THE IMPACT OF POSITIVE
URGENCY ON IMPULSIVE
BUYING BEHAVIOUR A potential predictor of impulsive purchases
for fashion products
Master Thesis Exposé
Felicia Berto
European Master in Business Studies
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
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ABSTRACT
Title: The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour: a potential predictor of
impulsive purchases for fashion products.
Keywords: Impulsive buying behaviour; positive urgency; impulsivity; impulsive buying
precursors; urge to buy; impulsive buying tendency.
Background: Impulsive buys account for a significant amount of purchases, and fashion
merchandise proved to be one of the main items subject to this behaviour. The greatest impact
on impulsive buying is represented by the interaction of dispositional factors (i.e. impulsive
personality trait) and situational factors. Regarding impulsivity, this is a multifaceted construct,
originally based on a four-factor model: urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance,
sensation seeking (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001). From among these facets, only urgency,
correlated to negative mood, is a predictor of impulsive buying. In 2007, Cyders and
colleagues included a fifth dimension, called positive urgency: this trait proved not to overlap
with elements of behavioural activation system (Gray, 1987), nor with the four facets of
impulsivity defined by Whiteside and Lynam (2001). Moreover, positive urgency is a valid
predictor of risky behaviours and positive mood-based rash actions. However, the impact of
positive urgency has not been studied yet in the field of impulsive shopping.
Purpose: Therefore, the aim of the research is to study the relationship between impulsive
buying and the positive urgency trait, possibly activated by a strong positive mood caused by
external triggers. The goal of the research is to prove the influence of this specific impulsivity
trait on IBT, filling the gap of the theoretical framework related to antecedents of impulsive
buying on the one hand, and providing store managers with advices and suggestions on the
other. In particular, managerial implications may include how to induce the customer to feel
the urge to buy and increase the likelihood of impulsive purchases.
Research question: The impact of the impulsivity trait called “positive urgency” on impulsive
shopping behavior: is it a potential predictor?
Methodology: Respondents have to fill in an online questionnaire, spread via email or on
social networks and based on Lykert-style scales assessing shopping habits, impulsivity traits,
reaction to stimuli, and tendency to adopt an impulsive buying behaviour. Subsequently, the
data collected will be used to create a multiple linear regression model explaining the
phenomenon of impulsive buying in relationship with certain factors regarded as antecedents,
with a focus on positive urgency. A qualitative analysis of the results will follow, in order to
prove the role played by the positive urgency trait as a predictor of impulsive buying.
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ 2
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... 4
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... 4
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. 4
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 5
1. Background ................................................................................................................ 5
2. Problem statement ..................................................................................................... 5
3. Purpose ...................................................................................................................... 6
4. Structure ..................................................................................................................... 6
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................ 7
1. Impulsive buying behaviour ........................................................................................ 7
i. Definition of impulsive buying .................................................................................. 7
ii. The separation between feeling the urge and engaging in an impulsive purchase .. 9
iii. Motivations behind impulsive shopping ............................................................. 11
2. Impulsivity ................................................................................................................ 11
i. Dimensions of the impulsivity trait ......................................................................... 11
ii. Scales and measures of impulsivity ...................................................................... 13
iii. The introduction of a fifth facet: positive urgency ............................................... 15
3. Precursors of impulsive buying ................................................................................. 17
i. Dispositional variables .......................................................................................... 17
ii. Situational variables .............................................................................................. 18
iii. Sociodemographic variables .............................................................................. 20
RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESES ................................................................... 25
METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................ 27
1. Sample and data collection....................................................................................... 27
2. Research instrument ................................................................................................ 27
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
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3. Variables definition and corresponding scales of measurement ............................... 28
4. Data analysis method ............................................................................................... 31
PLAN OF WORK ................................................................................................................ 32
OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS ...................................................................................... 33
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 34
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CI: consumption impulse
CIFE: consumption impulse formation and enactment
IBT: impulsive buying tendency
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. The CIFE framework.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. UPPS impulsive behaviour scale.
Table 2. Items for measuring Positive Urgency.
Table 3. Items for assessing IBT.
Table 4. Purchasing pleasure scale.
Table 5. Measurement of neuroticism trait.
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INTRODUCTION
1. Background
Nowadays, unplanned purchases form part of everyone’s daily life: many consumers report
they frequently buy items on impulse, due to triggers that facilitate spontaneous shopping, like
the diffusion of 24-hour retailing stores, credit cards use, e-commerce, home shopping
networks, etc. (Gardner & Rook, 1993; Rook, 1987). Specifically, impulse purchases can
account for up to 60%, and many shopping decisions are made once in store, without previous
buying intentions (Amos, Holmes, & Keneson, 2014). As argued by Rook (1987), situational
stimuli normally trigger automatic responses that lead the individual to act on impulse, with
any or little premeditation nor consideration on the consequences of this behaviour in the short
and long term. This reaction is driven by a specific feeling, regarded as the urge to buy
impulsively, that the consumer experience as irresistible, persistent and powerful (Amos et al.,
2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Rook, 1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995). Although
situational factors have a relevant impact on this urgency feeling, contributing to the creation
of a consumption impulse, the likelihood of an impulsive buying behaviour increases when
these variables interact with dispositional elements characterising the individual (Amos et al.,
2014). In fact, personality demonstrated to play a role in the natural disposition of enacting
behaviours driven by stimuli and impulses (Shahjehan, 2012; Thompson & Prendergast, 2015;
Verplanken & Herabadi, 2001). The main influence is brought by impulsivity, a particular
personality trait for which people tend to follow their impulses and take rash-actions as a
response to certain provoking elements (Amos et al., 2014; Evenden, 1999; Eysenck,
Pearson, Easting, & Allsopp, 1985). Specifically, the impulsivity dimension called “urgency”
proved to be significantly related to impulsive and compulsive buying, explaining the consumer
tendency to surrender to strong negative emotions with automatic responses (Billieux, Rochat,
Rebetez, & Van der Linden, 2008; Whiteside & Lynam, 2001; Whiteside, Lynam, Miller, &
Reynolds, 2005). However, individuals can react on impulse also after experiencing strong
positive emotions, and as a result, a specific dimension called “positive urgency” was
developed (Cyders, Smith, Spillane, Fischer, Annus, Peterson, 2007; Cyders & Smith, 2007).
This trait presents a strong impact on mood-based rash actions, although the current state of
research has not investigated its influence on impulsive buying in particular.
2. Problem statement
Due to its significant relationship with mood-driven rash actions, the positive urgency trait has
the potentiality to predict impulsive buying behaviour, by inducing the consumer to feel a
powerful urge to buy and subsequently to purchase an item on impulse in order to react to an
emotionally charged shopping experience. In fact, consumers characterized by this specific
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personality trait, are expected to be triggered by external stimuli, which provide a sense of
arousal or immediate gratification, consequently causing the urge to buy. Pleasure feelings
and a positive affective state may have the function of activating the latent positive urgency
trait in the individual, who is unable to resist to the temptation and eventually react to these
stimuli with an automatic and spontaneous response, consisting in an impulsive purchase.
This hypothesis is supported by the fact that, on the one hand, negative urgency – regarded
as the reverse impulsivity facet of positive urgency – showed a strong relationship with
impulsive buying (Billieux et al., 2008). On the other hand, several studies analysed and
compared the impact of positive and negative emotions on consumer behaviour and mood-
based actions, and key findings argued that positive affective state has a stronger influence
on the urge to buy (Gardner & Rook, 1993).
3. Purpose
Building on previous research and the abovementioned problem statement, the purpose of
this study is to investigate the linkage between the impulsivity facet of positive urgency, which
will be further described in the chapter dedicated to the literature review, and impulsive buying
behaviour, as applied towards fashion products. Specifically, the aim is to contribute to the
current theoretical framework with a model that provides a comprehensive description of
impulsive buying with its main antecedents. Moreover, since this personality trait is activated
when the individual experiences strong positive emotions, this research addresses the most
relevant elements causing positive mood in the consumer (i.e., money availability, time
pressure and marketing stimuli).
Apart from its theoretical implications, the outcome of the study can be exploited by store
managers, in order to influence the consumer’s affective state through specific features of the
retail environment, that can increase the likelihood of perceiving the urge to buy on impulse.
4. Structure
In order to introduce the topic in depth, a review of the literature on impulsive buying, the
personality construct of impulsivity with its different dimensions, and main precursors of
impulsive purchase behaviour is presented. The research question follows, accompanied by
a detailed explanation of the hypotheses that will be tested by the study. The third chapter is
dedicated to the methodology: it includes data collection method, data analysis approach and
an exhaustive description of the variables under consideration. This part is followed by the
analysis and interpretation of the results, based on the development of a multiple linear
regression model on impulsive buying; also, respondents are segmented based on their
shopping habits, and an initial discussion of key findings of the research is provided. Finally,
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
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a chapter will provide the reader with the conclusions of the research, consisting of theoretical
and managerial implications, limitations of the study, and suggestions for further research on
the topic.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
1. Impulsive buying behaviour
i. Definition of impulsive buying
Nowadays, impulsive buying accounts for a significant amount of total purchases, more
specifically for some determined product categories (i.e. fashion merchandise and jewellery),
consistently with the widespread phenomenon of in-store decision-making process (Amos et
al., 2014; Dittmar, Beattie, & Friese, 1996; Hausman, 2000). A comprehensive definition of
this kind of consumer behaviour includes the experience of a sudden, irresistible, and
persistent urge to buy an item immediately, characterized by the lack of pre-shopping
intentions and by any or little regards for the consequences. Normally, this feeling is powerful
and leads the consumer to engage in an unplanned and impulsive purchase, with a short time-
gap between the consumption impulse and the enactment of the behaviour (Amos et al., 2014;
Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Rook, 1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995). However, it is
observed that feeling the urge to buy not always turns into an impulsive buying behaviour:
specific normative and cognitive evaluations are applied by the consumer (Beatty & Ferrell,
1998; Dholakia, 2000; Hausman, 2000; Rook & Fisher, 1995), and a more detailed review of
the different resistance strategies will be presented in this chapter. Further features of the
impulsive buying behaviour are the following: spontaneity, immediate gratification, temporary
hedonic temptation, positive affect or emotional charge, and potential post-purchase
justifications without a true remorse (Amos et al., 2014; Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Beatty &
Ferrell, 1998; Dittmar et al., 1996; Liu, Li, & Hu, 2013; Rook, 1987).
Impulsive buying behaviour finds its first roots into a specific socio-psychological framework,
represented by the so called symbolic consumption. Dittmar et al. (1996) stated that
“consumers do not just consume actual products, but also - or even instead - consume the
symbolic meanings of those products” (p.188). Therefore, the aim of an item’s purchase and
subsequent consumption is not to satisfy a specific need, but to create, reinforce and maintain
the consumer’s identity, as a way for expressing the self. This directly recalls the symbolic
self-completion theory conceived by Wicklund and Gollwitzer (1982), successively deepen by
Dittmar et al. (1996) with the construct of self-discrepancies perceived by an individual with
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
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respect to his or her image and the ideal self. Building on this theory, the acquisition of goods
and subsequently material possessions have the function of fulfilling these discrepancies
(Dittmar et al., 1996). Another construct of the framework that correlates with impulsive
shopping is hedonic consumption, defined as “those facets of consumer behavior that relate
to the multisensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of one's experience with products”
(Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982, p. 92). In this case, a consumer purchasing items seeks the
experience of shopping itself, and obtains satisfaction from that event and not just from the
consumption of the product (Dittmar et al., 1996; Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982; Rook, 1987).
Despite its simple definition, hedonic consumption can assume different forms, represented
by six broad categories: adventure shopping, social shopping, gratification shopping, idea
shopping, role shopping, and value shopping (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003).
Moreover, the impact of personality needs to be taken into account when describing the
framework of impulsive buying (Thompson & Prendergast, 2015; Verplanken & Herabadi,
2001). Building on the personality structure regarded as the Big Five Personality Traits –
extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism or emotional instability, and
openness (Goldberg, 1990) – the specific relationship between impulsive buying behaviour
and personality was more deeply studied and the findings brought a relevant contribution to
the corresponding theoretical framework. The Big Five personality traits proved to explain one
third of the total variance of impulsive buying behaviour, and the main elements were
openness and neuroticism (Shahjehan, 2012; Sharma, Sivakumaran, & Marshall, 2010;
Thompson & Prendergast, 2015). This results in the fact that consumers regarded as
imaginative, artistically sensitive and intellectual (openness to experience), but also nervous,
anxious, tense and insecure (emotional instability) are more likely to display impulsive buying
behaviour. Furthermore, many studies highlight the impact of the impulsivity trait of personality
on impulsive shopping (Dholakia, 2000; Liu et al., 2013; Rook & Fisher, 1995), which mainly
relates to neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001;
Whiteside et al., 2005). A specific chapter will be dedicated to impulsivity and its relationship
with impulsive buying.
Even though impulsive buying behaviour appears similar to compulsive buying behaviour, due
to similar roots in the symbolic self-completion theory and the common features of hedonic
temptation and short-sighted decision-making process, the two constructs are distinct.
Obviously, both tendencies are driven by precursors such as socio-demographic factors and
personality traits. However, compulsive buying differentiates from impulse buying as it is
caused by internal triggers of identity confusion and anxiety (Claes, Müller, & Luyckx, 2016;
DeSarbo & Edwards, 1996). In addition, it is characterized by an addictive behaviour that leads
the consumer to feel an uncontrolled, repetitive and excessive urge to buy, followed by an
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
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immediate positive sensation that eventually turns into distress, guilt, and negative mood.
Therefore, compulsive buying behaviour has a detrimental effect on the individual, which is
not experienced in the case of impulsive buying (Amos et al., 2014; Shahjehan, 2012; Claes
et al., 2016; DeSarbo & Edwards, 1996; Mueller, Mitchell, Peterson, Faber, Steffen, Crosby,
& Claes, 2011). Before the sense of euphoria and distress relief that characterise that post-
purchase consumer’s mood, the most common antecedent of compulsive buying behaviour is
represented by negative emotions (Miltenberger, Redlin, Crosby, Stickney, Mitchell,
Wonderlich, Faber, & Smith, 2003), whereas impulsive buying is explained by a broader pool
of precursors that will be studied in another chapter.
ii. The separation between feeling the urge and engaging in an impulsive
purchase
Although the impulse purchase is always preceded by feeling the urge to buy, due to a certain
degree of impulsive buying tendency characterizing the individual, it is necessary to separate
the impulse to buy and the action of the actual purchase. Obviously, the felt urge fosters the
decision to buy on impulse, and these elements proved to be positively and significantly
correlated (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). In addition, these impulses normally entail a sense of
anticipated gratifying experience, for which the consumer finds it difficult to apply a strategy of
impulse control (Rook, 1987). However, as stated by Rook and Fisher (1995), “[t]he probability
that consumers actually engage in impulse buying presumably depends both on the degree
to which they possess impulsive buying trait tendencies and on their normative judgments that
may proscribe or permit a particular impulsive purchase” (p. 305). Therefore, Rook and
Fisher’s theory (1995) argues that normative evaluations on the appropriateness of making
an impulse purchase play a significant role as to mediate the relationship between IBT and
the actual impulsive purchase. In addition, these evaluations are driven either by personality
traits or by situational norms. More specifically, the theory concludes that positive normative
evaluations reinforce the impulsive purchase behaviour, consistently with the personality trait
described by impulsiveness. On the other hand, negative normative evaluations attenuate the
relationship and causality between IBT and the impulsive purchase. However, if the negative
influence is weak, the individual may respond with an impulsive purchase anyway, violating
the norms and subsequently feeling an additional arousal that is not caused by the shopping
experience only. This happens under a certain normative threshold, beyond which the impulse
is completely dissipated and the individual does not eventually enact the behaviour (Rook &
Fisher, 1995). This moderating role of normative evaluations proved to be valid also in an
online context (Liu et al., 2013).
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Building on Rook and Fisher’s theory (1995), in 2000 Dholakia designed an integrated model
of consumption impulse formation and enactment (CIFE), illustrated in Figure 1. According to
this model, the process always starts with perception and recognition of a consumption
impulse (CI), followed by an automatic response consisting in the evaluation of potential
constraining factors (i.e., time limits, money availability, long-term consequences of enacting
the behaviour and related anticipatory emotions). If this assessment results in the lack of
constraints, the individual proceeds by enacting the CI, adopting a consonant behaviour.
Conversely, if limitations do exist, the process continues with a cognitive evaluation of
consequences: if these are regarded as positive, the CI is enacted and results in a dissonant
impulsive behaviour; on the other hand, if the evaluation has a negative outcome, the volitional
system intervenes and the individual exploits resistance strategies. These tactics will manage
to dissipate the impulse depending on the expectancy of resisting to it: if the probability to
resist is unfavourable, the individual engages in a dissonant impulsive behaviour and an
impulse purchase is made; contrarily, if the expectancy is favourable, the CI results in a non-
behaviour and is dispelled (Dholakia, 2000).
Figure 1. The CIFE framework. Source: Dholakia, 2000, p. 960.
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iii. Motivations behind impulsive shopping
In contrast with previous psychological studies that regarded impulsive buying behaviour as
irrational, immature, wasteful and wrong (Ainslie, 1975; Levy, 1976), Rook and Fisher (1995)
provided a different perspective on the topic. Accordingly, consumers implement normative
evaluations to assess if a certain behaviour (i.e., impulse purchase) is appropriate in a given
situation, and these judgments moderate the intercurrent relationship between the urge to buy
and the action of buying. However, impulsive purchases account for a significant amount of
buying, since negative evaluations are frequently weak and can be easily overcome by certain
justifications (Hausman, 2000; Rook & Fisher, 1995). Consistently with the above-mentioned
theory of hedonic consumption, for which the acquisition of the product is secondary to the
experience provided by the shopping activity itself (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Hirschman &
Holbrook, 1982), hedonic needs are identified as basic motivators of impulsive buying. In
particular, consumers engaging in impulse purchases are driven by needs of novelty, variety,
fun, surprise and social interaction (Hausman, 2000). Moreover, Hausman (2000) proved that
impulsive buying also aims at satisfying needs of esteem, related to the desire to be fashion-
conscious and keep abreast with latest trends, and self-actualization, as theorized by
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1968). Finally, “impulse buying . . . represents a
rational alternative to more time-consuming search behaviours” (Hausman, 2000, p. 413).
2. Impulsivity
One of the main drivers of impulsive buying is the personality trait of impulsivity, also called
impulsiveness, which has been studied in several research fields. In general, the construct
proved to form part of extraversion (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1968, 1977) and to strongly correlate
with traits of novelty-seeking and sensation-seeking (Cloninger, Przybeck, & Svrakic, 1991,
1993; Zuckerman, 1994). As studied by Tellegen (1985) and Cloninger et al. (1991),
impulsivity represents an automatic response to stimuli provided by the environment, and the
manner and the intensity of the response depend on individual biological tendencies. Amos et
al. (2014) presented a comprehensive definition and analysis of this psychological construct,
regarded as “lack of behavioral control and an immediate preference for surrendering to
temptation” (p. 88), in contrast with the tendency to follow self-regulation of impulses or
planned actions.
i. Dimensions of the impulsivity trait
Regarding the components of impulsivity, researchers developed several theories. Eysenck
and Eysenck (1977) initially defined the construct as composed by four dimensions – narrow
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impulsiveness, risk-taking, non-planning, and liveness, but further research subdivided
impulsivity into only two dimensions, called venturesomeness and impulsiveness (Eysenck et
al., 1985). Subsequently, components of impulsivity were described as attentional impulsivity,
in relationship to cognitive instability and the capability to focus on tasks; motor impulsiveness,
as to explain the tendency to engage in rash actions; finally, non-planning, for the lack of
premeditation (Patton, Stanford, & Barratt, 1995). A more detailed theory was proposed by
Evenden (1999), who contributed with a definition of impulsivity and its dimensions, and also
studied the construct in relationship to psychiatric disorders and to its effect on behaviours.
Specifically, impulsivity trait is divided into lack of premeditation before acting and
consideration of the outcome, often resulting in risk-preference. Moreover, the construct may
affect individual behaviour in three different stages: impulsive preparation, leading to
premature responses, driven by expectations created before gathering all the necessary
information; impulsive execution, causing distraction, inability to wait, tendency to interrupt
other people and not to follow given instructions; and impulsivity in outcomes, bringing to the
inability to delay gratification (Evenden, 1999).
The latest theory on impulsivity, on which the present research is based, was developed by
Whiteside, Lynam and colleagues (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005). The
multifaceted construct of impulsivity derives from the five-factor model of personality and, in
particular, it can be explained through a four-factor model: the UPPS behavioural scale
(Whiteside & Lynam, 2001). According to this scale, impulsivity consists of four dimensions,
defined as it follows:
Urgency, refers to the tendency to engage in impulsive behaviours under conditions of
negative affect, perhaps in order to alleviate negative emotions, despite the potentially
harmful longer-term consequences.
Premeditation . . . refers to a difficulty in thinking and reflecting on the consequences
of an act before engaging in that act.
Lack of Perseverance . . . refers to an individual’s inability to remain focused on a task
that may be boring or difficult.
Finally, Sensation Seeking . . . has two aspects: (1) a tendency to enjoy and pursue
activities that are exciting, and (2) an openness to trying new experiences that may be
dangerous. (Whiteside et al., 2005, p. 561).
As regards the correlation with the Big Five personality traits, urgency mainly correlates with
neuroticism, sensation-seeking with extraversion, while lack of premeditation and lack of
perseverance correspond to low scores of conscientiousness (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001;
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Whiteside et al., 2005). Furthermore, a more detailed definition of the urgency trait was
provided, by combining impulsivity with negative affect, as “it involves difficulty in controlling
or coping with urges to act in response to unpleasant emotions” (Whiteside et al., 2005, p.
569). Consistently with this definition, urgency proved to be a strong predictor of compulsive
buying tendency (Billieux et al., 2008) and of troublesome and risky behaviours (Sperry,
Lynam, Walsh, Horton, & Kwapil, 2016).
ii. Scales and measures of impulsivity
As previously explained, according to Whiteside and colleagues the psychological construct
of impulsivity is described by four facets: urgency, (lack of) premeditation, (lack of)
perseverance, and sensation-seeking. The UPPS scale that summarizes these dimensions
consists of 43 items, divided into four groups as presented in Table 1.
Table 1. UPPS impulsive behaviour scale. Source: Whiteside and Lynam, 2001, p. 682-683.
Premeditation
1. I have a reserved and cautious attitude toward life.
2. My thinking is usually careful and purposeful.
3. I am not one of those people who blurt out things without thinking.
4. I like to stop and think things over before I do them.
5. I don't like to start a project until I know exactly how to proceed.
6. I tend to value and follow a rational, “sensible'' approach to things.
7. I usually make up my mind through careful reasoning.
8. I am a cautious person.
9. Before I get into a new situation I like to find out what to expect from it.
10. I usually think carefully before doing anything.
11. Before making up my mind, I consider all the advantages and disadvantages.
Urgency
1. I have trouble controlling my impulses.
2. I have trouble resisting my cravings (for food, cigarettes, etc.).
3. I often get involved in things I later wish I could get out of.
4. When I feel bad, I will often do things I later regret in order to make myself feel better
now.
5. Sometimes when I feel bad, I can't seem to stop what I am doing even though it is
making me feel worse.
6. When I am upset I often act without thinking.
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7. When I feel rejected, I will often say things that I later regret.
8. It is hard for me to resist acting on my feelings.
9. I often make matters worse because I act without thinking when I am upset.
10. In the heat of an argument, I will often say things that I later regret.
11. I am always able to keep my feelings under control. (R)
12. Sometimes I do things on impulse that I later regret
Perseverance
1. I generally like to see things through to the end.
2. I tend to give up easily. (R)
3. Unfinished tasks really bother me.
4. Once I get going on something I hate to stop.
5. I concentrate easily.
6. I finish what I start.
7. I'm pretty good about pacing myself so as to get things done on time.
8. I am a productive person who always gets the job done.
9. Once I start a project, I almost always finish it.
10. There are so many little jobs that need to be done that I sometimes just ignore them all.
(R)
Sensation-seeking
1. I generally seek new and exciting experiences and sensations.
2. I'll try anything once.
3. I like sports and games in which you have to choose your next move very quickly.
4. I would enjoy water skiing.
5. I quite enjoy taking risks.
6. I would enjoy parachute jumping.
7. I welcome new and exciting experiences and sensations, even if they are a little
frightening and unconventional.
8. I would like to learn to fly an airplane.
9. I sometimes like doing things that are a bit frightening.
10. I would enjoy the sensation of skiing very fast down a high mountain slope.
11. I would like to go scuba diving.
12. I would enjoy fast driving.
In particular, after the development of the UPPS behavioural scale, Whiteside et al. (2005)
validated this scale. The four traits proved to be intercorrelated, especially Perseverance and
Premeditation, but it is observed that they must be kept distinct. In particular, when assessing
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
15
the impact of impulsivity on individuals affected by psychopathological disorders, the
corresponding personality traits appear to be essential features. Nevertheless, the level of
significance of each impulsivity dimension varies depending on psychopathology groups, thus
it is possible to conclude that the four facets do not overlap with one another (Miller, Flory,
Lynam, & Leukefeld, 2003; Whiteside et al., 2005).
iii. The introduction of a fifth facet: positive urgency
The UPPS scale was subsequently updated by introducing a new dimension called positive
urgency, that proved to be a symmetrical facet of urgency as initially defined (Cyders,
Littlefield, Coffey, & Karyadi, 2014; D’Orta, Burnay, Aiello, Niolu, Siracusano, Timpanaro,
Khazaal, Billieux, 2015). In fact, in the original scale, urgency was regarded as the inability to
repress automatic responses driven by negative affect (Whiteside et al., 2005). Nonetheless,
it is observed that the same behaviour is implemented by individuals in response to positive
emotional contexts too, thus it is necessary to distinguish between negative and positive
urgency in the description of the multifaceted construct of impulsivity.
Specifically, Cyders and colleagues (2007) theorized the construct of positive urgency as a
personality trait describing a determined attitude towards rash actions, characterized by lack
of intentions and mood-based drivers. Normally, individuals engage in impulsive actions due
to the positive urgency trait as to enhance their own positive mood. Therefore, this dimension
may lead to maladaptive and sometimes risky behaviours, in response to emotionally charged
situations characterized by positive feelings that make the individual surrender to tempting
stimuli. In fact, positive urgency proved to be correlated to risky and impulsive behaviours such
as gambling, alcohol abuse, smoking dependence, internet addiction, etc. (Cyders et al., 2007;
Cyders & Smith, 2007; D’Orta et al., 2015).
The validation of positive urgency as the fifth facet of the impulsivity trait is based on the fact
that the construct do not overlap with any element of the two prominent models of impulsivity,
represented by Gray’s behavioural activation system (1987) and Whiteside and Lynam’s four-
factor model of impulsivity (Cyders et al., 2007). Moreover, when studying the relationship
between impulsivity and risky behaviours or psychopathological disorders, positive urgency
proved to explain an additional variance of these phenomena. In particular, it represents a
strong predictor of risky behaviours (i.e., gambling, problem drinking) driven by positive mood
(Cyders et al., 2007; Cyders & Smith, 2007; D’Orta et al., 2015). Items describing and
measuring positive urgency are listed in Table 2.
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
16
Table 2. Items for measuring Positive Urgency. Source: Cyders et al., 2007, p. 110.
Positive urgency
1. When I am very happy, I can’t seem to stop myself from doing things that can have bad
consequences.
2. When I am in great mood, I tend to get into situations that could cause me problems.
3. When I am very happy, I tend to do things that may cause problems in my life.
4. I tend to lose control when I am in a great mood.
5. When I am really ecstatic, I tend to get out of control.
6. Others would say I make bad choices when I am extremely happy about something.
7. Others are shocked or worried about the things I do when I am feeling very excited.
8. When I get really happy about something, I tend to do things that can have bad
consequences.
9. When overjoyed, I feel like I can’t stop myself from going overboard.
10. When I am really excited, I tend not to think of the consequences of my actions.
11. I tend to act without thinking when I am really excited.
12. When I am really happy, I often find myself in situations that I normally wouldn’t be
comfortable with.
13. When I am very happy, I feel like it is OK to give in to cravings or overindulge.
14. I am surprised at the things I do while in a great mood.
Further research contributed to the theoretical framework of positive urgency with the creation
of a model explaining mood-based rash actions. The behavioural components are urgency,
distinguished into positive and negative according to the affective state; sensation or
excitement seeking; and deficit of conscientiousness, which can be displayed in the form of
lack of premeditation or lack of perseverance (Cyders & Smith, 2007). Building on this
classification of components, two possible models fit the representation of mood-based rash
actions: a three-factor model, composed by the abovementioned elements, or a five-factor
model, in which the two forms of urgency and the two forms of deficit of conscientiousness
represent distinct components. In any case, even though positive and negative urgency are
aggregated in the first model, because of parsimony reasons, they proved to explain different
behaviours: positive urgency characterizes behaviours driven by positive mood, whereas
negative urgency explains actions caused by negative affect, thus a distinction is necessary
(Cyders et al., 2014; Cyders & Smith, 2007; D’Orta et al., 2015).
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
17
3. Precursors of impulsive buying
This chapter will be dedicated to an overview of the main antecedents of the impulsive buying
behaviour, classified into three categories as presented by Amos et al. (2014):
Dispositional variables, including elements for which each individual differs from
another due to specific personal permanent features or biological tendencies.
Situational variables, which characterize the context of the action and are not
necessarily under the control of the individual (i.e., external stimuli, affective state,
limitations, etc.).
Sociodemographic variables, explained by age, gender and income.
The most significant impact on impulsive buying is driven by the interaction of dispositional
and situational variables, specifically IBT, positive social influence and retail environment
(Amos et al., 2014). In addition, both positive and negative affective states play an important
role as to mediate the urge to buy, in particular positive mood represents a more stable
precursor for this type of behaviour (Gardner & Rook, 1993; Flight, Rountree, & Beatty, 2012).
A detailed explanation of the different variables and their impact on impulsive buying will follow
in this chapter.
i. Dispositional variables
Impulsive buying tendency (IBT). IBT forms part of the personality trait of impulsivity, and it
was defined by Gerbing, Ahadi and Patton as the “tendency to respond quickly to a given
stimulus, without deliberation and evaluation of consequences” (1987, p. 357) . Therefore, this
trait has an impact on the manner and the intensity with which individuals respond to stimuli
and subsequently engage in an impulse buying in their daily life, and it differs from one person
to another (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Rook, 1987). IBT results related to
elements such as materialism, shopping enjoyment, and sensation seeking trait (Beatty &
Ferrell, 1998; Dittmar et al., 1996; Hyo-Jung, Ruoh-Nan, & Eckman, 2014; Rook, 1987;
Sharma et al., 2010). Due to its nature, a high level of IBT leads the consumer to feel more
frequent urges to buy, thus to engage in in-store browsing and finally make an impulsive
purchase (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). However, the effect of IBT on impulsive buying behaviour
can be moderated by other factors. On the one hand, positive mood and positive social
influence endorse IBT and foster the behaviour; on the other hand, negative affect and
negative social influence may diminish the intensity of the felt urge, bur normally with a lower
intensity than their reverse constructs (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Flight et al.,
2012; Rook & Fisher, 1995).
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
18
Shopping enjoyment. The pleasure perceived by the consumer during the shopping
experience is another endogenous variable that, together with IBT, addresses an individual
difference in the impulsive buying behaviour. Shopping enjoyment is related to hedonic
shopping and represents an important antecedent of impulse buying, due to its effect of
immediate gratification and emotional arousal. This effect induces the consumer to spend
more time in the store and increases the likelihood of feeling the urge to buy and subsequently
making an impulsive purchase (Amos et al., 2014; Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Beatty & Ferrell,
1998; Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982).
Other psychological constructs. Finally, there are other psychological factors that may play a
role in the perception of the urge to buy and in the implementation of an impulsive purchase.
In general, they are related to personality traits of novelty and variety seeking, esteem,
openness, emotional instability, susceptibility to influence, and they represent precursors of
urgency feeling and impulse buying as to foster the behaviour. On the other hand, the ability
to maintain self-control, price consciousness and self-monitoring of impulses play the role of
inhibitors of this type of consumer behaviour (Amos et al., 2014; Shahjehan, 2012; Dittmar et
al., 1996; Sharma et al., 2010; Thompson & Prendergast, 2015; Verplanken & Herabadi,
2001).
ii. Situational variables
Constraints: time and money availability. As exogenous variables, time and money availability
directly explain the duration and the amount of money spent in a store. Their impact on impulse
buying is significant since their perception affects the effort that the consumer dedicates to the
shopping experience and his or her corresponding mood. In fact, individuals feeling under
pressure because of lack of money or time are likely to spend a shorter time in the store, and
it results in a decreased likelihood of feeling the urge to buy on impulse (Iyer, 1989). On the
other hand, if the customer does not perceived frustration or negative affect, he or she is more
likely to engage in an impulsive buying behaviour. Therefore, these two exogenous variables
act as precursors by encouraging customers to dedicate more time to the in-store browsing
activity, creating a positive affect which leads to more frequent urges to buy and subsequent
impulse purchases (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). In particular for money availability, this factor
showed to act as a mediator between consumer’s positive emotions responding to
environmental stimuli and impulsive buying behaviour (Hyo-Jung et al., 2014).
Positive and negative affect. Even though mood represents a temporary affective state and
varies across a wide range of different shades, depending on the individual and on the context,
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
19
it plays an important role in influencing consumer behaviour, either conscious or not. In
particular, the underlying element in the relationship between impulsive buying and affective
states is the sensation of immediate gratification perceived by the consumer after the
purchase. In fact, shopping denotes a way to either reinforce positive mood, or relieve negative
emotions (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Gardner & Rook, 1993;
Ozer & Gultekin, 2015). Gardner and Rook (1993) proved that their model, combining the
three structural dimensions of moods – pleasure, arousal, and dominance – and the so-called
core themes of motivation, mobilization and capability, could provide a comprehensive
explanation on the relationship between impulsive buying behaviour and affective states. In
particular, the pleasure element of shopping satisfies the need for self-indulgency and
immediate gratification, therefore a strong positive mood encourages the consumer to engage
in an impulsive purchase. In addition, high levels of arousal decrease the intensity of
resistance strategies to spontaneous spending, while the dominance factor induces the feeling
of power and being in control of the situation; subsequently all moods’ dimensions increase
the likelihood of impulsive buying behaviours. On other hand, even negative mood may foster
the enactment of a buying impulse, as a therapy to relieve stress, negative emotions, or
anxiety (Gardner & Rook, 1993). However, positive mood proved to have a stronger impact
than its opposite state on impulse buying (Gardner & Rook, 1993; Flight et al., 2012; Beatty &
Ferrel, 1998). Specifically, positive mood is normally related to an approach behaviour, for
which the individual responds to a stimuli from the environment with the aim of seeking a
reward or an affective reinforcement, whereas negative mood is more frequently associated
to the adoption of an avoidance behaviour (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). Finally, this variable
generally correlates with other contextual elements, such as money, time availability,
stimulation from the store environment, which induce positive feelings that subsequently
increase the urge to buy (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998)
Marketing stimuli from store environment. Several studies on the antecedents of impulsive
buying behaviour analysed and proved the importance that the retail environment fulfils in
terms of stimulating the consumer to perceive an irresistible CI. Depending on the type of
stimuli, the environment can directly affect the urge to buy something on impulse, or the
affective state of the individual browsing in the store (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998;
Hyo-Jung, Eckmanb, & Ruoh-Nan, 2011; Mattila & Wirtz, 2008). As stated by Mattila and Wirtz
(2008), the store environment can produce pleasure and arousal feelings, through different
strategies of overstimulation; nevertheless, their efficacy depends on the extent at which this
stimulation is able to reach, or even exceed, the desired level defined by the consumer, which
strongly depends on personality traits. The elements of stimulation from the retail environment
can be classified in three categories: elements affecting the perception of the store, friendly
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
20
employees, and presence of other customers (Mattila & Wirtz, 2008). The second and the third
components mitigate one another in terms of capability to induce the customer to browse in
the shop and possibly engage in an impulsive purchase. As regards the factors influencing
the perception of the context itself, the most relevant ones are: physical proximity and
immediate availability of the product; aesthetic appeal, including visual presentation of the
item, layout of the store, merchandising elements, general atmosphere of the shop; finally,
website ease of use (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Liu et
al., 2013). The latter factor, specifically for online impulsive shopping, contributes to the
consumer’s perception of usefulness, which commonly determines a flow experience as
defined by Csikszentmihalyi in 2008. The combination of flow experience and trust belief in
the website demonstrated to explain a significant percentage of the total variance in online
impulsive buying, since the consumer enjoys the shopping experience and is more likely to
feel the urge to buy (Wu, Chen, & Chiu, 2016). In fact, design, navigation and communication
style of a website represent the main elements encouraging the consumer towards an
impulsive purchase in an online context (Floh & Madlberger, 2013; Verhagen & Van Dolen,
2011). Moreover, the stimulation provided by music has a significant impact. Generally, it
brings feelings of arousal and pleasure, improving the mood of the customer; additionally, it
manipulates time perception, thus increases the time spent browsing in the store (Garlin &
Owen, 2006). As a result, all these marketing stimuli condition consumer behaviour and
promote impulsive purchases.
Social influence. The exogenous variable of social influence plays a relevant role as to mediate
the urge to buy on impulse: depending on if it is regarded as positive or negative, this element
may respectively boost or prevent the customer from engaging in an impulsive purchase
(Amos et al., 2014). As previously mentioned, social norms proved to have an impact on the
likelihood of surrendering to the temptation of buying an item without any premeditation or
consideration of consequences, and depending on the intensity of the impulse even negative
evaluations can be overcome (Rook, 1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995).
iii. Sociodemographic variables
As investigated in the meta-analysis by Amos et al. (2014), the impulsive buying behaviour
may vary depending on certain sociodemographic variables: age is negatively correlated with
impulsive purchases, whereas annual income enhances impulsive buying; as regards gender,
the research presents conflicting results. However, these factors proved to have the least
impact on impulse buying, therefore this research will not address them further.
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
21
Literature review – overview of the main references
# Title Author(s) Year Published Contribution
1 Hedonic
Consumption:
Emerging Concepts,
Methods and
Propositions
Hirschman, E.
C.; Holbrook, M.
B.
1982 Journal of Marketing,
46(3), 92-101
Definition of hedonic
consumption
2 The Buying Impulse Rook, D. 1987 Journal of Consumer
Research, 14(2), 189–
199
Definition of impulsive
buying.
Forces driving the urge
to buy and confirmation
of individual differences
in the IBT.
3 An alternative
"description of
personality": The big-
five factor structure.
Goldberg, L. 1990 Journal of Personality
and Social
Psychology, 59(6),
1216-1229
Creation of a five-factor
model for describing
personality (The Big
Five personality traits).
4 In the mood: Impulse
buying's affective
antecedents
Gardner, M.;
Rook, D.
1993 Research in consumer
behavior, 6(7), 1-28
Relationship between
impulsive buying and
consumer’s mood.
Development of a
comprehensive model
for mood, based on
three dimensions and
three core themes.
5 Normative Influences
on Impulsive Buying
Behavior
Rook, D.; Fisher,
R.
1995 Journal of Consumer
Research, 22(3), 305-
313
Moderating role of
normative evaluations
on the relationship
between IBT and
impulsive buying
behaviour.
6 Objects, decision
considerations and
self-image in men's
and women's impulse
purchases
Dittmar, H.;
Beattie, J.;
Friese, S.
1996 Acta Psychologica,
93(1-3), 187-206
Roots of impulsive and
compulsive buying in
symbolic consumption.
Explanation of
impulsive and
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
22
compulsive buying
through self-
discrepancies,
coherently with self-
completion theory.
7 Impulse buying:
Modeling its
precursors
Beatty, S. E.;
Ferrel, E. M.
1998 Journal of Retailing,
74(2), 169-191
Definition of impulsive
buying, in relationship to
the hedonic value of
shopping.
Analysis of the
precursors of impulsive
shopping, distinguished
into exogenous and
endogenous variables
(situational elements
and individual
differences).
8 Impulsivity: a
discussion of clinical
and experimental
findings
Evenden, J. 1999 Journal of
Psychopharmacology,
13(2), 180-192
Dimensions of
impulsivity construct
into lack of
premeditation before
acting and
consideration of the
outcome.
Impact of impulsivity on
preparation, execution
and outcomes.
9 Temptation and
Resistance An
Integrated Model of
Consumption Impulse
Formation and
Enactment
Dholakia, U. 2000 Psychology and
Marketing, 17(11),
955-982
Development of the
CIFE model for
impulsive buying.
10 A multi-method
investigation of
consumer motivations
Hausman, A. 2000 Journal of Consumer
Marketing, 17(5), 403-
426
Motivations behind
impulsive buying,
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
23
in impulse buying
behavior
consisting in hedonic
and additional needs.
Perceptions of decision-
making accuracy during
the impulse buying
behaviour.
11 The Five-Factor
Model and Impulsivity:
Using a Structural
Model of Personality
to Understand
Impulsivity
Whiteside, S.;
Lynam, D.
2001 Personality and
Individual Differences,
30, 669-689
Four-factor model for
impulsivity (UPPS
scale): urgency,
premeditation,
perseverance, and
sensation seeking.
Relationship between
impulsivity facets and
the Big Five personality
traits.
12 Hedonic shopping
motivations
Arnold, M. J.;
Reynolds, K. E.
2003 Journal of Retailing,
79(2), 77-95
Six shopping categories
defining hedonic
consumption.
13 Validation of the
UPPS Impulsive
Behavior Scale: A four
factor model of
impulsivity
Whiteside, S.
P.; Lynam, D.;
Miller, J.;
Reynolds, S.
2005 European Journal of
Personality, 19, 559-
574
Validation of the UPPS
scale for impulsivity.
14 Integration of
impulsivity and
positive mood to
predict risky behavior:
Development and
validation of a
measure of positive
urgency
Cyders, M. A.;
Smith, G. T.;
Spillane, N. S.;
Fischer, S.;
Annus, A. M.;
Peterson, C.
2007 Psychological
Assessment, 19(1),
107-118
Introduction of the
positive urgency trait to
the multifaceted
construct of impulsivity,
and development of a
scale of measurement.
Relationship between
positive urgency risky
behaviours.
15 Mood-based rash
action and its
Cyders, M. A.;
Smith, G. T.
2007 Personality and
Individual Differences,
43(4), 839-850
Relationship between
positive urgency and
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
24
components: Positive
and negative urgency
positive mood-based
rash actions.
16 The role of store
environmental
stimulation and social
factors on impulse
purchasing
Mattila, A.; Wirtz
J.
2008 Journal of Services
Marketing, 22(7), 562-
567
Impact of
overstimulation caused
by the retail
environment and other
social factors on
impulsive buying.
17 Are all facets of
impulsivity related to
self-reported
compulsive buying
behavior?
Billieux, J.;
Rochat, L.;
Rebetez, M. M.
L.; Van der
Linden, M.
2008 Personality and
Individual Differences,
44(6), 1432-1442
Urgency related to
negative emotions as
the only strong predictor
of impulsive and
compulsive buying
behaviour.
18 The effect of
personality on
impulsive and
compulsive buying
behaviors
Shahjehan, A. 2012 African Journal of
Business
Management, 6(6),
2187-2194
Relationship between
the Big Five personality
traits and impulsive and
compulsive buying.
19 A meta-analysis of
consumer impulse
buying
Amos, C.;
Holmes, G. R.;
Keneson, W. C.
2014 Journal of Retailing
and Consumer
Services, 21(2), 86-97
Definition of impulsive
buying behaviour and
analysis of main drivers.
Interaction of
dispositional and
situational variables has
the main impact on
impulsive buying.
20 Defining key drivers of
online impulse
purchasing: A
perspective of both
impulse shoppers and
system users
Wu, I.; Chen, K.;
Chiu, M.
2016 International Journal
of Information
Management, 36(3),
284-296
Flow experience,
perceived usefulness
and trust explaining a
significant variance in
impulsive buying.
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
25
RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESES
As explained in the previous chapter, impulsive buying represents a pervasive consumer
behaviour that, consciously or not, forms part of people’s daily life (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty
& Ferrell, 1998; Gardner & Rook, 1993). Even though the CI can be alleviated by normative
evaluations and resistance strategies, the urge to buy on impulse is so powerful and persistent
that frequently overcomes these impediments, and eventually the consumer makes an
impulsive purchase (Dholakia, 2000; Hausman, 2000; Rook & Fisher, 1995). The core
antecedent of impulsive buying behaviour is embodied by the personality trait of
impulsiveness, which drives IBT in many individuals (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998;
Rook, 1987). As a multifaceted term, impulsivity consists of five dimensions, as theorized by
Whiteside, Lynam and colleagues (Cyders et al., 2007; Cyders & Smith, 2007; Whiteside &
Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005):
- Positive urgency, defined as the tendency to react with rash actions to extremely
positive emotions or moods.
- Negative urgency, defined as the tendency to respond automatically to strong and
extremely negative emotions or moods.
- Lack of premeditation, described by the inability to think and reflect about the
consequences before acting.
- Lack of perseverance, which characterized individuals that struggle with focusing on
tasks and usually are tempted by distractions.
- Sensation seeking, represented by the openness to new and exciting activities.
Specifically, different studies on the impact of the original UPPS scale on impulsive buying
were conducted, and demonstrated that negative urgency is a key predictor of impulsive and
compulsive shopping behaviour, whereas the other components presents a moderately
significant correlation with IBT (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Billieux et al., 2008). Nonetheless, the
theoretical framework lacks a research studying the relationship between positive urgency and
impulsive buying behaviour. Currently, this impulsivity sub-construct proved to be a predictor
of risky behaviours and positive mood-based rash actions (Cyders et al., 2007; Cyders et al.,
2014; Cyders & Smith, 2007; D’Orta et al., 2015). In addition, positive affective states, which
drive automatic responses consistently with the positive urgency trait, proved to have a
stronger impact on the urge to buy on impulse, in comparison to negative moods (Beatty &
Ferrell, 1998; Gardner & Rook, 1993; Flight et al., 2012). Therefore, the aim of this research
is to study the impact of the positive urgency trait on impulsive buying behaviour, as its
potential predictor. Moreover, the study will address the analysis of precursors of positive
mood, which induces the consumer to feel strong emotions and impulses to buy and eventually
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
26
engage in an unplanned purchase. In particular, main factors under examination are time
availability, money availability and stimulation from the retail environment, building on previous
research findings (Amos et al., 2014; Dittmar et al., 1996; Hyo-Jung et al., 2014; Liu et al.,
2013; Mattila & Wirtz, 2008; Rook, 1987). The focus of the research will be narrowed to the
clothing industry, as fashion products are particularly subject to impulsive buying (Amos et al.,
2014; Dittmar et al., 1996).
Starting from these premises, the first and main hypothesis of this research is the following:
H1. Individuals that score high in positive urgency are more likely to engage in impulsive
purchases than those with a low positive urgency.
Furthermore, assuming that each antecedent described in the previous chapter act
independently from the others, in the manner and intensity with which it affects consumer’s
mood, it is necessary to keep them distinct. In the case of money and time availability
elements, the affective state is regarded as “pre-existing mood” meaning that it happens
before entering a store, as it is induced by a context independent from the retail environment.
Nevertheless, it is necessary to point out that, although the distinction normally impulsive
buying precursors may interact with one another.
H2a. For individuals characterized by the impulsivity trait of positive urgency, stimulation from
the store environment creates a positive mood in the customer that will increase his or her
tendency to make impulsive purchases.
H2b. For individuals characterized by the impulsivity trait of positive urgency, a pre-existing
positive affect, induced by money availability, will increase their tendency to make impulsive
purchases once in store.
H2c. For individuals characterized by the impulsivity trait of positive urgency, a pre-existing
positive affect, induced by time availability, will increase their tendency to make impulsive
purchases once in store.
Finally, impulsive buying behaviour is mainly driven by personality traits (Shahjehan, 2012;
Dholakia, 2000; Thompson & Prendergast, 2015; Verplanken & Herabadi, 2001; Whiteside &
Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005), and is rooted in the theory of hedonic consumption
(Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Dittmar et al., 1996; Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982; Rook, 1987).
Therefore, the last hypothesis to be tested aims at confirming a relationship between the
individual features of neuroticism and shopping enjoyment and impulsive buying.
H3a. Individuals characterized by emotional instability are more likely to engage in impulsive
purchases.
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
27
H3b. Individuals characterized by shopping enjoyment features are more likely to engage in
impulsive purchases.
METHODOLOGY
1. Sample and data collection
Since impulsive buying behaviour demonstrated to be a frequent and widespread component
of everyone’s daily life, with slightly differences in terms of sociodemographic variables, the
study will address apparel consumers regardless of their gender, nationality, or age. However,
the IBT scale developed by Rook and Fisher (1995) will be used in order to segment
respondents according to the degree they can be recognized as impulsive buyers. Participants
are interviewed about their general shopping habits towards fashion goods, and the responses
will be collected through the online distribution of the questionnaire via email or social
networks. Respondents reporting that they have never engaged in an impulsive purchase will
be considered out of scope and withdrawn by the sample.
2. Research instrument
The research will be conducted through an online questionnaire, designed with the Sphinx
software and based on different Likert-scales that will be explained in the next paragraph. The
survey will be divided into sections addressing different specific themes. The overview is
presented as follows:
- General respondent profile: it includes information about age, gender, nationality,
and shopping habits.
- Assessment of IBT and likelihood to enact an impulsive buying behaviour in
relationship to clothing items.
- Personality assessment: this section is dedicated to impulsivity traits of negative
urgency and positive urgency, shopping enjoyment tendency, and neuroticism trait.
- Situational stimuli: this part addresses the influence that money availability, time
availability and marketing stimuli from the retail environment have on the shopping
experience, in terms of mood and subsequent urge to buy fashion products.
A pre-test of the questionnaire will be run before launching the definitive version, in order to
assess whether the questions are clear and understandable, their effectiveness to keep the
respondent answer, or potential bugs in the survey.
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
28
The survey is distributed in three languages: English, Italian and Spanish. The translation of
the scales into the latter two languages are based on contribution of two native-speakers.
3. Variables definition and corresponding scales of measurement
Impulsive buying. As previously explained in the chapter dedicated to the theoretical
framework, individuals differ from one another in the way they are exposed to external triggers
that induce the feeling of urgency to buy on impulse (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Rook, 1987; Rook
& Fisher, 1995). The tendency to follow the CI and consequently enact the impulsive buying
behaviour depends both on the personality of the individual and on the type and intensity of
stimuli deriving from the context of the shopping experience. Therefore, it represents the
dependent variable of the study. In order to assess it, the impulsive buying scale developed
by Rook and Fisher (1995) will be adopted: it consists of nine, five-point Likert-type items that
drive the motivation to buy on impulse, without pre-shopping intentions nor regard for the
consequences. This scale can be regarded as reliable as proved by its authors, with a
corresponding alphas of 0.88 and 0.82 in the two studies conducted for the validation (Rook
& Fisher, 1995).
Table 3. Items for assessing IBT. Source: Rook and Fisher, 1995, p. 308.
Buying impulsiveness scale
1. I often buy things spontaneously.
2. "Just do it" describes the way I buy things.
3. I often buy things without thinking.
4. “I see it, I buy it” describes me.
5. “Buy now, think about it later” describes me.
6. Sometimes I feel like buying things on the spur of the moment.
7. I buy things according to how I feel at the moment.
8. I carefully plan most of my purchases.
9. Sometimes I am a bit reckless about what I buy.
The following concepts are regarded as independent variables, explaining impulsive buying
behaviour of the respondents.
Positive urgency. As presented by Cyders and colleagues, impulsive individuals present
differences as the impulsivity construct is multifaceted: the positive urgency dimension
explains the extent at which one person experiences strong positive emotions and reacts to
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
29
them by implementing an automatic response (Cyders et al., 2007; Cyders & Smith, 2007;
D’Orta et al., 2015). This variable represents the focus of the research, and its measurement
relies on the scale developed by Cyders et al. (2007) and depicted in Table 2, consisting of
fourteen four-point Lykert-type items. The internal consistency of the scale is 0.94, as
presented in its confirmatory study (Cyders et al., 2007).
Negative urgency. This variable symbolises the reverse impulsivity facet of positive urgency,
described as the tendency to react with rash actions to strong negative emotions (Whiteside
& Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005). It has already been demonstrated the impact of
negative urgency on impulsive and compulsive buying (Billieux et al., 2008). For this reason,
it is necessary to include the variable in the analysis, expecting the results that are similar to
those provided by previous research. The measurement scale is presented in Table 1, as
validated by Whiteside and colleagues (2005), and includes twelve four-point Lykert-style
items, with an alpha of 0.89.
Purchasing pleasure. Individuals that engage in impulsive purchases normally feel the urge to
buy on impulse because of the shopping enjoyment they derive from the experience itself,
rather than from the actual consumption of the object (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Beatty &
Ferrell, 1998; Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982). Therefore, this variable aims at assessing the
degree of pleasure that the shopping experience provokes in the respondent. The reference
scale was developed by Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney, and Monroe (2008), entailing three seven-
point Lykert-style items as it follows in Table 4. The reliability of the scale is expressed by an
alpha of 0.82 (Ridgway et al., 2008).
Table 4. Purchasing pleasure scale. Source: Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney, and Monroe, 2008.
Purchasing pleasure
1. I find buying very pleasurable.
2. The process of buying provides me with a lot of gratification (at least temporarily).
3. I feel excited when I go on a buying spree.
Emotional stability. As one of the Big Five personality traits, neuroticism characterizes
individuals with a tendency to be anxious, irritable, and moody. This trait proved to have a
significant impact on impulsive buying behaviour, for which consumers with a low score of
emotional stability show a greater likelihood to engage in an impulsive purchase (Shahjehan,
2012; Thompson & Prendergast, 2015; Whiteside & Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005). It
is expected that respondents standing out for a certain level of neuroticism in their personality
assessment will experience a higher urge to buy when in a positive mood. In order to assess
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
30
this personality trait the Big Five Inventory developed by John & Srivastava (1999) will be
applied. It comprises eight five-point Lykert-type items as follows, with an internal consistency
of 0.84 (John & Srivastava, 1999).
Table 5. Measurement of neuroticism trait. Source: John & Srivastava, 1999, p. 70-71.
Neuroticism
I see Myself as someone who…
… Is depressed, blue.
… Is relaxed, handles stress well.
… Can be tense.
… Worries a lot.
… Is emotionally stable, not easily upset.
… Can be moody.
… Remains calm in tense situations.
… Gets nervous easily.
Mood. The affective state characterising the consumer before or during the shopping
experience plays a significant role in determining the frequency and strength of the urge to
buy impulse once in the store. Specifically, positive or negative moods may trigger the CI, and
ultimately lead the consumer to make an impulsive purchase, because the individual needs to
enact a certain behaviour either to reinforce and improve positive feelings, or to relieve
negative emotions (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Gardner &
Rook, 1993; Ozer & Gultekin, 2015). As previously specified, positive affect showed to be
stronger than its reverse state (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Gardner & Rook, 1993; Flight et al.,
2012), therefore, the present study will assess positive affective state only as an antecedent
of impulsive buying. Positive feelings can be induced by different elements: time availability,
money availability and marketing stimuli provided by the environment. The respondent will be
asked to specify to what extent each of those has an impact on their likelihood to feel the urge
to buy on impulse. As regards the measurement scale for positive mood, the study relies on
the PANAS scale, developed by Watson, Clark and Tellegen, with 10 items assessed by a
Lykert-style scale: attentive, interested, alert, excited, enthusiastic, inspired, proud,
determined, strong and active (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). In particular, the dedicated
section of the survey will address the mood state of respondents in relationship to the shopping
experience of fashion merchandise. The general reliability alpha of the scale is 0.88 (Watson
et al., 1988).
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
31
The scales mentioned in the variables description will be all converted into five-point Lykert
scales in order to facilitate the analysis of the results.
4. Data analysis method
Once that the data collection phase is completed, the analysis will be based on a quantitative
approach, for which responses will be cumulatively analysed for the creation and validation of
a multiple linear regression model (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). This specific
statistical method fits the study since the factors under consideration are quantitative
variables, assessed by Lykert scales, and a linear regression represents an appropriate way
to pursue the purpose of the research, which is to prove the impact of positive urgency on IBT.
In fact, the aim of the statistical model is to provide an explanation of impulsive buying
behaviour – the dependent variable of the study - in relationship to the explanatory variables
previously mentioned, with a specific focus on positive urgency as a predictor of impulsive
shopping. The general equation on which the model is based is the following:
𝑌𝑖 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽𝑖𝑋𝑖 + 𝜀
Where Y represents the impulsive buying behaviour, Xi the different independent variables
(i.e., negative urgency, positive urgency, shopping enjoyment, neuroticism, and positive
mood), and βi the coefficient explaining the relationship between the dependent variable and
the explanatory variables. The coefficients will be estimated by using the Least Squares
approach (Hair et al., 2010). The regression model will be created and subsequently fine-
tuned to correct potential imperfections (i.e., multicollinearity of predictors, heteroscedasticity
and correlations of errors) for the final validation.
As regards the triggers of positive mood, the correlations between the influence on the
consumer’s mood and the influence on his or her likelihood to make an impulsive purchase
will be analysed, respectively for time availability, money availability and marketing stimuli.
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
32
PLAN OF WORK
# Time frame Task Content State
1 4.09 – 23.10.2017 Exposé - Selection of a topic.
- Development of the topic with
a narrow focus and reading
the corresponding literature.
- Literature review.
- Writing and handing in the
exposé.
Completed
2 24.10 – 31.10.2017 Survey
design
- Selection of scales of
measurement for the
variables of the study.
- Design of the online
questionnaire and pre-test.
- Selection of a software for the
analysis among Excel, SPSS
and Eviews.
Partly done
3 1.11 – 7.12.2017 Data
collection
- Getting familiar with the
selected software for the
analysis.
- Launch of the survey and
data collection via email or
posts on social network.
To follow
4 8.12 – 13.12.2017 Buffer - Cleaning the database of
responses.
- In case the sample is not
adequate, potential face-to-
face interviews to reach a
representative sample.
5 13.12.2017 – 4.1.2018 Data
analysis
- Linear regression model
estimation, fine-tuning and
validation.
- Analysis of the results.
- Writing key findings and
discussion.
To follow
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
33
- Possibly, refine the
methodology chapter
6 4.1 – 15.1.2018 Conclusions - Writing conclusions.
- Refine the abstract adding
main findings.
- Final thesis.
To follow
7 15.1 – 21.1.2018 Buffer
OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS
Abstract
Introduction
1. Background
2. Problem statement
3. Purpose of the research
4. Structure of the thesis
Theoretical framework
1. Impulsive buying behaviour
i. Definition of impulsive buying
ii. The separation between feeling the urge and engaging in an impulsive
purchase
iii. Motivations behind impulsive shopping
2. Impulsivity
i. Dimensions of the impulsivity trait
ii. Scales and measures of impulsivity
iii. The introduction of a fifth facet: positive urgency
3. Precursors of impulsive buying
i. Dispositional variables
ii. Situational variables
iii. Sociodemographic variables
Research question and hypotheses
Methodology
1. Sample and data collection
The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour
34
2. Research instrument
3. Variables definition and corresponding scales of measurement
4. Data analysis method
Analysis of the results and discussion
1. Descriptive analysis of the variables and respondents segmentation based on
shopping habits and IBT
2. Correlations between variables and first estimation of the linear regression model
3. Fine-tuning and validation of the model
4. Discussion on key findings and contribution
Conclusions
1. Theoretical implications as contribution to the current research
2. Managerial implications for marketing and store managers
3. Limitations of the method of analysis, survey biases, variables and further research
4. Final conclusion
Bibliography
Appendix
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„I hereby confirm that this master thesis was independently authored by myself, using
solely the referred sources and support. I additionally assert that this thesis has not been
part of another examination process and that it has not yet been published in any kind.“
Place, Date
Kassel, October 23rd 2017
Author