The Language Environment of First Century Judaea Language Environment of First Century Judaea ... “The Languages of Palestine in the First Century A.D ... was the language of literature

This is a digital offfprint for restricted use only | copy 2014 Koninklijke Brill NV

The Language Environment of First Century Judaea

Jerusalem Studies in the Synoptic Gospels

Volume Two

Edited by

Randall Buth and R Steven Notley

LEIDEN | BOSTON


Contents

Introduction Language Issues Are Important for Gospel Studiesemspemsp1

Randall Buth

Sociolinguistic Issues in a Trilingual Frameworkemspemsp7

1 The Origins of the ldquoExclusive Aramaic Modelrdquo in the Nineteenth Century Methodological Fallacies and Subtle Motivesemspemsp9

Guido Baltes

2 The Use of Hebrew and Aramaic in Epigraphic Sources of the New Testament Eraemspemsp35

Guido Baltes

3 Hebraisti in Ancient Texts Does Ἑβραϊστί Ever Mean ldquoAramaicrdquoemspemsp66Randall Buth and Chad Pierce

4 The Linguistic Ethos of the Galilee in the First Century CEemspemsp110Marc Turnage

5 Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesusrsquo Language Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authorsemspemsp182

Serge Ruzer

Literary Issues in a Trilingual Frameworkemspemsp207

6 Hebrew Aramaic and the Difffering Phenomena of Targum and Translation in the Second Temple Period and Post-Second Temple Periodemspemsp209

Daniel A Machiela

7 Distinguishing Hebrew from Aramaic in Semitized Greek Texts with an Application for the Gospels and Pseudepigraphaemspemsp247

Randall Buth

vi contents


8 Non-Septuagintal Hebraisms in the Third Gospel An Inconvenient Truthemspemsp320

R Steven Notley

Reading Gospel Texts in a Trilingual Frameworkemspemsp347

9 Hebrew-Only Exegesis A Philological Approach to Jesusrsquo Use of the Hebrew Bibleemspemsp349

R Steven Notley and Jefffrey P Garcia

10 Jesusrsquo Petrosndashpetra Wordplay (Matthew 1618) Is It Greek Aramaic or Hebrewemspemsp375

David N Bivin

11 The Riddle of Jesusrsquo Cry from the Cross The Meaning of ηλι ηλι λαμα σαβαχθανι (Matthew 2746) and the Literary Function of ελωι ελωι λειμα σαβαχθανι (Mark 1534)emspemsp395

Randall Buth

Index of Ancient Sourcesemspemsp423 Subject Index emspemsp448

copy koninklijke brill nv leiden 2014ensp|enspdoi 1011639789004264410_004


The Use of Hebrew and Aramaic in Epigraphic Sources of the New Testament Era

Guido Baltes

The widespread conviction among New Testament scholars that Aramaic and not Hebrew should be considered the ldquoJewish vernacularrdquo of the fĳirst century ce and therefore the ldquomother tongue of Jesusrdquo was shaped in the nineteenth century by prominent scholars like Abraham Geiger and Gustaf Dalman who were without doubt experts in their fĳield However the textual evidence they could base their conclusions on was thin at that time no litera-ture neither Hebrew nor Aramaic was extant from the period in question and archaeological research in the land of Israel had only just begun Geiger had to base his thesis about the artifĳicial character of Mishnaic Hebrew solely on the text of the Mishnah itself1 Dalman in his influential work Die Worte Jesu (The Words of Jesus) had to build his theses on the lexical Semitisms within the works of Josephus and the New Testament the Aramaic parts of early rabbinic literature and on the assumption that targum was already an ldquoancient practicerdquo in the early second century ce since no Aramaic texts from the period in question were available to him2 Hence two prominent Aramaic scholars of our time have described the situation as follows

The position of Aramaic in our period was long a somewhat ironic one The central importance of the language was universally recognized and many scholarsthinspthinspthinspthinspsupposed it to be the Semitic vernacular of Palestine to the virtual exclusion of Hebrew yet actual texts in Aramaic from our period have until recently been very scanty3

1 Abraham Geiger Lehr- und Lesebuch zur Sprache der Mischnah Band 1 Lehrbuch zur Sprache

der Mischnah (Breslau Leuckart 1845) 2 Gustaf Dalman Die Worte Jesu mit Beruumlcksichtigung des nachkanonischen juumldischen

Schrifttums und der aramaumlischen Sprache eroumlrtert (Leipzig J C Hinrichs 1898) On the his-tory of early Aramaic scholarship see my other contribution to the present volume ldquoThe Origins of the lsquoExclusive Aramaic Modelrsquo in the Nineteenth Century Methodological Fallacies and Subtle Motivesrdquo

3 James Barr ldquoHebrew Aramaic and Greek in the Hellenistic Agerdquo in The Cambridge History of

Judaism (ed W D Davies and Louis Finkelstein Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1989) 79ndash114 (91)

36 baltes


Between the fĳinal redaction of Daniel (ca 165 bce) in which roughly six chapters are written in Aramaic and the fĳirst rabbinical writings Mĕgillat Talsquoanit dating from the end of the fĳirst Christian century there had never been much evidence of the use of Aramaic in Palestine prior to the discovery of the Qumran scrolls and fragments4

This situation has changed dramatically in the course of the past century Starting with the discoveries in the Cairo Genizah and continuing with the Dead Sea Scrolls the Bar Kokhba letters and other documentary texts from the Judaean desert the landscape of Hebrew and Aramaic literature from the Second Temple period has changed dramatically In addition ongoing archae-ological work has brought to light a vast number of inscriptions ostraca and other epigraphical material

While the documents from the Judaean Desert have been subject to inten-sive study and scholarly debate not only among archaeologists linguists and also biblical scholars the inscriptions and ostraca have largely been neglected by New Testament scholarship This is probably due to their meager theologi-cal content and the lack of any direct links to New Testament literature with a few exceptions like the ldquoPontius Pilatusrdquo inscription from Caesarea a few ldquoqorbanrdquo inscriptions the ossuary of ldquoAlexander son of Simon from Cyrenerdquo or for those with a more sensational interest the famous ldquoJesus ben Josephrdquo ossuary from Talpiot together with its companion the ldquoJames Ossuaryrdquo5

What has largely gone unnoticed meanwhile are the conclusions drawn by archaeologists epigraphists and palaeographists concerning the language use in the epigraphic material discovered over the past century Martin Hengel in an article published in 1996 analyzed in depth the use of Greek in these Jewish inscriptions6 However he leaves aside the issue of Hebrew versus Aramaic Leading Israeli epigraphist Joseph Naveh had addressed that question earlier but only very briefly in a short article published in Hebrew that has probably

4 Joseph A Fitzmyer ldquoThe Languages of Palestine in the First Century ADrdquo (1970) in idem A

Wandering Aramaean Collected Aramaic Essays (Missoula Scholars Press 1979) 29ndash56 (39)5 Although the legal charges of forgery against Oded Golan have been dropped following the

court decision of March 2012 the academic debate on the authenticity of the inscription (or parts thereof) remains open

6 Martin Hengel ldquoZum Problem der lsquoHellenisierungrsquo Judaumlas im 1 Jahrhundert nach Christusrdquo in Judaica et Hellenistica Kleine Schriften I (ed Martin Hengel et al WUNT 90 Tuumlbingen Mohr Siebeck 1996) 1ndash90 English version The lsquoHellenizationrsquo of Judaea in the First Century

after Christ (London SCM 1989)

37THE USE OF HEBREW AND ARAMAIC IN EPIGRAPHIC SOURCES


not been noticed by most New Testament scholars He sums up the conclu-sions to be drawn from the evidence available at his time as follows

The Aramaic language gradually replaced Hebrew to become the domi-nant language [ie in the course of the Second Temple period and until 135 ce] The Hebrew language and script was mainly used in matters of national or religious relevance However it also continued to be used in daily life This picture emerging from the epigraphic evidence fĳits well with the picture reflected by the literary sourcesthinspthinspthinspthinspAlthough the Jews began to develop their own specifĳic Aramaic dialect many also contin-ued to speak Hebrew Hebrew had the status of a national language it was the language of literature and religion and the language to express national identity (eg on the coins)7

Very similar conclusions can be found in most of the major excavation reports from Qumran Masada Beth Shersquoarim and Jerusalem Unfortunately this insight has still not found its way into the fĳield of New Testament scholarship As recent as 2004 Klaus Beyer reiterated his claim that Hebrew was not a spo-ken language in any part of the country at the time of Jesus

It is therefore improbable that Hebrew continued to be spoken in any remote part of the country until the time of Jesus Defĳinitely the scribes have not taken their literary Mishnaic Hebrew [neuhebraumlische Schrift-

sprache] from there8Hebrew was nobodyrsquos mother tongue from at least 300 bce until

1880 ce9

7 Josef Naveh ldquoHebrew versus Aramaic in the Epigraphic Finds of the Second TemplemdashBar-Kokhba Periodrdquo Leshonenu 56 (1992) 301ndash16 (Hebrew with English summary) 301 and 315 (translation mine)

8 Klaus Beyer Die aramaumlischen Texte vom Toten Meer samt den Inschriften aus Palaumlstina dem

Testament Levis aus der Kairoer Genisa der Fastenrolle und den alten talmudischen Zitaten

(2 vols Goumlttingen Vandenhoeck amp Ruprecht 1984 and 2004) 158 ldquoDeshalb ist es unwahr-scheinlich daszlig das Hebraumlische in irgendeinem abgelegenen Gebiet bis zur Zeit Jesu gespro-chen wurde Ausgeschlossen ist aber daszlig die Schriftgelehrten sich von dort ihre neuhebraumlische Schriftsprache geholt haumlttenthinspthinspthinsprdquo

9 Ibid 231 ldquoDas Hebraumlische war von spaumltestens 300 vChr bis 1880 nChr niemandes Mutterspracherdquo

38 baltes


A similar claim on Aramaic exclusivity has been made by Maurice Casey10 Few scholars today would go as far as Beyer and Casey however A more ldquomoderaterdquo view one that allows some use of Hebrew in specifĳically religious contexts or secluded circles is today probably shared by the majority of New Testament scholars It has recently been presented by Ingo Kottsieper with explicit refer-ence to the epigraphic evidence

From all the evidence discussedthinspthinspthinspthinspthere can be little doubt that Hebrew was superseded by Aramaic as the commonly spoken language during the Persian era Nevertheless Hebrew was still in use in religious circles and in the realm of the temple not only for traditional texts but also for new texts and probably also as the lingo of these communities11

However the ldquoevidence discussedrdquo by Kottsieper whose main focus is on the Persian era is scarce in regards to the fĳirst and second centuries ce he mentions the use of Hebrew in the letters of Bar Kokhba which he explains as ldquopart of the ideology of the rebelsrdquo (p 114) He also adduces the Hebrew ostraca from Masada which he views as a result of ldquopriestly influence on the groups in Masadardquo (p 115) For other Hebrew inscriptions from the fĳirst century Kottsieper argues ldquoThey could either belong to members of priestly or reli-gious circles or show the influence of language politics during the Jewish warrdquo (p 115) However does such reasoning very common also among New Testament scholars in fact do justice to the sources The problem with this approach as with many others of this kind is that for reasons of brevity the authors often give selective evidence without painting the full picture The reader often gets the impression that the use of Hebrew in the epigraphic sources is the exception while the use of Aramaic is the rule However this impression is based for the most part on the selective character of the evidence provided

The purpose of the present study is therefore to provide the reader with a comprehensive statistical overview of language use in the epigraphic sources Since the publication of Navehrsquos article a great number of new inscriptions have been published including the fĳirst two volumes of the long-awaited

10 Maurice Casey Aramaic Sources of Markrsquos Gospel (SNTSMS 102 Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1998) 79

11 Ingo Kottsieper ldquo lsquoAnd they did not care to speak Yehuditrsquo On Linguistic Change in Judah During the Late Persian Erardquo in Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century BCE (ed Oded Lipschitz Gary N Knoppers and Rainer Albertz Winona Lake Eisenbrauns 2007) 95ndash124 (118)



ldquoCorpus Inscriptionum IudaeaePalestinaerdquo and the fĳinal volumes of the ldquoDiscoveries in the Judaean Desertrdquo series as well as new material from recent excavations This puts us in a position to present a new and updated overview on the issue including statistics on the various corpora

As will be seen this task is impeded by a number of challenges ranging from the absence of a complete up-to-date catalogue of epigraphic sources to the coincidental character of the material available and the disputability of language classifĳication and dates of origin in many cases where inscriptions are either too short or too fragmentary to allow a clear verdict Also a sur-vey like this must by default stay superfĳicial the purpose is to draw a broad map of language use without getting into the complex details of content and sociolinguistic context12 However references to the sources are given so that interested readers can look up the evidence themselves and make their own judgments that may in details difffer from mine Despite the obstacles a gen-eral picture will emerge from this statistical survey that hopefully will help stu-dents of the New Testament and Second Temple Judaism to develop their own view on the complex issue of language use

1 The Material

A comprehensive catalogue of Jewish inscriptions from the land of Israel does not exist The most recent collection covering the whole land of Israel the ldquoCorpus Inscriptionum Judaicarumrdquo (CIJ) dates back more than half a cen-tury and does in many respects not meet modern methodological standards13 Work is still in progress on a successor the ldquoCorpus Inscriptionum IudaeaePalaestinaerdquo (CIIP) of which the fĳirst two volumes have just recently appeared in print while nine volumes are projected altogether14 The estimated number

12 I have done this in more detail as part of a broader study of the Hebrew background of the Gospel tradition Hebraumlisches Evangelium und synoptische Uumlberlieferung Untersuchungen

zum hebraumlischen Hintergrund der Evangelien tradition (WUNT 2312 Tuumlbingen Mohr Siebeck 2011)

13 Jean Baptiste Frey Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaicarum Recueil des Inscriptions Juives

qui vont du IIe siegravecle avant Jeacutesus-Christ au VIIe siegravecle de Notre Egravere Vol II AsiemdashAfrique (Sussidi allo studio delle antichitagrave cristiane III Rome Pontifĳicio Institutu di Archeologia Christiana 1952)

14 Hannah M Cotton Leah Di Segni Werner Eck et al Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae

Palestinae Vol 1 Jerusalem Part 1 1ndash704 (BerlinNew York de Gruyter 2010) Part 2 705ndash

1120 (BerlinNew York de Gruyter 2011) Vol 2 Caesarea and the Middle Coast 1121ndash2160 (Berlin New York de Gruyter 2011)

40 baltes


of 10000 texts in the CIIP compared to the 533 texts compiled in the CIJ gives us a vague idea of how drastically the epigraphic landscape has changed in the past 50 years15

Until the fĳinal completion of the CIIP we therefore still have to turn to a number of separate catalogues collections and excavation reports to get a rough idea of language use in the epigraphic material of the period in ques-tion The following material from major excavations and publications has been included in this survey

(a) The ldquoCorpus Inscriptionum Judaicarumrdquo though outdated still offfers the broadest and most diverse collection of inscriptions from across the land of Israel Among the 535 samples (CIJ 882ndash1414)16 three groups stand out as separate corpora 178 ossuary inscriptions from Jerusalem (CIJ 1210ndash1387) 169 inscriptions from the Beth Shersquoarim necropolis (CIJ 993ndash1161) dating from the late second century to the fĳifth century ce and 69 inscriptions from the Joppa necropolis (CIJ 892ndash960) dating from the late second and third centuries ce Of the remaining 117 inscriptions 48 are without date and some others are dated only very vaguely17

15 It should be noted however that the CIIP will also include the non-Jewish material as well as inscriptions from the Arabian peninsula

16 According to Freyrsquos numbering they should be 534 samples However some of the inscriptions have been regrouped diffferently in view of later research For example CIJ 1393 ab are probably two separate inscriptions (now CIIP 347 and 357) while CIJ 1215 1217 and 1226 are probably part of the same inscription (now CIIP 421) CIJ 1286 is prob-ably a recent forgery cf Rachel Hachlili Jewish Funerary Customs Practices and Rites in

the Second Temple Period (JSJSup 94 Leiden Brill 2005) 175 Re-evaluations and uncer-tainties like these lead to slight deviations from exact mathematical numbers throughout this article

17 For one of the Hebrew inscriptions from the basement of the Al-Aqsa Mosque (CIJ 1399) a possible range of dates from pre-70 ce to the Middle Ages () is given Palaeographic dating is not employed throughout the CIJ Apart from the ossuary inscriptions a possible dating to the fĳirst centuries bce or ce is proposed by Frey for 14 other inscriptions CIJ 891 989 1173 1388 1390 1399 1400 1402 1403 1404 1407 1408 1412 and 1413 For CIJ 989 and 1403 however a later date is much more probable and for CIJ 1399 a late date is next to certain The latter has therefore been excluded from the statistics for the 1st cen-tury inscriptions For the ossuary inscription CIJ 1389 no date is given by Frey However already Clermont-Ganneau who is adduced by Frey as his source had proposed a date of 200 ce or later Therefore it is also excluded from the 1st century inscriptions CIJ 1300 1394 and 1395 (CIIP 460 137 and 138) are not dated by Frey but a 1st century ce prov-enance is assumed by the editors of CIIP



(b) Volume 11 of the CIIP contains according to the layout of the series all inscriptions found in the Jerusalem area that can be dated before 70 ce Most of these are ossuary and funerary inscriptions (CIIP 1 11ndash608) most others are ostraca and domestic utensils like engraved vessels pottery stands stone weights and so on (CIIP 609ndash704) CIIP 1ndash10 are other inscriptions from pub-lic areas18 Volume 12 contains only inscriptions later than 70 ce and there-fore has been excluded from this survey as a whole In contrast Volume 2 has been included because it contains inscriptions from all eras collected from Caesarea and the surrounding coastline However other than Vol 1 the major-ity of the fĳinds in Vol 2 can not be dated with certainty before or after 70 ce19

(c) Outside of Jerusalem the excavations at Masada have probably yielded the largest number of inscriptions from the Second Temple period The fĳinal excavation reports list a total of 941 inscriptions 700 in Hebrew or Aramaic 2 in Nabatean 105 in Latin 101 in Greek 6 in Latin and Greek (bilingual) and 27 which cannot be clearly identifĳied as being either Greek or Latin However the impressive numbers are misleading since 301 of the 700 inscriptions in Jewish script (Mas 1ndash301) contain no more than one letter each Another 139 samples (Mas 302ndash440) contain names and list of names much like the ossuary inscrip-tions from Jerusalem and are only of limited value for language studies Most of the Latin material is dated to the time of Herod the Great some of it also to the period of Roman occupation after 74 ce The Greek material origi-nates both from Herodian times (26 bcendash66 ce) and from the time of the Jewish revolt (66ndash73 ce) At least one document (Mas 742) and two ostraca

18 Although CIIP 11 contains 704 inscriptions in the overview a total of 707 are listed because some of the CIIP inscriptions combine multiple inscriptions from older corpora and vice versa (cf n 16)

19 Out of a total of 1023 inscriptions about 400 are explicitly dated by the editors Roughly 100 others are implicitly dated with reference to their context or content (eg Christian symbolism) Using these criteria only 43 inscriptions are dated by the editors to a period of the 1st centuries bcece If all inscriptions were counted for which such a date is possible while not explicitly or implicitly stated (and in many cases not probable) the number would rise to 570 However for the purposes of the present study the decision to include or exclude these in the count for the New Testament era does not make much of a diffference since the vast majority of these 570 are either Greek or Latin Out of a total of 12 HebrewAramaic and 8 bilingual Greek-HebrewGreek-Aramaic inscriptions none are dated explicitly to a time before 100 ce while 11 are too fragmentary to be dated at all (6 HebrewAramaic CIIP 1431 1549 1610 1677 1678 and 2078 5 bilingual Greek-HebrewGreek-Aramaic CIIP 1571 1602 1662 1675 and 2079) and therefore could theoretically be from the New Testament era However this would not change the results of this study in a signifĳicant way

42 baltes


(Mas 793 and 794) are dated to Byzantine times The Hebrew and Aramaic material (Mas 1ndash701 and Mas 1p) however can safely be dated to a period before the fall of Masada in 73 ce20

(d) The excavations at Herodion have yielded a total of 63 inscriptions and ostraca 28 of which are dated by the excavators to the fĳirst or early second century21 Some of these (Herodion 14 20 22 31 32 and 43) however contain no text but only drawings and symbols

(e) Inscriptions from Beth Shersquoarim that were discovered during the fĳirst phase of excavations in 1936ndash1940 have been included in the CIJ (993ndash1161) However further excavations during the years 1953ndash1958 brought to light more burial caves and inscriptions The total number of inscriptions published in the fĳinal reports rose to 290 dating from the late second century to the fĳifth century22 In spite of the late date this collection is particularly interesting because of a relatively large number of Hebrew inscriptions probably originat-ing from ldquoa circle of scholars and their families who remained fluent in Hebrew at a time when the general populace spoke Aramaic or Greekrdquo23

(f) A number of ossuary inscriptions not included in the CIIP due to their provenance from outside Jerusalem their disputed dating or their recent

20 701 Inscriptions in ldquojewish scriptrdquo (Mas 1ndash701) have been published by Yigael Yadin and Josef Naveh ldquoThe Aramaic and Hebrew Ostraca and Jar Inscriptionsrdquo in Masada Vol 1 The Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963ndash1965 Final Reports (ed Yigael Yadin Jerusalem Israel Exploration Society 1989) 1ndash70 Mas 514 and 515 are identifĳied as Nabatean The Greek and Latin inscriptions have been published by Hannah M Cotton Joseph Geiger and David J Thomas Masada II The Yigael Yadin Excavation 1963ndash1965 Final Reports The Latin

and Greek Documents (Jerusalem Israel Exploration Society the Hebrew University of Jerusalem 1989) One additional unclassifĳied Hebrew or Aramaic fragment is listed by Tov as Mas 1p in The Texts from the Judaean Desert Indices and an Introduction to the

Discoveries in the Judaean Desert Series (ed Emanuel Tov DJD 39 Oxford Clarendon 2002) 226 (cf below) Biblical and Bible-related material from Masada in Hebrew and Aramaic has been published by Shemaryahu Talmon ldquoHebrew Fragments from Massadardquo in Masada VI Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963ndash1965 Final Reports (Jerusalem Israel Exploration Society 1999) 1ndash148 However because of their literary character these have not been included in the present study

21 Emmanuele Testa Herodion Vol 4 I grafffĳiti e gli ostraka (Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Collectio Maior 204 Jerusalem Studium Biblicum Franciscanum 1972)

22 Benjamin Mazar Beth Shersquoarim Report on the Excavations during 1936ndash1940 Vol 1 Catacombs 1ndash4 (Jerusalem Masada 1973) Moshe Schwabe and Baruch Lifshitz Beth

Shersquoarim Vol 2 The Greek Inscriptions (Jerusalem Masada 1974) Nahman Avigad Beth

Shersquoarim Report on the Excavations during 1953ndash1958 Vol 3 Catacombs 12ndash23 (Jerusalem Masada 1976)

23 Avigad Beth Shersquoarim 3131ndash32



discovery have also been included in this survey Among these are a number of ossuaries from the ldquoCatalogue of Jewish Ossuariesrdquo (CJO)24 one late inscrip-tion from Nazareth two from a burial cave in Horvat Kishor in the Judaean Shephelah25 one from a private collection26 and two recent fĳinds27 altogether 31 additional ossuary inscriptions28

24 Levi Yizhaq Rahmani A Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries in the Collections of the State of

Israel (Jerusalem Israel Antiquities Authority 1994) Not included in CIIP are Nos 130 (probably a recent forgery) 282 (probably from third century ce) 552 and 557 (from El-Jib) 610 (from Ben Shemen) 678 682 and 865 (from Kibbutz Lahav) 773 777 778 782 783 787 789 793ndash796 and 800 (from Jericho) 145 (from Kfar Baruch) 425 (from Qiryat Tivrsquoon) For the statistical data of language use within the CJO I am indebted to David Bivin who kindly provided me with the data he collected and which I have re-checked with the original and with the CIIP (eg CIIP 33 and 41 provide inscriptions not seen or not mentioned by Rahmani CJO 147 resp CJO 203)

25 Boaz Zissu ldquoThe Cave of lsquoYudan Shaulrsquo at Horbat Kishor Southern Judaean Shephelardquo Atiqot 46 (2004) 27ndash35 (Hebrew) and 129 (English summary) The cave contained 16 ossuaries bearing two inscriptions one in Greek (ldquoOHOrdquo) and one in Jewish Script (יודן rdquoprobably the name ldquoYuda(n) Shaul (שאול

26 The inscription מריה בת יהוחנן (ldquoMaria bat Johananrdquo) published by Ada Yardeni in her Textbook (see below) at 1233 and 281 is not to be found in the CIIP probably due to the unknown provenance

27 The fĳirst one has been published by Yuval Baruch and Danit Levi ldquoThe Tomb and Ossuary of Alexa Son of Shalomrdquo IEJ 61 (2011) 96ndash105 The report presents a two-line inscription in Middle Hebrew though mentioning a name with an Aramaic patronym (a) אלכסא Alexa bar Shalom berat Alexa Cursedldquo) rsquoארור שיטלני ממקומי (b) בר שלום ברת אלכסאis the one who casts me from my placerdquo) The provenance of the second ossuary is not clear it is possible that it was discovered during an illegal grave robbery in the Elah val-ley cf Boaz Zissu and Goren Yuval ldquoThe Ossuary of Miriam Daughter of Yeshua Son of Caiaphas Priests [of] Marsquoaziah from Beth lsquoImrirsquordquo IEJ 61 (2011) 96ndash105 The inscription reads מרים ברת ישוע בר קיפא כהנמ מעזיה מבית אמרי A connection with the so-called ldquoCaiaphas tombrdquo in Jerusalem (CIIP 461ndash465) as well as the historical fĳigure of the High Priest Caiaphas remains to be further investigated however it is highly probable

28 The comprehensive catalogue of Jewish ossuaries from Galilee compiled by Mordechai Aviam and Danny Syon ldquoJewish Ossilegium in Galileerdquo in What Has Athens to Do with

Jerusalem Essays on Classical Jewish and Early Christian Art and Archaeology in Honor

of Gideon Foerster (ed Leonard V Rutgers Interdisciplinary Studies in Ancient Culture and Religion 1 Leuven Peeters 2002) 151ndash87 does not yield additional data it lists 75 ossuaries with three inscriptions two of them Greek and already included in the CJO (No 20 = CJO 145 and No 18 = CJO 425) The third inscribed ossuary mentioned (No 22) is probably a mistake of the authors Reference is made to an inscription from Nazareth originally published by Bellarmino Bagatti The Excavations at Nazareth Vol 1 From the

Beginning until the Twelfth Century (Jerusalem Franciscan Printing Press 1969) 247ndash248 However the inscription was found on a column and has no connection whatsoever to

44 baltes


g) In addition to the ossuary inscriptions other inscriptions not covered by the corpora mentioned above include fĳinds from Qiryat Shmuel near Tiberias29 Khirbet el-Ein30 and Horbat Lavnin31 in the southern Judaean Shephelah Horvat Maon in the Hebron hills32 Jatt33 Khirbet Kharuf34 Moza35 Karm er-Ras36 and an unpublished Sarcophagus inscription from the north of Jerusalem announced by the IAA in 200837 have been included in this survey a total of ten inscriptions altogether

the ossuaries also mentioned by Bagatti on p 247 The inscription reads (in Hebrew) ldquoSoam Son of Menahem may his soul fĳind restrdquo and already appears in the CIJ as CIJ 988 According to Bagatti (p 247) it can be dated paleographically to the fourthndashsixth century ce

29 Fanny Vitto ldquoA Jewish Mausoleum of the Roman Period at Qiryat Shemursquoel Tiberiasrdquo Atiqot (English Series) 58 (2007) 7ndash29 The Greek inscription reads ΣΧΙΩΝ the meaning of which is unclear

30 Boaz Zissu ldquoA Burial Cave with a Greek Inscription and Grafffĳiti at Khirbat el-lsquoEin Judean Shephelahrdquo Atiqot (English Series) 50 (2005) 27ndash36 The inscription cannot be deciphered and may be a magical incantation

31 Boaz Zissu ldquoHorbat Lavninrdquo Hadashot ArkheologiyotmdashExcavations and Surveys in Israel

113 (2001) 104 (Hebrew) and 154 (English summary) The inscription contains the Hebrew letters יח and the Greek word ΘΕΟΣ written backwards

32 David Amit and Zvi Ilan ldquoThe Ancient Synagogue at Malsquoon in Judahrdquo Qadmoniot 23 (1990) 115ndash25 (Hebrew) The inscription reads גור חפר in Paleo-Hebrew script

33 Marwan Masarwa ldquoJatt Final Reportrdquo Hadashot Arkheologiyot 116 (2004) published online at httpwwwhadashot-esiorgil One inscription contains the names CΑΡΑC ΒΕΡΕΝΙΚΗC ΜΑΡΙΜΗC and ΙΥΣΤΙΝΟΣ the other one the name ΑΜΩC

34 Shahar Batz ldquoKhirbat Kharufrdquo Hadashot Arkheologiyot 116 (2004) published online at httpwwwhadashot-esiorgil The inscriptions mentioned have only decorative character

35 Carsten Peter Thiede and Egon H E Lass ldquoMoza Final Reportrdquo Hadashot Arkheologiyot

117 (2005) published online at httpwwwhadashot-esiorgil Undecipherable fragments of an inscription in Hebrew script were found on one ostracon

36 Alexandre Yardenna ldquoKarm er-Ras (Areas HJ)rdquo Hadashot Arkheologiyot 120 (2008) pub-lished online at httpwwwhadashot-esiorgil The publishers mention ldquoa marble frag-ment that had an inscription mentioning the tenth legionmdashno doubt a relic from the Roman periodrdquo but the actual text is not presented

37 The fĳind was announced in a press release of the Israel Ministry of Foreign Afffairs on Oct 6 2008 ldquoExcavations north of Jerusalem reveal sarcophagus fragment inscribed lsquoSon of the High Priestrsquordquo Online at httpwwwmfagovilMFAHistoryEarly+History+-+ArchaeologyExcavations_north_Jerusalem_reveal_sarcophagus_fragment_6-Octndash2008htmDisplayMode=print (cited March 15 2009) The fragmentary Hebrew inscription reads בן הכהן הגדול (ldquoson of the high priestrdquo)



(h) The non-literary texts from the Judaean Desert which had been pub-lished in a variety of diffferent places have meanwhile been systematically col-lected and listed in the fĳinal indices of the DJD series These include 564 letters contracts legal documents deeds and other non-literary fragments on ostraca papyrus and parchment originating from Wadi Murabarsquoat (Mur 1ndash173) Wadi Mishmar (1Mish 1ndash8) Wadi Sersquoelim (34Se 1ndash5) Wadi Ghweir (1ndash2) Wadi Nar (1ndash5) and Wadi Sdeir (1ndash4) Nahal Hever (56Hev 1ndash64 8Hev 1ndash7 and XHevSe 1ndash169) Jericho (Jer 1ndash19) Qumran Caves 3 4 and 6 Khirbet Qumran (KhQ 1ndash3) and Masada (Mas 1ndash951) These texts are for the most part not inscriptions in the strict sense of the word however they also form part of the epigraphic evidence from the fĳirst and early second centuries Dividing lines are not easy to draw for instance between the ldquoletters on bread supplyrdquo from Masada (Mas 557ndash584) and the letters of Bar Kokhba or between a receipt for dates written on an ostracon in the Jewish Quarter (Jewish Quarter 24) and a receipt for a date crop written on papyrus in Jericho (Jer 7) For reasons of clarity and completeness the non-literary material from the DJD series has therefore been included in this survey however the main emphasis will be on the inscriptions and ostraca38 Within the corpus of non-literary texts from the DJD series two specifĳic subsets of texts are identifĳied separately in this survey the so-called Bar-Kokhba letters39 and the economic documents for which a detailed study of language use has been offfered by Hanan Eshel40

38 For a list of all non-literary texts published in the DJD series see A Lange and U Mittmann-Richert ldquoAnnotated List from the Judaean Desert Classifĳiedrdquo in Tov ed The Texts from

the Judaean Desert 115ndash64 For the present study categories 110ndash113 3ndash5 and 7 have been included In addition the halakic letter 4QMMT has been included It is listed in the index among the religious texts (category 135) for reasons of content However since it difffers from the literary texts both in terms of genre and of language it is also listed among the letters (category 112) The fĳinds from Wadi Daliyeh (category 2) have not been included since they date to the fourth and fĳifth centuries bce The fĳinds from Masada (category 6) have not been included because this category includes only a selection of fĳinds from Masada In the present study the complete statistics for Masada have therefore been extracted from the offfĳicial excavation reports and not from the DJD index Language classifĳication of DJD follows the list of Aramaic texts compiled by Emmanuel Tov ldquoLists of Specifĳic Groups of Texts from the Judaean Desertrdquo in Tov ed The Texts from the Judaean

Desert 221ndash2639 Cf nn 73 and 74 below40 Hanan Eshel ldquoOn the Use of Hebrew in Economic Documents from the Judaean Desertrdquo

in Jesusrsquo Last Week (ed R Steven Notley Marc Turnage and Brian Becker Jerusalem Studies in the Synoptic Gospels 1 Leiden Brill 2006) 245ndash58

46 baltes


(i) Some popular textbooks of Aramaic and Hebrew texts offfer a selec-tion of inscriptions and materials from the corpora listed above41 However they also contain some material not covered by these corpora and this has been included in this survey In addition the lists of epigraphic and docu-mentary material used for the preparation of recent dictionaries of Aramaic and Hebrew have been included completely42 In sum these collections add a total of 27 more inscriptions to the survey It must be noted however that the inclusion of the textbooks and dictionaries has a slightly distortive efffect on the statistics since Aramaic texts are much more prominently featured by the selective nature of these collections43

41 Joseph A Fitzmyer and Daniel J Harrington A Manual of Palestinian Aramaic Texts

Second Century BCndashSecond Century AD (Biblica et Orientalia 34 Rome Biblical Institute 1978) Beyer Die aramaumlischen Texte included are the texts classifĳied by Beyer as M V I and y Ada Yardeni Textbook of Aramaic Hebrew and Nabatean Documentary Texts

from the Judean Desert and Related Material Vol A The Documents (Jerusalem Ben-Zion Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History 2000) Joseph Naveh On Sherd and Papyrus

Aramaic and Hebrew Inscriptions from the Second Temple Mishnaic and Talmudic Periods (Jerusalem Magnes 1992 [Hebrew])

42 Academy of the Hebrew Language (AHL) Database Project Materials for the Dictionary

(Jerusalem Academy for the Hebrew Language 1988) David J A Clines The Dictionary

of Classical Hebrew (6 vols Shefffĳield Shefffĳield Phoenix 1993ndash2006) Michael Sokolofff A Dictionary of Judean Aramaic (Ramat-Gan Bar Ilan University Press 2003) The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon (CAL) available online at httpcal1cnhucedu

43 The fact that New Testament scholarship in the twentieth century has generally been much more interested in the study of the Aramaic rather than the Hebrew language is reflected by the nature of the textbooks available While Aramaic texts and inscrip-tions have been diligently collected and published by outstanding scholars in the fĳield (eg FitzmyerHarrington and Beyer) no comparable work has been done so far for the Hebrew material Therefore the textbooks and dictionaries provide us in addition to the corpora mentioned above with 18 additional Aramaic texts but only three addi-tional Hebrew texts as well as six samples in Jewish script that could be either Aramaic or Hebrew or both Especially the collection of ten Jewish Aramaic Ostraca of unknown provenance included by Yardeni Textbook 1191ndash98 many of which would not be iden-tifĳiable as Aramaic were they not within the collection blurs the statistics of the ldquoother inscriptionsrdquo in the overview signifĳicantly For reasons of comprehensiveness the details of the remaining 17 inscriptions added from textbooks and dictionaries will be given here Hasmonean Hyrkania Inscription (MPAT 37 Beyer I 4) storage jar inscribed בלזם בלזמה (ldquobalsamrdquo MPAT 66 Beyer yXX) jar inscription קרבנ (ldquoqorbanrdquo AHL 385 possibly the same as CIIP 8 Beyer yJE 32) two stone inscriptions (Yardeni 1225Beyer yXX1 and Yardeni 1226) ostracon from Aroer East Jordan (Yardeni 2212 Beyer yRO 1) jar inscrip-tion from Qumran (Yardeni 1219) three inscriptions from Ein Farah (Beyer ySW3ndash4) inscription on jar handle from JelemeGalilee (Beyer gJL 1) plate from Jericho (Beyer yJR



Together all these publications contain a total of 3819 texts 607 ossu-ary inscriptions 605 ostraca 1731 other inscriptions 609 docu mentary texts (among them 41 letters) and 268 other texts and fragments (among them 16 biblical fragments 8 other literary fragments as well as unidentifĳiable or unclassifĳied material from DJD) For 2323 of these texts a possible origin from a period roughly between 100 bce and 135 ce is suggested in the literature44

2 Criteria of Classifĳication

The three main languages used in the epigraphic material from the land of Israel are Greek Aramaic and Hebrew45 However the distinction between the latter two is not always easy Especially in the case of ossuary inscriptions and ostraca the limited content often does not allow a further qualifĳication of language Even where the use of terms like בן or בר בת or ברת אשת or אתת seems to point to one or the other language the evidence is not as conclu-sive as it seems in a number of cases names with a בר patronym are used within inscriptions or texts that otherwise have clearly Hebrew vocabulary or grammar46 In contrast only one example exists for the employment of a בן

2ab) Bar Kokhba weight (Yardeni 1185) unclassifĳied fragments from Judaean Desert and Murabarsquoat (Yardeni 157 and 1187 both possibly also included in DJD 39) cave inscription from Wadi Garaba (Beyer yWG 1) Hosea Seal (AHL 232) cf Eleazar Sukenik ldquoA Stamp of a Jewish Wine-Merchant from the Vicinity of Jerusalemrdquo Qedem 1 (1942) 20ndash23 tomb inscription יני בן מנשה cf Benjamin (tomb of Menashe ben Jannairdquo AHL 424ldquo) קבר Mazar ldquoA Hebrew Inscription from lsquoIllacircrrdquo Bulletin of the Israel Exploration Society 18

(1954) 154ndash5744 Only the latter have been specifĳied further in the lower part of Table 1 leading to difffer-

ent numbers than those given here where all inscriptions from the corpora listed above regardless of their date have been counted

45 For less frequent languages and language combinations cf n 56 below 46 Most obviously in the recently discovered Hebrew Inscription mentioning ldquoAlexardquo cf

n 27 above Shorter inscriptions and texts of similar character are found in Mur 22 29 and 30 4Q348 CIIP 244CIJ 1308 (יהודה הספר יהודה בר אלעזר הספר) CIIP 534CJO 871 יהוסף בר חנניה) and CIIP 86CJO 893 (יהוחנה יהוחנה ברת יהוחנן בר תפלוס הכהן הגדל) שלום אנתת and חנניה בר יהונתן הנזיר) CIIP 70 and 72 (מתיה בר הקוה) CIIP 188 (הספר הקבר) A special case are inscriptions CIJ 994 and 1131 from Beth Shearim (חנניה בר הנזיר rdquoThis tomb belongs to Rabbi Isaak bar Maqim peaceldquo הזה שלרבי יצחק בר מקים שלום probably ldquoOda son of Bar-Shalomrdquo) here we have a circle of families אודה בן בר שלוםthat deliberately chose to use Hebrew even as late as the second century ce However they still bear ldquoAramaicrdquo names with bar Masada 667 (אלעזר בר הספר) is classifĳied by the editors as a forgery produced by one of the excavators

48 baltes


patronym within an Aramaic context47 Some have argued that the use of בר in these Hebrew contexts betrays the real language of the writer whereas the Hebrew language was artifĳicially chosen due to religious or nationalistic rea-sons48 Beyer in his textbook explains הספר הנזיר and הכהן הגדול as ldquoreligious titlesrdquo and hence classifĳies the inscriptions using these titles as Aramaic based on their use of בר and 49ברת While however it is certainly true that הכהן הגדול is a religious title this is much less evident for נזיר or ספר Certainly Beyers argument does not apply to the case of the recent fĳind of the Hebrew ldquoAlexardquo inscription from Qiryat Shemuel Also the later evidence from Beth Shersquoarim demonstrates that even within a community that deliberately chose to con-tinue the use of Hebrew in the late second century family names with בר were retained50 In both cases it is obvious that Hebrew was the language chosen for the inscription while the names mentioned bore בר patronyms It is there-fore more probable as Rahmani suggests that בר was used interchangeably with בן in the Hebrew of the period so that the usual form of the patronym was retained even when a diffferent language was employed51 The fact that the word בר could lose its semantic content and become an integral part of the family name is demonstrated by the inscription מרתא בר פפיס (CIIP 505CJO 256) a female name with a בר patronym

In the present study the use of אשתאתת בתברת and so on will בןבר therefore be used as a ldquosecondary language markerrdquo distinguished from ldquopri-mary language markersrdquo such as the use of specifĳic lexical grammatical or syn-tactical features of Aramaic or Hebrew language The inscriptions listed in the paragraph above which contain primary markers of Hebrew and secondary

markers of Aramaic will be listed as bilingual (ah) although they are much more likely to be Hebrew as was shown The longer texts from the DJD series which are obviously written in Hebrew but contain names with בר will be classifĳied as Hebrew Greek transliterations of Hebrew or Aramaic words will be classifĳied as Hebrew or Aramaic not as Greek52 Obviously in some cases classifĳications are a matter of individual judgment for example קדרה יהונתן (CIIP 51CJO 222) is interpreted frequently as Aramaic for ldquoJonatan the pot (or pot-bellied)rdquo Rahmani however suggests that it could also be derived from

47 XHevSe 8 a bilingual deed written in Hebrew on the outside and Aramaic on the inside in which the name שמעון בן כוסבה is referred to in the fĳirst line of the Aramaic part

48 Cf Kottsieper ldquoAnd they did not carethinspthinspthinspthinsprdquo 114 similarly Klaus Beyer Texte 15849 Beyer Texte yJE 28 29 30 39 4450 Cf n 46 above51 Cf Rahmani Catalogue 20152 CIJ 992 CJO 552 and Beth Shersquoarim 148 are Hebrew CIJ 998 and 1121 (both from Beth

Shersquoarim) and Beyer Texte I 353 (yWG 1) are Aramaic in Greek script



Hebrew and mean ldquoJonatan the bakerrdquo For CIIP 647 from the City of David Naveh in his offfĳicial excavation report gives the Hebrew reading בן חנניה while Yardeni in her Textbook reads Aramaic (rdquoHananiah from Kursildquo) קורשאקודשא מן רבה 53 In many cases it is(rdquothe greatelder from the holinessldquo) סר not easy to decide whether a word should be read as a name or as a lexical item Thus however גרידא (Mas 432) מלתא (Mas 438) צידא (Mas 440) פסולא (Mas 455) קצבא (Mas 512) appearing in name lists are classifĳied as Aramaic inscriptions by the editors of the CAL (and therefore also in the present study) while they could also be simply personal names Sometimes attempts can be made to determine a language from the context in which an inscription was found Thus Beyer classifĳies בני אלעזר (CIIP 378CIJ 1357) and בני חנן (CIIP 379CIJ 1360) as Aramaic because other ossuaries in the same tomb were inscribed in Aramaic54 However such conclusions must remain doubtful in view of other family tombs which contained Hebrew and Aramaic inscriptions side by side for example the Kallon family in Katamon (CIIP 366ndash372CIJ 1350ndash1355) the Goliath family in Jericho (CJO 782ndash803) or the Akeldama tombs (CIIP 288ndash311) In other cases such a ldquogroup classifĳicationrdquo is more obvious hence all 28 ldquoLetters of bread supplyrdquo from Masada (Mas 557ndash584) and all 10 ldquoJewish Aramaic Ostracardquo from Yardenirsquos collection55 are classifĳied as Aramaic although many of them do not have clear language markers in them (these two rather coincidental cases which slightly distort the statistics therefore should be considered when comparing the data in the overview) In general language classifĳication will always be a matter of dispute in some cases However the purpose of this study is not necessarily to provide the exact classifĳication of all epigraphic material rather it is to offfer a general idea of language distribution which will not be greatly changed by the relatively small number of disputable classifĳications Wherever available (eg in the DJD series) language classifĳica-tions of the editors are followed For the other material primary and secondary language markers as defĳined above are used to create the following language categories

g Greekj ldquoJewish scriptrdquo (Aramaic or Hebrew)l Latino Other language classifĳications 56

53 Yardeni Textbook 121154 Beyer Texte 2341ndash4255 Yardeni Textbook 1191ndash9856 122 texts are written in Latin mainly from Masada (cf Cotton Masada II) and the coastal

area (CIIP) some also from Wadi Murabarsquoat (Mur 158ndash163) and one on an ossuary

50 baltes


For a more detailed evaluation of the ldquoJewish scriptrdquo material the following sub-categories are used

a1 primary language markers for Aramaica2 secondary language markers for Aramaich1 primary language markers for Hebrewh2 secondary language markers for Hebrewn neutral (ldquoJewish scriptrdquo but non-distinguishable Hebrew or Aramaic)ah bilingual Aramaic and Hebrew (bearing language markers of both)

Bilingual Greek-Semitic inscriptions are marked as follows

ga bilingual Greek and Aramaic (a1 or a2 in the Aramaic part)gh bilingual Greek and Hebrew (h1 or h2 in the Hebrew part)57gn bilingual Greek and Jewish Script (n in the Jewish script part)

Using these categories the statistical data presented in Table 1 has been extracted from the epigraphic material 58

(CIIP 40CJO 202) For reasons of space 115 inscriptions and texts from smaller language groups have been summed up as ldquootherrdquo in one column in the overview two bilingual Greek-Latin papyri and four bilingual Greek-Latin ldquotituli pictirdquo were found at Masada (Mas 748ndash49 and 924ndash27) one bilingual Greek-Latin inscription comes from Caesarea (CIIP 1389) Twenty-seven inscriptions from Masada (Mas 915ndash923 and 928ndash945) nine inscriptions from Caesarea (CIIP 1744 1845 1913 1922 1942 1943 2041 2048 2049) as well as one inscription from Karm er-Ras (cf n 36) are not clearly identifĳiable Greek or Latin (Mas 915ndash923 and 928ndash945) Nine inscriptions are written in Palmyrene script (Beth Shersquoarim 12 17 18 83 86 94 101 132 and CIIP 79CJO 579) two are bilingual Greek and Palmyrene (Beth Shersquoarim 126 and 130) Twenty texts all from the Judaean Desert are written in Nabatean (4Q343 56Hev 1ndash4 6 9 36 38 39 XHevSe 2ndash3 and XHevSe Nab2ndash6 Mur 71 and Masada 514ndash515) Five inscriptions are probably Samaritan (CIJ 1168 1187 and 1188 CIIP 1126 and 1716) two are bilingual Greek and Samaritan (CIJ 1167 and 1186) Two inscriptions are written in Phoenician script (CIIP 2139 and 2152) one in Middle Persian (CIIP 1724) 5 late fragments from the Judaean Desert (Mur 169ndash173) are written in Arabic The language of 26 additional inscriptions can not clearly be identifĳied (three ossuaries from Jerusalem CIIP 383CIJ1364CJO 78 CIJ 1347 and 1349 four inscriptions from Beth Shearim CIJ 1103ndash1105 and 1120 two fragments from the Dead Sea Mur 53 and 54 as well as 17 inscriptions from CIIP 2 not specifĳically listed here for reasons of space)

57 In only one case (CIIP 411CIJ 1373) a trilingual inscription has been preserved However the Aramaic part was obviously added at a later stage (see discussion below)

58 In the upper part of the table statistics are given according to each corpus or location separately For CIIP and CIJ the total numbers of the corpora are given in lines 1 and 3



Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash



3 General Observations

From the statistical overview of language use the clear picture emerges of a tri-lingual society in which Greek Aramaic and Hebrew are used side by side and even in close interaction with each other None of the three languages can be said to be dominant Generally speaking there is a prevalence of the Semitic languages over Greek (at least in the NT era) and within the Semitic languages a prevalence of Aramaic over Hebrew however not to a signifĳicant degree It cannot be said that a ratio of 25 Aramaic vs 16 Hebrew ossuary inscriptions or 19 Aramaic vs 7 Hebrew inscriptions59 has any statistical relevance for an overall assessment of language use in the fĳirst century Certainly the claim that Hebrew was fully replaced by Aramaic in the New Testament era cannot be based on such epigraphical evidence

It should be kept in mind that any conclusion from epigraphic data espe-cially from inscriptions as to the language use of the writer must be drawn with caution in the case of ossuary inscriptions for example the language used could be a reflection of the language spoken by (a) the person buried in the ossuary (b) the person who commissioned the inscription for example a family member (c) the person who decorated the ossuary (d) the intended

while only the respective subset of these corpora that can be dated with some certainty to the period between 100 bce and 70135 ce is specifĳied in rows 2 and 4 respectively The ldquoadditional (ossuary) inscriptionsrdquo in rows 8 and 9 are collected from the various textbooks dictionaries and recent fĳinds mentioned in paragraphs (f) (g) and (i) above cf nn 24ndash37 and 41ndash42 Row 10 includes all non-literary texts from the DJD series as speci-fĳied in paragraph (h) cf n 38 while row 11 and 12 list the two subsets specifĳied in nn 39 and 40 Row 13 contains the total number of texts from all the corpora listed Due to a signifĳicant overlap in the diffferent corpora (195 inscriptions from CIJ are included in CIIP 160 inscriptions from Beth Shersquoarim are included in CIJ rows 2 and 4 are subsets of row 1 and 3 rows 11 and 12 are subsets of row 10) the totals in row 13 are not equal to the sum of the rows above For some other smaller numerical inconsistencies within the table cf nn 16 and 18 above Row 14 confĳines the totals of row 13 to those inscriptions that can be dated with some certainty to the period specifĳied and is therefore a subset of row 13 Details about dating are given in the descriptions of the separate corpora above In the second page of the table the totals of row 14 are further specifĳied by genre In the last row of the table ldquootherrdquo genres are summed up among them 16 fragments of biblical texts (15 in Biblical Hebrew one in Greek) eight other literary texts from the DJD series (three in Hebrew fĳive in Greek) and 245 unidentifĳiable or unclassifĳied texts (mainly from the DJD series some also from Masada Mas 1p 666 669 and 673) The abbreviations of the difffer-ent language codes used in the table are explained on pp 16 and 17 above

59 Considering the fact that 10 of the 19 come from a rather coincidental inclusion in Yardenirsquos Textbook cf above n 43

54 baltes


reader of the inscription or (e) it could simply be the language perceived to be culturally appropriate for the occasion60 As an example the Aramaic warn-ing formulas against grave robbery (CIIP 460CIJ 1300 CIIP 359CIJ 1334 CIIP 375CIJ 1359) do not necessarily reflect the language of the deceased his fam-ily or the writer Aramaic was probably chosen in view of possible intruders The word שלום frequently added to Greek inscriptions in the Joppa and Beth Shersquoarim necropolis and in Caesarea was probably a cultural or religious con-vention and does not necessarily reflect a knowledge of Hebrew or Aramaic on the part of the writer or the deceased a fact that might be reflected in the repeated misspelling בשולם in one inscription (Beth שולם and לעולם Shersquoarim 5)61 On the other hand the use of ברי instead of בני in the Kallon family tomb (CIIP 368CIJ 1352b see below) might betray a lack of knowledge of Aramaic (the plural of בר is בני not ברי) The parallel use of Greek Aramaic and Hebrew in the Bar Kokhba letters does not necessarily reflect the language preferences of the writers but possibly also those of the intended readers In many of the contracts and economic documents Aramaic might have been chosen because of its function as a lingua franca even beyond the boundaries of Jewish society On the other hand Hebrew might have been chosen for the ldquoHalakic Letterrdquo (4QMMT) because of its religious content Whatever the case in all these instances the multilingual character of the society and the multiple levels of language interaction and language contact existing in it are reflected

4 The Character of the Inscriptions

As already mentioned above the vast majority of inscriptions are found on ossuaries and ostraca most of which seldom contain little more than a name in many cases even less (eg Mas 1ndash301) Longer inscriptions appear mainly from the second century onwards Jonathan Price in his overview of Jewish epigraphy from the land of Israel62 sees two possible reasons for this

60 Cf Jonathan J Price and Haggai Misgav ldquoJewish Inscriptions and Their Userdquo in The

Literature of the Sages Second Part Midrash and Targum Liturgy Poetry Mysticism

Contracts Inscriptions Ancient Science and the Languages of Rabbinic Literature (ed Samuel Safrai Zeev Safrai Joshua Schwartz and P J Tomson Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum 23b Assen Van Gorcum 2006) 461ndash83 (468)

61 Beyer Texte I 58 suggests that the repetition of the same mistake in one inscription might point to the fact that the scribe did not speak Hebrew himself but had learned to write this phrase however wrongly

62 Price Jewish Inscriptions 469ndash70



phenomenon either the Jewish ldquoepigraphic habitrdquo that is the custom of pro-ducing representative inscriptions only began in the late second century at a time when the Roman ldquoepigraphic habitrdquo strongest in the fĳirst and second centuries had already started to decline or most Jewish inscriptions from ear-lier times had been destroyed or lost during the wars and the following period of Roman occupation The majority of ldquoh1rdquo and ldquoa1rdquo inscriptions from before 135 ce therefore consist of names supplemented with titles places of ori-gin nicknames functions or information on family relations which contain lexical grammatical or syntactical language identifĳiers Only nine Aramaic inscriptions and four Hebrew inscriptions are somewhat longer examples extant from that period63 From later periods we have for example the more elaborate Hebrew tomb inscriptions from Beth Shersquoarim and a number of lon-ger Aramaic Synagogue inscriptions Only the letters and ostraca from the period before 135 ce though they are fewer in number provide us with more content and they have therefore been subject to more intensive studies for some decades now The present study however does not focus on the content but on the language

5 Phenomena of Language Contact Bilingualism and Trilingualism

Of special importance for the study of the language situation are the phe-nomena of language contact bilingualism and in some cases trilingualism Here we can see how the three major languages were not only used within diffferent sectors of society separate from one another but how multiple lan-guages were used by one person or one group of persons simultaneously The use of Aramaic בר patronyms in Hebrew inscriptions and texts which is prob-ably a consequence of language contact rather than bilingualism has already been mentioned above Other observations of language contact can be made much has been written on the interference of Aramaic on Middle Hebrew as it appears in the Bar Kokhba letters and other documents from the Judaean Desert However the interpretations difffer Is the level of Aramaic interference a proof that the writer is not a native speaker of Hebrew (comparable with a native German speaker writing a letter in English and betraying his mother

63 Aramaic (a1) CIIP 460 602 605 620 623 Beyer ySW3ndash4 yWG1 and ldquohighly hypotheti-calrdquo Mas 674 Hebrew (h1) the recent Qiryat Shemuel inscription (cf above) CIIP 10 137 and 693 CIJ 1399 is very vaguely dated by Frey and probably from a much later period CIJ 1286 similar in content to CIJ 1285 is probably a modern forgery Cf Hachlili Jewish

Funerary Customs 175

56 baltes


tongue by mixing in German idiom) Or is it a sign of interference from an international lingua franca into the writerrsquos mother tongue (comparable to a native German speaker writing in German and mixing in a number of com-mon Anglicisms) In any case the evidence shows that Hebrew and Aramaic were alive and in close contact with one another

The family tomb of the Kallon family in Katamon (CIIP 366ndash372CIJ 1350ndash1355) is a striking example of multiple language use within one family The inscriptions read

CIIP 366aCIJ 1350a יהוסף בר שמעוןCIIP 366bCIJ 1350b ΙΩΣΗΠΟΣ ΚΑΛΛΩΝCIIP 367aCIJ 1351a יהועזר בר שמעון בר קלוןCIIP 367bCIJ 1351b יהועזר בר שמעון בן קלון

(the last four words were added later)CIIP 368aCIJ 1352a מרים יועזר שמעון בני יחזק בן קלון מן בני ישבאבCIIP 368bCIJ 1352b מרים יועזר ושמעון בני יחזק בר קלון מן ברי ישבאב

(note ברי instead of בני)CIIP 369aCIJ 1353a שלמציון ברת גמלאCIIP 369bCIJ 1353b שלמציון אתת יהועזר בר קלון ברת גמלאCIIP 370 (not listed by CIJ) יה בר שמעון בר קלוןCIIP 371aCIJ 1354a שמעון בר יועזר בר קלוןCIIP 371bCIJ 1354b שמעון בר יועזר בר קלוןCIIP 371cCIJ 1354c ושמעון בר יועזרCIIP 372aCIJ 1355a ΣΙΜΩΝΟΣCIIP 372bCIJ 1355b ΙΩΣΗΠΟΣ Κ[Α]ΛΛΩΝΟΣCIIP 372cCIJ 1355c ΣΙΜΩΝΟΣ ΚΑΛΛΩΝΟΣCIIP 372dCIJ 1355d ΙΩΣΗΠΟΣ ΚΑΛΛΩΝΟΣ

As already stated it is impossible to know who chose the languages employed here Was it the deceased themselves their families or the artisan Whatever the case it is obvious that the three languages were used within that family or in their immediate surroundings In 367b the secondary addition of בר שמעון בן was either a deliberate alteration of 367a or a matter of negligence On the קלוןother hand the choice of Hebrew בן in 368a and Aramaic בר in 368b including the non-Aramaism ברי was obviously deliberate The faux pas in 368b could be an indication that the writer knew Hebrew better than Aramaic A similar case of a trilingual family is the Goliath family tomb in Jericho (CJO 782ndash803)

In another case (CIIP 411CIJ 1373) an inscription that was originally written in Hebrew and Greek (parts a and b) was later extended with an Aramaic addi-tion (part c) Also here we see that the three languages were employed with-out hesitation side by side whoever added the Aramaic line to the inscription



did not bother to use one of the languages already present in the inscription but made his own language choice

CIIP 411aCIJ 1373a חנין הבשניCIIP 411bCIJ 1373b ΑΝΙΝ ΣΚΥΘΟΠΟΛΕΙΤΗΣCIIP 411cCIJ 1373c (יהוסף) בר אנין עניה אבא קבר בריה

A similar case of later addition is found on two ostraca at Masada (Mas 458 and 460) where the original Hebrew wording לקודש was apparently changed at a later stage into Aramaic by adding the fĳinal א We cannot know the reasons for this ldquotranslational additionrdquo but obviously it was motivated by functional situational or individual reasons Theories of language death and language replacement cannot account for such phenomena

Some bilingual AramaicndashHebrew inscriptions give the impression that their writers wanted to make a specifĳic point by placing the two versions side by side Otherwise it is difffĳicult to imagine why they would repeat exactly the same wording with only one or two letters changed since any Aramaic speaker would have been able to read and understand the Hebrew line and vice versa Nevertheless the inscriptions are given in both versions in full length

CIIP 237aCIJ 1255a יהודה בן תודוסCIIP 237bCIJ 1255b יהודה בר תודוס

CIIP 368aCIJ 1352a מרים יועזר שמעון בני יחזק בן קלון מן בני ישבאב (Kallon family)CIIP 368bCIJ 1352b מרים יועזר ושמעון בני יחזק בר קלון מן ברי ישבאב

CIIP 446a חנניה בר שמעוןCIIP 446b חנניה בן שמעון

For the following two examples it is less clear whether the slightly altered rep-etition of the same word reflects a case of bilingualism

CIIP 54aCJO 200a סמונ בנה הכלהCIIP 54bCJO 200b סמונ בנא הכלה

Storage Jar Inscription (Beyer yXX MPAT 66) בלזם בלזמה

Finally another bilingual AramaicndashHebrew inscription from Arnona in the southeastern part of Jerusalem should be mentioned (CIIP 466) It is similar in content to the Aramaic inscription of Jebel Hallet et-Turi (CIIP 287) but a Hebrew translation is added

58 baltes


a) קרבן בה מתהנא אנש mdashanybody who will benefĳittake gain from it) כל qorban)

b) כל אש קרבן (everybodymdashqorban)c) ק (abbreviation for qorban)

Obviously the Aramaic part of this inscription has been written carefully and with intent while the Hebrew part is strangely casual probably an abbrevi-ated translation of the Aramaic original This corresponds to the observation made about many of the bilingual GreekndashAramaic and GreekndashHebrew inscrip-tions where the Greek part is mostly written carefully while the Aramaic and Hebrew parts often give a rough and sometimes casual translation probably summarizing the content for unlearned readers If this analogy is correct then the inscription from Arnona is rare evidence for a situation in which Aramaic was believed by the writer to be the language of the learned and the language appropriate for a solemn inscription with religious overtones while Hebrew was perceived by him to be the language of the unlearned for whom transla-tion needs to be offfered This evidence would then run contrary to the frequent presumption that Hebrew was the language of the learned whereas Aramaic was the language of the unlearned

Though the concept seems anachronistic some ancient form of ldquopolitical correctnessrdquo could be assumed behind all these examples of bilingual inscrip-tions reflecting not only HebrewndashAramaic bilingualism on the side of the writer but probably a HebrewndashAramaic diglossia within the society producing such inscriptions64

6 The Evidence of Coin Inscriptions

Coin inscriptions have been excluded from the present survey since they are of a diffferent nature and the large number of fĳinds would obviously distort the statistics However the coins add another important aspect to the landscape of language use which can be summed up briefly all Jewish coin inscriptions from the Hasmonean period to the Bar Kokhba revolt are written in Hebrew language and Paleo-Hebrew script with one exception onlymdashone particular series of coins minted by Alexander Jannaeus (78 bce) bore an Aramaic inscription in square script This coin however can hardly be evidence for a

64 This terminology of HebrewAramaic diglossia would be employed in addition to a high Hebrewlow Hebrew diglossia that existed at the time See below on defĳinitions of diglossia



general change of language use during that period because Jannaeus at other times also issued Hebrew coins It is therefore more probably that Jannaeus had political reasons for his decision to mint an Aramaic coin at one point in his reign65

7 Conclusions

In 1959 Charles A Ferguson introduced the sociolinguistic term ldquodiglossiardquo to describe societies in which more than one language form is prevalent labeling as ldquohigh varietyrdquo (H) the language register that is used in literature newspa-pers churches and politics and as ldquolow varietyrdquo (L) the language spoken in personal communication and daily matters66 Joshua Fishman later expanded this concept to diffferentiate between four possible scenarios

Sector 1 Diglossia with bilingualism(eg Switzerland Ireland Arabic-speaking countries Africa)

Sector 2 Bilingualism without diglossia(eg USA Germany)

Sector 3 Diglossia without bilingualism(eg Czarist Russia Canada)

Sector 4 No diglossia no bilingualism(ie monolingual communities in contact)

65 Cf Naveh On Sherd and Papyrus 2366 Charles A Ferguson ldquoDiglossiardquo Word 15 (1959) 325ndash40 Diglossia needs to be distin-

guished from bilingualism Bilingualism commonly refers to the ability of an individual to use more than one language Diglossia on the other hand primarily refers to a com-munity that uses two dialects or ldquoregistersrdquo of the same language As classic examples of diglossia there is standard ldquowrittenrdquo Arabic against various spoken Arabic dialects and ldquowrittenrdquo German against spoken varieties like Swiss-German This defĳinition of diglossia can be expanded to include situations where two distinct languages are in a di-glossic relationship

More importantly for New Testament studies Hebrew itself existed in two registers by the end of the Second Temple period The present study does not distinguish the registers because the diffferences are mostly invisible at the level of short inscriptions and graf-fĳiti (Cf however the Qiryat Shemuel discovery mentioned above ארור שיטלני ממקומי ldquoCursed is the one who casts me from my placerdquo) Any theory of ldquoAramaic exclusivityrdquo must explain how and why Mishnaic Hebrew developed as an apparent low register of a diglossia

60 baltes


Leaving aside the Greek language for a moment and focusing only on the relationship of Hebrew and Aramaic the following observation can be made traditionally New Testament scholarship has sought to place the Jewish soci-ety of Jesusrsquo times in sector 4 starting with the influential work of Heinrich Friedrich Pfannkuche67 continuing with the works of Arnold Meyer and Gustav Dalman68 scholars have sought to identify the (one) mother-tongue of Jesus or the (one) Jewish vernacular69 Few scholars today would hold such an opinion but the verdict of these ldquosagesrdquo remains influential to this day70 Linguists archeologists and most biblical scholars have changed their views and readily accept the fact that Hebrew as well as Aramaic were spoken and written in the time of Jesus The present volume is a reflection of this impor-tant paradigm shift It was especially the wealth of new epigraphic material foremost the manuscripts from Qumran and the documents from the Judaean desert that caused scholars such as Matthew Black and John A Emerton to change their opinion in view of the new evidence available71

Having said that there still remains a common conviction that Hebrew was used only in specifĳic geographical areas (eg Judaea) or specifĳic groups of soci-ety (the priests the Pharisees the Essenes the learned the religious) To speak in Fishmanrsquos terms this would now place the Jewish society in Sector 3 certain ldquopocketsrdquo of society (Fitzmyer) would speak and write Hebrew while others (presumably the vast majority) would speak and write Aramaic However in view of the epigraphic evidence even this assumption cannot be reconciled with the data What emerges clearly from the epigraphical evidence is a pic-ture of a society that fĳits Fishmanrsquos Sector 1 Aramaic and Hebrew are used

67 Heinrich Friedrich Pfannkuche ldquoUumlber die palaumlstinische Landessprache in dem Zeitalter Christi und der Apostel Ein Versuch zum Theil nach de Rossi entworfenrdquo in Allgemeine

Bibliothek der biblischen Literatur Achter Band Drittes Stuumlck (ed Johann Gottfried Eichhorn Leipzig Weidmannsche Buchhandlung 1798) 365ndash480

68 Arnold Meyer Jesu Muttersprache Das galilaumlische Aramaumlisch in seiner Bedeutung fuumlr

die Erklaumlrung der Reden Jesu (Freiburg iBr Leipzig Mohr 1896) Gustav Dalman Die

Worte Jesu mit Beruumlcksichtigung des nachkanonischen juumldischen Schrifttums und der

aramaumlischen Sprache eroumlrtert (Leipzig J C Hinrichs 1898)69 Cf my essay on the origins of the Aramaic hypothesis in the nineteenth century in the

present volume70 Cf the statements of Fitzmyer Beyer Casey and Kottsieper in the introductory paragraph71 Cf the verdict of Matthew Black An Aramaic Approach to the Gospels and Acts (3d ed

Oxford Clarendon 1967) 48ndash49 Also compare the view of John A Emerton ldquoDid Jesus Speak Hebrewrdquo Journal of Theological Studies ns 12 (1961) 193ndash94 and 201ndash2 with his view stated later in John A Emerton ldquoThe Problem of Vernacular Hebrew in the First Century AD and the Language of Jesusrdquo Journal of Theological Studies ns 24 (1973) 19ndash20



side by side in all spheres of society and in many cases both languages are even used within a family or by one and the same person (ie diglossia with bilingualism)72 No signifĳicant preference for Hebrew or Aramaic can be iden-tifĳied in any specifĳic geographical area nor can any signifĳicant distinction be made for any specifĳic group of society or social function Hebrew as well as Aramaic is used on ossuaries in tombs on ostraca in letters legal and eco-nomic documents

What can be said though is that in general Aramaic is used slightly more frequently than Hebrew in the epigraphic sources However the margins of diffference are small and allow no general conclusion about language domi-nance In the case of letters and coins for example the case is reversed Only in the case of documentary texts from the Judaean Desert is there a clearer prevalence of Aramaic Nevertheless it should be kept in mind that the mate-rial catalogued here is too coincidental and the margins of diffference too small that the scale could not be tipped by any new archeological discovery in the future

The discovery of the so-called Bar Kokhba letters is a vivid example of how the coincidental character of fĳinds can easily lead to premature conclusions which might then be challenged by any subsequent discovery of additional material In 1960 Joseph Taddeusz Milik published eleven letters from the Bar Kokhba revolt all of which were written in Mishnaic Hebrew He concluded that these fĳinds proved ldquobeyond reasonable doubt that Mishnaic Hebrew was the normal language of the Judean population in the Roman periodrdquo73 Yet in the very next year 16 more ldquoBar Kokhba-lettersrdquo dating a little earlier than those published by Milik were discovered by Yigael Yadin in the so-called Cave of Letters74 Of these nine were written in Aramaic four in Hebrew and two

72 There is an additional prototypical diglossia within Hebrew itself consisting of high reg-ister and low register dialects which would appear to fĳit Fishmanrsquos Sector 1

73 Joseph Tadeusz Milik Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judaea (SBT 26 London SCM 1959) 130 131 In addition to the letters Milik adduced also the Copper Scroll from Qumran as evidence for the use of Mishnaic Hebrew The letters were later published as ldquoTextes Heacutebreux et Arameacuteensrdquo in Les Grottes de Murabarsquoat (ed Joseph Tadeusz Pierre Benoit and Roland de Vaux DJD 2 Oxford Clarendon 1960) 67ndash205 and subsequently labeled ldquoMur 42ndash52rdquo in the DJD series

74 Yigael Yadin ldquoThe Newly-Found Bar Kokhba Lettersrdquo International Communication

Gazette 7 (1961) 158ndash62 idem The Finds from the Bar Kokhba Period in the Cave of Letters (Judaean Desert Studies 1 Jerusalem Israel Exploration Society 1963) Yigael Yadin Jonas C Greenfĳield Ada Yardeni and Baruch A Levine The Documents from the Bar

Kokhba Period in the Cave of Letters Vol 2 Hebrew Aramaic and Nabatean-Aramaic Papyri

(Judaean Desert Studies 3 Jerusalem Israel Exploration Society 2002) These letters were

62 baltes


in Greek These new fĳinds challenged Milikrsquos view that only Hebrew could be considered to be the ldquonormal languagerdquo of the population From the fact that all three languages were used in the earlier documents while only Hebrew was used in the later ones Yadin in turn concluded that the use of Hebrew was artifĳicially introduced by a ldquospecial decreerdquo of Bar Kokhba in the course of the rebellion for reasons of national identity75 Nevertheless this view was again challenged by the later publication of more Hebrew documentary texts and letters that could be dated to the fĳirst revolt and even to the pre-66 period76 These examples show how quickly the statistical weight for one or the other language can change with the discovery of even a few new texts Therefore the most important conclusion to be drawn from the material is that no fĳirm claims should be made about the dominance of one language or another The evidence clearly points to the direction of a bilingual and of a trilingual society with the close interaction of all three languages Greek Aramaic and Hebrew

Some widespread misconceptions about the use of Hebrew and Aramaic in the time of Jesus should be reconsidered

First and foremost the assumption of the death of spoken Hebrew after the Babylonian exile can no longer be upheld in view of the epigraphic evidence Hebrew was obviously a living language in the fĳirst century ce and continued to be so well into the second century It seems from the numerical data that it was used less frequently than Aramaic however as has already been said the material collected here is too coincidental and the margins of diffference too small to make any secure claims in that direction From the character of the Hebrew used and the increasing evidence of language interference especially during the Bar Kokhba revolt it can nonetheless be concluded that towards the end of the period studied here an influence of Aramaic on Hebrew speakers is becoming more obvious eventually leading to the nearly complete replace-ment of Hebrew by Aramaic as a spoken language in the course of the second century ce An early sign of such a development might be reflected in the languages used in the economic documents from the Judaean desert that have

fĳirst published as pYadin 49ndash64 but later renamed as 56Hev 49ndash64 Two other letters from a diffferent collection labeled as XHevSe 30 and 67 were later considered to have come from the same cave XHevSe 30 as well as 56Hev 49ndash51 and 61 were written in Hebrew 56Hev 53ndash58 60 and 62ndash63 in Aramaic 56Hev 52 and 59 as well as XHevSe 67 were written in Greek

75 Y Yadin Bar-Kokhba (London Weidenfeld amp Nicolson 1971) 18176 The latter are 4Q358 6Q26 KhQ1 Mur 22 29 and 30 and probably 4Q345 cf Hannah

Cotton and Ada Yardeni Aramaic Hebrew and Greek Documentary Texts from Nahal Hever

and Other Sites (DJD 27 Oxford Clarendon 1997) and Eshel ldquoOn the Use of Hebrewrdquo



been studied in more depth by Hanan Eshel While Hebrew was employed for documents in the pre-66 period as well as during the two Jewish revolts no such Hebrew document was found from the period between the two revolts On the other hand the number of Aramaic and Greek documents rose sig-nifĳicantly during that period Eshel attributes this to ldquothe spiritual quandary and national crisis brought about in the wake of the destruction of the Second Templerdquo77

Second the assumption that Aramaic was more prevalent in Galilee while Hebrew was more prevalent in Judaea cannot be based on epigraphic evi-dence It might still be proven true from literary or other historical sources but the epigraphic evidence in itself does not support such a claim simply because material of that period from the Galilee is too scarce of the 175 texts classifĳied as ldquoa1rdquo in this study and dating to pre-135 ce only one originates from Galilee78 Of the texts classifĳied as ldquoh1rdquo none originates from Galilee The widespread conviction that Aramaic inscriptions are more frequent in Galilee is probably based on the synagogue inscriptions of later centuries a time for which there is no dispute among scholars that Hebrew had been replaced by Aramaic as a spoken language However it should be noted that we also have 18 Hebrew inscriptions from Beth Shersquoarim dating to that later period An inter-esting detail should be noted though among all the places of origin mentioned on ossuary inscriptions place names from the north of the country are more frequent than others and in most cases these are paradoxically as it may seem given in Hebrew הגלילי (ldquothe Galileanrdquo four times Mas 404 Mur 52 CIIP 693CIJ 1285) and הבשני (the ldquoBeth-Sheaniterdquo three times CIIP 410ndash412CIJ 1372ndash On the other hand the only place (The Gadarenerdquo Mas 420ldquo) הגדריאן (1374name originally from Judaea apart from Jerusalem appears in an Aramaic inscription אלון בת מינ שבט בר rdquoYehud son of Shevat from Beth Alonldquo) יהוד possibly referring to Beth Allonim near Hebron CIIP 43CJO 293)79

Hence if and only if these inscriptions can tell us anything about language use in the places of origin mentioned here then there is a certain irony in the fact that there is at least some evidence for Hebrew speakers from the Galilee and the Decapolis while evidence for Aramaic-speakers from these regions is still missing

77 Eshel ldquoOn the Use of Hebrewrdquo 258 One might also compare the decline in the public use of German in the Midwestern USA during World War I and following

78 Beyer gJL 1 a jar inscription from Jeleme The Aramaic mosaic inscription from Sepphoris (CIJ 989) dated by Frey between the fĳirst and fourth century probably is best dated towards the end of that range

79 Most other identifĳiable place names are from the diaspora

64 baltes


Third the assumption that Hebrew was exclusively used for religious pur-poses while Aramaic was used for all other matters cannot be verifĳied from the epigraphic sources Indeed there is a preference for Hebrew in religious contexts examples are the three inscriptions mentioning 80הכהן הגדול another inscription mentioning הכהן inscription קרבנ the (CIIP 259CIJ 1317) שמעון found near the Temple Mount (AHL 385) the תמד stamp of a wine merchant (AHL 223)81 the inscription mentioning the התקיעה the house of theldquo) בית trumpetersrdquo) from the Temple Mount (CIIP 5) the priestly shares from Masada (Mas 441ndash461) and the halakic letter 4QMMT from Qumran However it can-not be argued that the use of Hebrew was obligatory in such religious contexts since we do have several Aramaic inscriptions mentioning priests (CIIP 434CIJ 1221 CIIP 25 and 530) and even a high priest (רבא Mas 461) three כהנא Aramaic קרבן inscriptions82 and possibly an Aramaic reference to the second tithe (Mas 671) The use of Hebrew in religious contexts was therefore obvi-ously still a matter of individual choice and far from being a fĳixed tradition or convention On the other hand we also have a number of Hebrew inscriptions and documents from clearly non-religious contexts the הזיר inscription בני (CIIP 137CIJ 1394) is probably a list of wages for workers Most of the Hebrew ossuary inscriptions (h1 and h2) have no religious content whatsoever To the contrary the nickname used in CIIP 565CJO 821 (העגל אתת Maryamldquo מרים wife of ldquothinsplsquothe calf rsquothinsprdquo) if it is meant in a derogatory sense83 is a proof that Hebrew could be used in quite unholy ways Titles like הציד (ldquothe hunterrdquo CIIP 693CIJ תרפת הנשבה (the artisanrdquo CIIP 173ldquo) החרש (the bakerrdquo Mas 429ldquo) הנהותם (1285(ldquothe captive physicianrdquo CIIP 363CJO 80) or בנה (ldquobuilderrdquo CCIP 54CJO 200) can hardly be classifĳied as ldquoreligiousrdquo The same is probably true for הספר (ldquothe scriberdquo CIIP 86CJO 893) which denotes an administrative occupation and not a religious one84 Also the places of origin already mentioned above are more frequently added in Hebrew than in Aramaic obviously without any religious or national connotation Finally the Hebrew Bar Kokhba letters and documen-tary texts from the Judaean Desert make it clear that Hebrew was also used in

80 CIIP 534CJO 871 CCIP 701 and the recently discovered הגדול הכהן sarcophagus בן inscription from the north of Jerusalem (see above)

81 This inscription might have a religious (respectively halakic) signifĳicance if it refers to a special classifĳication of inferior wine frequently mentioned in rabbinic sources eg m

Hul 1782 CIIP 17CIJ 1407 CIIP 287 and 46683 As suggested by Hachlili Jewish Funerary Customs 225 who gives also other examples of

derogatory nicknames for example בן הרצחן (ldquoson of the murdererrdquo) also in Hebrew84 Ibid 215



military economic and legal contexts while the coin inscriptions reflect a use of Hebrew for political or administrative purposes To conclude while there is indeed a certain prevalence of Hebrew within contexts of religious or national relevance and on the other hand a prevalence of Aramaic in economic and administrative matters in neither case is this to the total exclusion of the other language

Fourth the assumption that Hebrew was used by the learned population while Aramaic was used by the unlearned as well as the opposite cannot be based on the epigraphic evidence either simply because we do not know enough about the social status of the people behind the inscriptions and documents Probably most of the inscriptions and documents originate from the middle or upper classes of society since the lower classes would not have the money or means to produce documents or prestigious inscriptions Even in the case of casual grafffĳiti we cannot determine the social status of their authors Certainly no sociological pattern of language distribution can be extracted from the evidence

These conclusions drawn from the epigraphic material of the land of Israel might appear disappointing at fĳirst glance since they are predominantly nega-tive in essence the language distribution within the inscriptions and docu-ments is too evenly divided and too diverse to make any certain claims on geographical functional or sociological language peculiarities However it might be just this non-existence of clear results that is the most important result of this study too easily New Testament scholars have looked for simple patterns and ready answers to explain the complexity of a reality two thousand years separated from ours Too quickly scholars of the past (and present) have made claims about language use that were not based on the material on the ground but on theological or ideological preconceptions Too negligently we have separated ourselves from the fruitful studies of our colleagues in the fĳields of archaeology linguistics and history Today however in a time of increasing interdisciplinary interaction we fĳind that our judgments should be more care-ful our claims more humble and the picture we draw of the past more complex than it has been until now The epigraphic evidence from the fĳirst century pres-ents us with a complex picture of a trilingual society in which Greek Aramaic and Hebrew not only exist side by side but exist closely intertwined and in living contact with each another

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 LVI 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 NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor weergave op een beeldscherm e-mail en internet De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 POL 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 PTB ltFEFF005500740069006c0069007a006500200065007300730061007300200063006f006e00660069006700750072006100e700f50065007300200064006500200066006f0072006d00610020006100200063007200690061007200200064006f00630075006d0065006e0074006f0073002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020006d00610069007300200061006400650071007500610064006f00730020007000610072006100200065007800690062006900e700e3006f0020006e0061002000740065006c0061002c0020007000610072006100200065002d006d00610069006c007300200065002000700061007200610020006100200049006e007400650072006e00650074002e0020004f007300200064006f00630075006d0065006e0074006f00730020005000440046002000630072006900610064006f007300200070006f00640065006d0020007300650072002000610062006500720074006f007300200063006f006d0020006f0020004100630072006f006200610074002000650020006f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002000650020007600650072007300f50065007300200070006f00730074006500720069006f007200650073002egt RUM 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 RUS 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 UKR 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 ENU (Brill Webready 2v1) gtgt Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (10) ] OtherNamespaces [ ltlt AsReaderSpreads false CropImagesToFrames true ErrorControl WarnAndContinue FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false IncludeGuidesGrids false IncludeNonPrinting false IncludeSlug false Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (40) ] OmitPlacedBitmaps false OmitPlacedEPS false OmitPlacedPDF false SimulateOverprint Legacy gtgt ltlt AddBleedMarks false AddColorBars false AddCropMarks false AddPageInfo false AddRegMarks false BleedOffset [ 0 0 0 0 ] ConvertColors NoConversion DestinationProfileName (None) DestinationProfileSelector WorkingCMYK Downsample16BitImages true FlattenerPreset ltlt PresetSelector MediumResolution gtgt FormElements false GenerateStructure false IncludeBookmarks true IncludeHyperlinks false IncludeInteractive false IncludeLayers false IncludeProfiles true MarksOffset 6 MarksWeight 0250000 MultimediaHandling UseObjectSettings Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (20) ] PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector WorkingCMYK PageMarksFile RomanDefault PreserveEditing false UntaggedCMYKHandling LeaveUntagged UntaggedRGBHandling UseDocumentProfile UseDocumentBleed false gtgt ltlt AllowImageBreaks true AllowTableBreaks true ExpandPage false HonorBaseURL true HonorRolloverEffect false IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false IncludeHeaderFooter false MarginOffset [ 0 0 0 0 ] MetadataAuthor () MetadataKeywords () MetadataSubject () MetadataTitle () MetricPageSize [ 0 0 ] MetricUnit inch MobileCompatible 0 Namespace [ (Adobe) (GoLive) (80) ] OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false PageOrientation Portrait RemoveBackground false ShrinkContent true TreatColorsAs MainMonitorColors UseEmbeddedProfiles false UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true gtgt ]gtgt setdistillerparamsltlt HWResolution [600 600] PageSize [453543 680315]gtgt setpagedevice


Contents

Introduction Language Issues Are Important for Gospel Studiesemspemsp1

Randall Buth

Sociolinguistic Issues in a Trilingual Frameworkemspemsp7

1 The Origins of the ldquoExclusive Aramaic Modelrdquo in the Nineteenth Century Methodological Fallacies and Subtle Motivesemspemsp9

Guido Baltes

2 The Use of Hebrew and Aramaic in Epigraphic Sources of the New Testament Eraemspemsp35

Guido Baltes

3 Hebraisti in Ancient Texts Does Ἑβραϊστί Ever Mean ldquoAramaicrdquoemspemsp66Randall Buth and Chad Pierce

4 The Linguistic Ethos of the Galilee in the First Century CEemspemsp110Marc Turnage

5 Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesusrsquo Language Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authorsemspemsp182

Serge Ruzer

Literary Issues in a Trilingual Frameworkemspemsp207

6 Hebrew Aramaic and the Difffering Phenomena of Targum and Translation in the Second Temple Period and Post-Second Temple Periodemspemsp209

Daniel A Machiela

7 Distinguishing Hebrew from Aramaic in Semitized Greek Texts with an Application for the Gospels and Pseudepigraphaemspemsp247

Randall Buth

vi contents



R Steven Notley





David N Bivin


Randall Buth





Guido Baltes








36 baltes


















1880 ce9






38 baltes












1 The Material









40 baltes















42 baltes


























44 baltes






















46 baltes





















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50 baltes












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52 baltes


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54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













vi contents



R Steven Notley





David N Bivin


Randall Buth





Guido Baltes








36 baltes


















1880 ce9






38 baltes












1 The Material









40 baltes















42 baltes


























44 baltes






















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes
















Guido Baltes








36 baltes


















1880 ce9






38 baltes












1 The Material









40 baltes















42 baltes


























44 baltes






















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













36 baltes


















1880 ce9






38 baltes












1 The Material









40 baltes















42 baltes


























44 baltes






















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes




















1880 ce9






38 baltes












1 The Material









40 baltes















42 baltes


























44 baltes






















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













38 baltes












1 The Material









40 baltes















42 baltes


























44 baltes






















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes

















1 The Material









40 baltes















42 baltes


























44 baltes






















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













40 baltes















42 baltes


























44 baltes






















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes



















42 baltes


























44 baltes






















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













42 baltes


























44 baltes






















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes

























44 baltes






















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













44 baltes






















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes




















46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













46 baltes





















48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes























48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













48 baltes














50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes



















50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













50 baltes












Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes















Tabl

e 1

Lan

gua

ge D

istr

ibu

tion

in M

ajo

r E

pigr

aph

ic C

orpo

ra

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Corp

ora

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahci

jensp5

35ensp2

49ensp2

06mdash

ensp22

ensp637

15ensp3

8ensp3

3ensp7

726

ensp25

ensp7ci

j (ca

100

bc

endash

135 c

e)

ensp202

enspensp67

ensp115

mdashenspensp

3ensp4

ensp9ensp4

ensp11

ensp21

ensp51

20enspensp

8ensp4

ciip

11 a

nd 2

1730

ensp971

ensp433

241

ensp33

ensp633

13ensp3

7ensp9

021

840

ensp34

14ci

ip (c

a 10

0 b

ce

ndash70 C

E)

ensp726

ensp271

ensp398

11enspensp

2ensp6

2513

ensp35

ensp86

196

40ensp2

714

Mas

ada

ensp941

ensp101

ensp700

105

ensp35

mdashmdash

mdashensp4

8ensp2

759

712

ensp13

ensp3He

rodi

onenspensp

57enspensp

41enspensp

15mdash

mdashmdash

ensp1mdash

enspensp2

mdashenspensp

7mdash

enspensp5

ensp1Be

th Sh

ersquoarim

ensp290

ensp201

enspensp52

mdashensp1

4ensp1

15ensp7

enspensp3

enspensp2

ensp23

ensp4ensp1

8ensp2

Addi

tiona

l ossu

ary i

nscr

iptio

nsenspensp

31enspensp

11enspensp

16mdash

mdashensp4

mdashmdash

enspensp2

enspensp4

enspensp7

ensp1enspensp

1ensp1

Addi

tiona

l oth

er in

scrip

tions

enspensp37

enspenspensp5

enspensp30

mdashenspensp

1mdash

ensp1mdash

ensp16

enspensp1

enspensp9

mdashenspensp

4mdash

DJD

non

-lite

rary

text

sensp5

64ensp2

85ensp2

27enspensp

6ensp2

5ensp7

13ensp1

ensp71

enspensp2

ensp53

mdashensp9

8ensp3

DJD

ldquoBar

Kok

hba-

lette

rsrdquo on

lyenspensp

27enspensp

ensp3enspensp

24mdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

enspensp9

mdashmdash

mdashensp1

5mdash

DJD

ldquoEco

n D

ocum

entsrdquo

only

enspensp87

enspensp23

enspensp37

mdashenspensp

9ensp5

13mdash

ensp22

mdashenspensp

2mdash

ensp12

ensp1To

tal

3819

1683

1544

352

115

1972

2720

813

692

562

188

25To

tal (

ca 1

00 b

ce

ndash13

5 ce

)23

23ensp6

8013

9312

2ensp6

016

3914

176

123

870

5614

721

(Con

tin

ued

)

52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













52 baltes


Tabl

e 1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Tota

lBi

lingu

al(G

reek

-Ara

maic

and

Gree

k-He

brew

)

ldquoJewi

sh sc

riptrdquo

only

(Ara

maic

and

or H

ebre

w)

Genr

es (c

a 10

0 bc

endash

135 c

e)

Σg

j1

0

gagn

gh

a1a2

nh2

h1

ahOs

suar

y ins

crip

tions

ensp602

ensp200

ensp349

enspensp2

enspensp4

ensp925

13ensp2

5ensp8

717

335

ensp16

13Os

traca

ensp565

enspensp32

ensp511

ensp22

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

ensp19

ensp16

458

11enspensp

7mdash

Othe

r ins

crip

tions

ensp294

enspensp99

ensp158

ensp15

ensp21

mdashensp1

mdashensp2

5ensp1

8ensp8

7ensp9

ensp17

ensp2Le

tters

enspensp41

enspenspensp4

enspensp36

mdashenspensp

1mdash

mdashmdash

ensp14

mdashmdash

mdashensp2

2mdash

Docu

men

tary

text

sensp5

53ensp1

64ensp2

61ensp8

3ensp2

5ensp6

13ensp1

ensp85

enspensp2

134

ensp1ensp3

3ensp6

Othe

r (in

cl un

classi

fĳied)

ensp269

ensp181

enspensp78

mdashenspensp

9ensp1

mdashmdash

enspensp8

mdashensp1

8mdash

ensp52

mdash








54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes




















54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













54 baltes

















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes




















56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













56 baltes






















58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes


























58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













58 baltes












7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes
















7 Conclusions









60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes













60 baltes























62 baltes

















64 baltes
























62 baltes

















64 baltes













62 baltes

















64 baltes





















64 baltes













64 baltes

















