. Their impact on impulse

buying is significant since their perception affects the effort that the consumer dedicates to the

shopping experience and his or her corresponding mood. In fact, individuals feeling under

pressure because of lack of money or time are likely to spend a shorter time in the store, and

it results in a decreased likelihood of feeling the urge to buy on impulse (Iyer, 1989). On the

other hand, if the customer does not perceived frustration or negative affect, he or she is more

likely to engage in an impulsive buying behaviour. Therefore, these two exogenous variables

act as precursors by encouraging customers to dedicate more time to the in-store browsing

activity, creating a positive affect which leads to more frequent urges to buy and subsequent

impulse purchases (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). In particular for money availability, this factor

showed to act as a mediator between consumer’s positive emotions responding to

environmental stimuli and impulsive buying behaviour (Hyo-Jung et al., 2014).

Positive and negative affect. Even though mood represents a temporary affective state and

varies across a wide range of different shades, depending on the individual and on the context,


19

it plays an important role in influencing consumer behaviour, either conscious or not. In

particular, the underlying element in the relationship between impulsive buying and affective

states is the sensation of immediate gratification perceived by the consumer after the

purchase. In fact, shopping denotes a way to either reinforce positive mood, or relieve negative

emotions (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Gardner & Rook, 1993;

Ozer & Gultekin, 2015). Gardner and Rook (1993) proved that their model, combining the

three structural dimensions of moods – pleasure, arousal, and dominance – and the so-called

core themes of motivation, mobilization and capability, could provide a comprehensive

explanation on the relationship between impulsive buying behaviour and affective states. In

particular, the pleasure element of shopping satisfies the need for self-indulgency and

immediate gratification, therefore a strong positive mood encourages the consumer to engage

in an impulsive purchase. In addition, high levels of arousal decrease the intensity of

resistance strategies to spontaneous spending, while the dominance factor induces the feeling

of power and being in control of the situation; subsequently all moods’ dimensions increase

the likelihood of impulsive buying behaviours. On other hand, even negative mood may foster

the enactment of a buying impulse, as a therapy to relieve stress, negative emotions, or

anxiety (Gardner & Rook, 1993). However, positive mood proved to have a stronger impact

than its opposite state on impulse buying (Gardner & Rook, 1993; Flight et al., 2012; Beatty &

Ferrel, 1998). Specifically, positive mood is normally related to an approach behaviour, for

which the individual responds to a stimuli from the environment with the aim of seeking a

reward or an affective reinforcement, whereas negative mood is more frequently associated

to the adoption of an avoidance behaviour (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). Finally, this variable

generally correlates with other contextual elements, such as money, time availability,

stimulation from the store environment, which induce positive feelings that subsequently

increase the urge to buy (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998)

Marketing stimuli from store environment. Several studies on the antecedents of impulsive

buying behaviour analysed and proved the importance that the retail environment fulfils in

terms of stimulating the consumer to perceive an irresistible CI. Depending on the type of

stimuli, the environment can directly affect the urge to buy something on impulse, or the

affective state of the individual browsing in the store (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998;

Hyo-Jung, Eckmanb, & Ruoh-Nan, 2011; Mattila & Wirtz, 2008). As stated by Mattila and Wirtz

(2008), the store environment can produce pleasure and arousal feelings, through different

strategies of overstimulation; nevertheless, their efficacy depends on the extent at which this

stimulation is able to reach, or even exceed, the desired level defined by the consumer, which

strongly depends on personality traits. The elements of stimulation from the retail environment

can be classified in three categories: elements affecting the perception of the store, friendly


20

employees, and presence of other customers (Mattila & Wirtz, 2008). The second and the third

components mitigate one another in terms of capability to induce the customer to browse in

the shop and possibly engage in an impulsive purchase. As regards the factors influencing

the perception of the context itself, the most relevant ones are: physical proximity and

immediate availability of the product; aesthetic appeal, including visual presentation of the

item, layout of the store, merchandising elements, general atmosphere of the shop; finally,

website ease of use (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Liu et

al., 2013). The latter factor, specifically for online impulsive shopping, contributes to the

consumer’s perception of usefulness, which commonly determines a flow experience as

defined by Csikszentmihalyi in 2008. The combination of flow experience and trust belief in

the website demonstrated to explain a significant percentage of the total variance in online

impulsive buying, since the consumer enjoys the shopping experience and is more likely to

feel the urge to buy (Wu, Chen, & Chiu, 2016). In fact, design, navigation and communication

style of a website represent the main elements encouraging the consumer towards an

impulsive purchase in an online context (Floh & Madlberger, 2013; Verhagen & Van Dolen,

2011). Moreover, the stimulation provided by music has a significant impact. Generally, it

brings feelings of arousal and pleasure, improving the mood of the customer; additionally, it

manipulates time perception, thus increases the time spent browsing in the store (Garlin &

Owen, 2006). As a result, all these marketing stimuli condition consumer behaviour and

promote impulsive purchases.

Social influence. The exogenous variable of social influence plays a relevant role as to mediate

the urge to buy on impulse: depending on if it is regarded as positive or negative, this element

may respectively boost or prevent the customer from engaging in an impulsive purchase

(Amos et al., 2014). As previously mentioned, social norms proved to have an impact on the

likelihood of surrendering to the temptation of buying an item without any premeditation or

consideration of consequences, and depending on the intensity of the impulse even negative

evaluations can be overcome (Rook, 1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995).

iii. Sociodemographic variables

As investigated in the meta-analysis by Amos et al. (2014), the impulsive buying behaviour

may vary depending on certain sociodemographic variables: age is negatively correlated with

impulsive purchases, whereas annual income enhances impulsive buying; as regards gender,

the research presents conflicting results. However, these factors proved to have the least

impact on impulse buying, therefore this research will not address them further.


21

Literature review – overview of the main references

# Title Author(s) Year Published Contribution

1 Hedonic

Consumption:

Emerging Concepts,

Methods and

Propositions

Hirschman, E.

C.; Holbrook, M.

B.

1982 Journal of Marketing,

46(3), 92-101

Definition of hedonic

consumption

2 The Buying Impulse Rook, D. 1987 Journal of Consumer

Research, 14(2), 189–

199

Definition of impulsive

buying.

Forces driving the urge

to buy and confirmation

of individual differences

in the IBT.

3 An alternative

"description of

personality": The big-

five factor structure.

Goldberg, L. 1990 Journal of Personality

and Social

Psychology, 59(6),

1216-1229

Creation of a five-factor

model for describing

personality (The Big

Five personality traits).

4 In the mood: Impulse

buying's affective

antecedents

Gardner, M.;

Rook, D.

1993 Research in consumer

behavior, 6(7), 1-28

Relationship between

impulsive buying and

consumer’s mood.

Development of a

comprehensive model

for mood, based on

three dimensions and

three core themes.

5 Normative Influences

on Impulsive Buying

Behavior

Rook, D.; Fisher,

R.

1995 Journal of Consumer

Research, 22(3), 305-

313

Moderating role of

normative evaluations

on the relationship

between IBT and

impulsive buying

behaviour.

6 Objects, decision

considerations and

self-image in men's

and women's impulse

purchases

Dittmar, H.;

Beattie, J.;

Friese, S.

1996 Acta Psychologica,

93(1-3), 187-206

Roots of impulsive and

compulsive buying in

symbolic consumption.

Explanation of

impulsive and


22

compulsive buying

through self-

discrepancies,

coherently with self-

completion theory.

7 Impulse buying:

Modeling its

precursors

Beatty, S. E.;

Ferrel, E. M.

1998 Journal of Retailing,

74(2), 169-191


buying, in relationship to

the hedonic value of

shopping.

Analysis of the

precursors of impulsive

shopping, distinguished

into exogenous and

endogenous variables

(situational elements

and individual

differences).

8 Impulsivity: a

discussion of clinical

and experimental

findings

Evenden, J. 1999 Journal of

Psychopharmacology,

13(2), 180-192

Dimensions of

impulsivity construct

into lack of

premeditation before

acting and

consideration of the

outcome.

Impact of impulsivity on

preparation, execution

and outcomes.

9 Temptation and

Resistance An

Integrated Model of

Consumption Impulse

Formation and

Enactment

Dholakia, U. 2000 Psychology and

Marketing, 17(11),

955-982

Development of the

CIFE model for

impulsive buying.

10 A multi-method

investigation of

consumer motivations

Hausman, A. 2000 Journal of Consumer

Marketing, 17(5), 403-

426

Motivations behind

impulsive buying,


23

in impulse buying

behavior

consisting in hedonic

and additional needs.

Perceptions of decision-

making accuracy during

the impulse buying

behaviour.

11 The Five-Factor

Model and Impulsivity:

Using a Structural

Model of Personality

to Understand

Impulsivity

Whiteside, S.;

Lynam, D.

2001 Personality and

Individual Differences,

30, 669-689

Four-factor model for

impulsivity (UPPS

scale): urgency,

premeditation,

perseverance, and

sensation seeking.


impulsivity facets and

the Big Five personality

traits.

12 Hedonic shopping

motivations

Arnold, M. J.;

Reynolds, K. E.

2003 Journal of Retailing,

79(2), 77-95

Six shopping categories

defining hedonic

consumption.

13 Validation of the

UPPS Impulsive

Behavior Scale: A four

factor model of

impulsivity

Whiteside, S.

P.; Lynam, D.;

Miller, J.;

Reynolds, S.

2005 European Journal of

Personality, 19, 559-

574

Validation of the UPPS

scale for impulsivity.

14 Integration of

impulsivity and

positive mood to

predict risky behavior:

Development and

validation of a

measure of positive

urgency

Cyders, M. A.;

Smith, G. T.;

Spillane, N. S.;

Fischer, S.;

Annus, A. M.;

Peterson, C.

2007 Psychological

Assessment, 19(1),

107-118

Introduction of the

positive urgency trait to

the multifaceted

construct of impulsivity,

and development of a

scale of measurement.


positive urgency risky

behaviours.

15 Mood-based rash

action and its

Cyders, M. A.;

Smith, G. T.



43(4), 839-850


positive urgency and


24

components: Positive

and negative urgency

positive mood-based

rash actions.

16 The role of store

environmental

stimulation and social

factors on impulse

purchasing

Mattila, A.; Wirtz

J.

2008 Journal of Services

Marketing, 22(7), 562-

567

Impact of

overstimulation caused

by the retail

environment and other

social factors on

impulsive buying.

17 Are all facets of

impulsivity related to

self-reported

compulsive buying

behavior?

Billieux, J.;

Rochat, L.;

Rebetez, M. M.

L.; Van der

Linden, M.



44(6), 1432-1442

Urgency related to

negative emotions as

the only strong predictor

of impulsive and

compulsive buying

behaviour.

18 The effect of

personality on

impulsive and

compulsive buying

behaviors

Shahjehan, A. 2012 African Journal of

Business

Management, 6(6),

2187-2194


the Big Five personality

traits and impulsive and

compulsive buying.

19 A meta-analysis of

consumer impulse

buying

Amos, C.;

Holmes, G. R.;

Keneson, W. C.

2014 Journal of Retailing

and Consumer

Services, 21(2), 86-97


buying behaviour and

analysis of main drivers.

Interaction of

dispositional and

situational variables has

the main impact on

impulsive buying.

20 Defining key drivers of

online impulse

purchasing: A

perspective of both

impulse shoppers and

system users

Wu, I.; Chen, K.;

Chiu, M.

2016 International Journal

of Information

Management, 36(3),

284-296

Flow experience,

perceived usefulness

and trust explaining a

significant variance in

impulsive buying.


25

RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESES

As explained in the previous chapter, impulsive buying represents a pervasive consumer

behaviour that, consciously or not, forms part of people’s daily life (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty

& Ferrell, 1998; Gardner & Rook, 1993). Even though the CI can be alleviated by normative

evaluations and resistance strategies, the urge to buy on impulse is so powerful and persistent

that frequently overcomes these impediments, and eventually the consumer makes an

impulsive purchase (Dholakia, 2000; Hausman, 2000; Rook & Fisher, 1995). The core

antecedent of impulsive buying behaviour is embodied by the personality trait of

impulsiveness, which drives IBT in many individuals (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998;

Rook, 1987). As a multifaceted term, impulsivity consists of five dimensions, as theorized by

Whiteside, Lynam and colleagues (Cyders et al., 2007; Cyders & Smith, 2007; Whiteside &

Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005):

- Positive urgency, defined as the tendency to react with rash actions to extremely

positive emotions or moods.

- Negative urgency, defined as the tendency to respond automatically to strong and

extremely negative emotions or moods.

- Lack of premeditation, described by the inability to think and reflect about the

consequences before acting.

- Lack of perseverance, which characterized individuals that struggle with focusing on

tasks and usually are tempted by distractions.

- Sensation seeking, represented by the openness to new and exciting activities.

Specifically, different studies on the impact of the original UPPS scale on impulsive buying

were conducted, and demonstrated that negative urgency is a key predictor of impulsive and

compulsive shopping behaviour, whereas the other components presents a moderately

significant correlation with IBT (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Billieux et al., 2008). Nonetheless, the

theoretical framework lacks a research studying the relationship between positive urgency and

impulsive buying behaviour. Currently, this impulsivity sub-construct proved to be a predictor

of risky behaviours and positive mood-based rash actions (Cyders et al., 2007; Cyders et al.,

2014; Cyders & Smith, 2007; D’Orta et al., 2015). In addition, positive affective states, which

drive automatic responses consistently with the positive urgency trait, proved to have a

stronger impact on the urge to buy on impulse, in comparison to negative moods (Beatty &

Ferrell, 1998; Gardner & Rook, 1993; Flight et al., 2012). Therefore, the aim of this research

is to study the impact of the positive urgency trait on impulsive buying behaviour, as its

potential predictor. Moreover, the study will address the analysis of precursors of positive

mood, which induces the consumer to feel strong emotions and impulses to buy and eventually


26

engage in an unplanned purchase. In particular, main factors under examination are time

availability, money availability and stimulation from the retail environment, building on previous

research findings (Amos et al., 2014; Dittmar et al., 1996; Hyo-Jung et al., 2014; Liu et al.,

2013; Mattila & Wirtz, 2008; Rook, 1987). The focus of the research will be narrowed to the

clothing industry, as fashion products are particularly subject to impulsive buying (Amos et al.,

2014; Dittmar et al., 1996).

Starting from these premises, the first and main hypothesis of this research is the following:

H1. Individuals that score high in positive urgency are more likely to engage in impulsive

purchases than those with a low positive urgency.

Furthermore, assuming that each antecedent described in the previous chapter act

independently from the others, in the manner and intensity with which it affects consumer’s

mood, it is necessary to keep them distinct. In the case of money and time availability

elements, the affective state is regarded as “pre-existing mood” meaning that it happens

before entering a store, as it is induced by a context independent from the retail environment.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to point out that, although the distinction normally impulsive

buying precursors may interact with one another.

H2a. For individuals characterized by the impulsivity trait of positive urgency, stimulation from

the store environment creates a positive mood in the customer that will increase his or her

tendency to make impulsive purchases.

H2b. For individuals characterized by the impulsivity trait of positive urgency, a pre-existing

positive affect, induced by money availability, will increase their tendency to make impulsive

purchases once in store.

H2c. For individuals characterized by the impulsivity trait of positive urgency, a pre-existing

positive affect, induced by time availability, will increase their tendency to make impulsive

purchases once in store.

Finally, impulsive buying behaviour is mainly driven by personality traits (Shahjehan, 2012;

Dholakia, 2000; Thompson & Prendergast, 2015; Verplanken & Herabadi, 2001; Whiteside &

Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005), and is rooted in the theory of hedonic consumption

(Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Dittmar et al., 1996; Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982; Rook, 1987).

Therefore, the last hypothesis to be tested aims at confirming a relationship between the

individual features of neuroticism and shopping enjoyment and impulsive buying.

H3a. Individuals characterized by emotional instability are more likely to engage in impulsive

purchases.


27

H3b. Individuals characterized by shopping enjoyment features are more likely to engage in

impulsive purchases.

METHODOLOGY

1. Sample and data collection

Since impulsive buying behaviour demonstrated to be a frequent and widespread component

of everyone’s daily life, with slightly differences in terms of sociodemographic variables, the

study will address apparel consumers regardless of their gender, nationality, or age. However,

the IBT scale developed by Rook and Fisher (1995) will be used in order to segment

respondents according to the degree they can be recognized as impulsive buyers. Participants

are interviewed about their general shopping habits towards fashion goods, and the responses

will be collected through the online distribution of the questionnaire via email or social

networks. Respondents reporting that they have never engaged in an impulsive purchase will

be considered out of scope and withdrawn by the sample.

2. Research instrument

The research will be conducted through an online questionnaire, designed with the Sphinx

software and based on different Likert-scales that will be explained in the next paragraph. The

survey will be divided into sections addressing different specific themes. The overview is

presented as follows:

- General respondent profile: it includes information about age, gender, nationality,

and shopping habits.

- Assessment of IBT and likelihood to enact an impulsive buying behaviour in

relationship to clothing items.

- Personality assessment: this section is dedicated to impulsivity traits of negative

urgency and positive urgency, shopping enjoyment tendency, and neuroticism trait.

- Situational stimuli: this part addresses the influence that money availability, time

availability and marketing stimuli from the retail environment have on the shopping

experience, in terms of mood and subsequent urge to buy fashion products.

A pre-test of the questionnaire will be run before launching the definitive version, in order to

assess whether the questions are clear and understandable, their effectiveness to keep the

respondent answer, or potential bugs in the survey.


28

The survey is distributed in three languages: English, Italian and Spanish. The translation of

the scales into the latter two languages are based on contribution of two native-speakers.

3. Variables definition and corresponding scales of measurement

Impulsive buying. As previously explained in the chapter dedicated to the theoretical

framework, individuals differ from one another in the way they are exposed to external triggers

that induce the feeling of urgency to buy on impulse (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Rook, 1987; Rook

& Fisher, 1995). The tendency to follow the CI and consequently enact the impulsive buying

behaviour depends both on the personality of the individual and on the type and intensity of

stimuli deriving from the context of the shopping experience. Therefore, it represents the

dependent variable of the study. In order to assess it, the impulsive buying scale developed

by Rook and Fisher (1995) will be adopted: it consists of nine, five-point Likert-type items that

drive the motivation to buy on impulse, without pre-shopping intentions nor regard for the

consequences. This scale can be regarded as reliable as proved by its authors, with a

corresponding alphas of 0.88 and 0.82 in the two studies conducted for the validation (Rook

& Fisher, 1995).

Table 3. Items for assessing IBT. Source: Rook and Fisher, 1995, p. 308.

Buying impulsiveness scale

1. I often buy things spontaneously.

2. "Just do it" describes the way I buy things.

3. I often buy things without thinking.

4. “I see it, I buy it” describes me.

5. “Buy now, think about it later” describes me.

6. Sometimes I feel like buying things on the spur of the moment.

7. I buy things according to how I feel at the moment.

8. I carefully plan most of my purchases.

9. Sometimes I am a bit reckless about what I buy.

The following concepts are regarded as independent variables, explaining impulsive buying

behaviour of the respondents.

Positive urgency. As presented by Cyders and colleagues, impulsive individuals present

differences as the impulsivity construct is multifaceted: the positive urgency dimension

explains the extent at which one person experiences strong positive emotions and reacts to


29

them by implementing an automatic response (Cyders et al., 2007; Cyders & Smith, 2007;

D’Orta et al., 2015). This variable represents the focus of the research, and its measurement

relies on the scale developed by Cyders et al. (2007) and depicted in Table 2, consisting of

fourteen four-point Lykert-type items. The internal consistency of the scale is 0.94, as

presented in its confirmatory study (Cyders et al., 2007).

Negative urgency. This variable symbolises the reverse impulsivity facet of positive urgency,

described as the tendency to react with rash actions to strong negative emotions (Whiteside

& Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005). It has already been demonstrated the impact of

negative urgency on impulsive and compulsive buying (Billieux et al., 2008). For this reason,

it is necessary to include the variable in the analysis, expecting the results that are similar to

those provided by previous research. The measurement scale is presented in Table 1, as

validated by Whiteside and colleagues (2005), and includes twelve four-point Lykert-style

items, with an alpha of 0.89.

Purchasing pleasure. Individuals that engage in impulsive purchases normally feel the urge to

buy on impulse because of the shopping enjoyment they derive from the experience itself,

rather than from the actual consumption of the object (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Beatty &

Ferrell, 1998; Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982). Therefore, this variable aims at assessing the

degree of pleasure that the shopping experience provokes in the respondent. The reference

scale was developed by Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney, and Monroe (2008), entailing three seven-

point Lykert-style items as it follows in Table 4. The reliability of the scale is expressed by an

alpha of 0.82 (Ridgway et al., 2008).

Table 4. Purchasing pleasure scale. Source: Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney, and Monroe, 2008.

Purchasing pleasure

1. I find buying very pleasurable.

2. The process of buying provides me with a lot of gratification (at least temporarily).

3. I feel excited when I go on a buying spree.

Emotional stability. As one of the Big Five personality traits, neuroticism characterizes

individuals with a tendency to be anxious, irritable, and moody. This trait proved to have a

significant impact on impulsive buying behaviour, for which consumers with a low score of

emotional stability show a greater likelihood to engage in an impulsive purchase (Shahjehan,

2012; Thompson & Prendergast, 2015; Whiteside & Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005). It

is expected that respondents standing out for a certain level of neuroticism in their personality

assessment will experience a higher urge to buy when in a positive mood. In order to assess


30

this personality trait the Big Five Inventory developed by John & Srivastava (1999) will be

applied. It comprises eight five-point Lykert-type items as follows, with an internal consistency

of 0.84 (John & Srivastava, 1999).

Table 5. Measurement of neuroticism trait. Source: John & Srivastava, 1999, p. 70-71.

Neuroticism

I see Myself as someone who…

… Is depressed, blue.

… Is relaxed, handles stress well.

… Can be tense.

… Worries a lot.

… Is emotionally stable, not easily upset.

… Can be moody.

… Remains calm in tense situations.

… Gets nervous easily.

Mood. The affective state characterising the consumer before or during the shopping

experience plays a significant role in determining the frequency and strength of the urge to

buy impulse once in the store. Specifically, positive or negative moods may trigger the CI, and

ultimately lead the consumer to make an impulsive purchase, because the individual needs to

enact a certain behaviour either to reinforce and improve positive feelings, or to relieve

negative emotions (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Gardner &

Rook, 1993; Ozer & Gultekin, 2015). As previously specified, positive affect showed to be

stronger than its reverse state (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Gardner & Rook, 1993; Flight et al.,

2012), therefore, the present study will assess positive affective state only as an antecedent

of impulsive buying. Positive feelings can be induced by different elements: time availability,

money availability and marketing stimuli provided by the environment. The respondent will be

asked to specify to what extent each of those has an impact on their likelihood to feel the urge

to buy on impulse. As regards the measurement scale for positive mood, the study relies on

the PANAS scale, developed by Watson, Clark and Tellegen, with 10 items assessed by a

Lykert-style scale: attentive, interested, alert, excited, enthusiastic, inspired, proud,

determined, strong and active (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). In particular, the dedicated

section of the survey will address the mood state of respondents in relationship to the shopping

experience of fashion merchandise. The general reliability alpha of the scale is 0.88 (Watson

et al., 1988).


31

The scales mentioned in the variables description will be all converted into five-point Lykert

scales in order to facilitate the analysis of the results.

4. Data analysis method

Once that the data collection phase is completed, the analysis will be based on a quantitative

approach, for which responses will be cumulatively analysed for the creation and validation of

a multiple linear regression model (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). This specific

statistical method fits the study since the factors under consideration are quantitative

variables, assessed by Lykert scales, and a linear regression represents an appropriate way

to pursue the purpose of the research, which is to prove the impact of positive urgency on IBT.

In fact, the aim of the statistical model is to provide an explanation of impulsive buying

behaviour – the dependent variable of the study - in relationship to the explanatory variables

previously mentioned, with a specific focus on positive urgency as a predictor of impulsive

shopping. The general equation on which the model is based is the following:

𝑌𝑖 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽𝑖𝑋𝑖 + 𝜀

Where Y represents the impulsive buying behaviour, Xi the different independent variables

(i.e., negative urgency, positive urgency, shopping enjoyment, neuroticism, and positive

mood), and βi the coefficient explaining the relationship between the dependent variable and

the explanatory variables. The coefficients will be estimated by using the Least Squares

approach (Hair et al., 2010). The regression model will be created and subsequently fine-

tuned to correct potential imperfections (i.e., multicollinearity of predictors, heteroscedasticity

and correlations of errors) for the final validation.

As regards the triggers of positive mood, the correlations between the influence on the

consumer’s mood and the influence on his or her likelihood to make an impulsive purchase

will be analysed, respectively for time availability, money availability and marketing stimuli.


32

PLAN OF WORK

# Time frame Task Content State

1 4.09 – 23.10.2017 Exposé - Selection of a topic.

- Development of the topic with

a narrow focus and reading

the corresponding literature.

- Literature review.

- Writing and handing in the

exposé.

Completed

2 24.10 – 31.10.2017 Survey

design

- Selection of scales of

measurement for the

variables of the study.

- Design of the online

questionnaire and pre-test.

- Selection of a software for the

analysis among Excel, SPSS

and Eviews.

Partly done

3 1.11 – 7.12.2017 Data

collection

- Getting familiar with the

selected software for the

analysis.

- Launch of the survey and

data collection via email or

posts on social network.

To follow

4 8.12 – 13.12.2017 Buffer - Cleaning the database of

responses.

- In case the sample is not

adequate, potential face-to-

face interviews to reach a

representative sample.

5 13.12.2017 – 4.1.2018 Data

analysis

- Linear regression model

estimation, fine-tuning and

validation.

- Analysis of the results.

- Writing key findings and

discussion.

To follow


33

- Possibly, refine the

methodology chapter

6 4.1 – 15.1.2018 Conclusions - Writing conclusions.

- Refine the abstract adding

main findings.

- Final thesis.

To follow

7 15.1 – 21.1.2018 Buffer

OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS

Abstract

Introduction

1. Background

2. Problem statement

3. Purpose of the research

4. Structure of the thesis

Theoretical framework

1. Impulsive buying behaviour

i. Definition of impulsive buying

ii. The separation between feeling the urge and engaging in an impulsive

purchase

iii. Motivations behind impulsive shopping

2. Impulsivity

i. Dimensions of the impulsivity trait

ii. Scales and measures of impulsivity

iii. The introduction of a fifth facet: positive urgency

3. Precursors of impulsive buying

i. Dispositional variables

ii. Situational variables

iii. Sociodemographic variables

Research question and hypotheses

Methodology

1. Sample and data collection


34

2. Research instrument

3. Variables definition and corresponding scales of measurement

4. Data analysis method

Analysis of the results and discussion

1. Descriptive analysis of the variables and respondents segmentation based on

shopping habits and IBT

2. Correlations between variables and first estimation of the linear regression model

3. Fine-tuning and validation of the model

4. Discussion on key findings and contribution

Conclusions

1. Theoretical implications as contribution to the current research

2. Managerial implications for marketing and store managers

3. Limitations of the method of analysis, survey biases, variables and further research

4. Final conclusion

Bibliography

Appendix

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„I hereby confirm that this master thesis was independently authored by myself, using

solely the referred sources and support. I additionally assert that this thesis has not been

part of another examination process and that it has not yet been published in any kind.“

Place, Date

Kassel, October 23rd 2017

Author

Documents

The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying … · on impulsive buying is represented by the interaction of dispositional factors (i.e. impulsive personality trait) and situational