The Life of the Spirit eucken

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CROWN THEOLOGICAL LIBRARY

vl J*^*9

VOL. XXVI.

EUCKEN S THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT


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Crown Ubeoloaical XibrarpWORKS ALREADY PUBLISHEDVol. I. BABEL AND BIBLE. By Dr FRIEDRICH DELITZSCH. 45. 6d. net.Vol. II. THE VIRGIN BIRTH OF CHRIST. An Historical and Critical

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Descriptive Prospectus on Af>flicaiiot ..


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THELIFE OF THE SPIRITAN INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

BY

RUDOLF EUCKENPROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN JENA

TRANSLATED BYF. L. POGSON, M.A.

SECOND EDITIONWITH INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHOR

(SECOND IMPRESSION)

WILLIAMS & NORGATE14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON

NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM S SONS1909


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First printed December 1908Second Editionfirst printed February 1909

,i Second Impression, December 1909


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PREFACEIN the present volume philosophy is not regarded

as a known quantity, and no attemptis made to impart it to the individual by acomparative survey of its different departments ; but it is treated as a problem the problem that it in reality continually becomes inthe course of the centuries. The book represents a particular view of the nature ofphilosophy, and undertakes to show that itmust be conceived in this way if it is to beequal to the demands which are made upon itby the life of mankind, and particularly by thepresent situation. By tracing out as simplyand clearly as possible a few of the leadinglines on which the age-long work of the humanspirit has proceeded, it is shown that our spiritual life is not built up in peace and securityon a given foundation, but that doubt and


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vi PREFACEconflict extend right down to the foundation,and that no progress of our inner life is possiblewithout a reversal of our first impressions.If philosophy thus appears intimately boundup with all the striving of humanity andthe necessity for spiritual self-preservation,then the re-emergence of a philosophy of lifeand existence becomes an urgent requirementin the complication and confusion of the presentsituation, and in the struggle which we haveto wage to-day for a spiritual centre for ourcivilisation and a perception of the meaningand value of life. It is because this struggleconcerns not merely the learned, but everyman who does not despair of attaining to innerindependence and true fulness of life, that itis hoped this book will appeal to a wider circleof readers, especially those who share theauthor s strong and painful conviction of theinadequacy and indeed the emptiness ofmodern civilisation, in spite of all its outerostentation.

RUDOLF EUCKEN.JENA, May 1908.


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INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THEAUTHORIT may render the present volume easier tounderstand if the author endeavours to sketchin a few words what he aims at accomplishing.My efforts have been inspired by the strong

feeling that the present spiritual situation ishighly unsatisfactory, and in particular thatthere is a sharp opposition which dividesmankind and depresses the level of life. Thegreatness of our age lies in work, in the subjection and shaping of the world of objectsto human ends : this work has gained moreand more brilliant triumphs, and has alteredthe whole of our existence. But these triumphshave not been accompanied by a corresponding growth in the content of life and the soulof man. Work directs our efforts towards


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viii INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHORexternal ends, and thus brings into playonly a part, and indeed a more and moreinsignificant part, of our faculties. Hence alltechnical achievements do not preserve usfrom inner emptiness : work overwhelms oursoul and makes us to a continually increasingextent a mere means and instrument of itsrestless activity. In opposition to this acounter - movement has lately arisen ; mantears himself away from work, and opposesto it his own subjective condition ; he seekshappiness more especially by treating life asan art, by cultivating refined and pleasurableemotions, by shaking off the burden of matterand the objective world. But the aestheticismwhich aims at transforming the whole of existence into pleasure and enjoyment providesit with no high aims and no real content :it makes life a mere play on the surface ofthings, which may be attractive and delightfulfor a certain time, but which in the end isbound to produce weariness and repulsion.Hence it becomes a matter of importance


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INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHOR ixto rise above the opposition between soullesswork and empty subjectivism ; this, however,cannot possibly be accomplished from the outside, but requires the strenuous exertion anddeepening of life itself. To help towards thisend is the special task of philosophy, which isthus seen to be indispensable to humanity,for it is philosophy which can best co-ordinatelife into a whole, investigate the specificcharacter of the whole so formed, press forward from the outer appearance to the innerdepths, weigh the significance of each elementin the universe, and try to ascertain the meaning of the whole. But any such thoroughinvestigation of life must make it evident thathuman life in a large measure, at any rate

falls within a wider concept of Nature,and displays a close kinship with the animalworld. It is equally evident, however, that thepossibilities of human life are by no meansentirely exhausted in the life of Nature, butthat with it a new stage of reality arises,which we call spiritual. This stage does not


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x INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHORmerely exhibit particular new qualities, butalso involves an entirely new kind of existence : psychical life, which, in the stages belowthe human, forms a mere appendage andserves only to promote physical self-preservation, here first reaches independence,gives rise to entirely new realities and values,and forms a realm which is co-ordinatedinto a whole by internal connections. Thiswhole cannot possibly be set down asa

merelyhuman

product ;it must

springfrom the universe and thence be communicated to man. In appropriating it he appearsas a being who has a share in a cosmicmovement and is called upon to further it.But the

spirituallife is no mere possession tobe enjoyed by man. His average existence

usually forms a turbid medley in which natureis strong and spirituality weak. Hence theobject to be aimed at is first to build up inopposition to this average life a realm ofgenuine spirituality by means of united work,and then to raise humanity up to it. This


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INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHOR xitransforms the whole of our existence intoa problem and a task ; at every point lifemust be raised to an essentially higher level,a reversal of its previous course must beaccomplished ; our view of the world andthe kind of life we lead must be given aspecific shape ; humanity as a whole has herea common work to carry out. From thisstarting-point a new idealism is developed,a philosophy which may be termed activism.This activism differs both from the olderspeculation and from modern Pragmatism.From the former it is distinguished by itsrepudiation of intellectualism, by its grounding of knowledge on life, and by its constantreturn to the content of life as the fundamental and controlling fact. From Pragmatism it is differentiated by the fact that itdoes not make the welfare of the mere man,whether as an individual or in society, itsleading aim, but sees in man the emergenceof something superhuman, divine, and eternal,and makes this the sure guiding star of its


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xii INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHORefforts ; by this means it raises them abovethe contingency of the individual and thevicissitudes of time, and gives to man s lifea worthy content.But where endeavour is thus concentrated

chiefly on the content and connections of life,the consideration of the general movement ofhistory will acquire great significance. Forthe spiritual life does not lie ready to handin the consciousness of individuals ; it revealsto us its depths and its goals only throughmanifold experiences and hard struggles ;these experiences and struggles, with thedevelopment of spiritual life which they havebrought about, form the heart and core ofthe movement of history. Hence history,when regarded from the philosophical pointof view, leads us to consider the height ofspiritual life which has been already attained ;not only so, but with regard to the differentleading problems of philosophy, the processof tracing out the fate they have met within the course of the centuries is an excellent


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INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE AUTHOR xiiimeans of taking bearings and of seeing bothwhat in them is permanently necessary, andwhat in this connection the present requiresfrom the thinker. This attention to historyis not meant to alienate us from the present,but, by increasing our philosophical insight,it should reveal to us a wider and richerpresent than that of the mere moment. Thisis the justification for the attempt made inthis volume to fix our position with regardto the present tasks of philosophy by meansof an historical survey. RUDOLF EUCREN.

JENA.


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TRANSLATOR S NOTEIT is my pleasant duty to thank the friendswho have helped me in various ways. Thetranslation owes much to my discussions withMr G. G. Berry, whose keen insight hascleared up many a difficulty. I am also muchindebted to Mr W. R. Boyce Gibson forgenerously allowing me to see in manuscriptthe concluding portion of his forthcomingtranslation of Prof. Eucken s Lebensansckau-ungen, and for giving me the benefit in otherways of his intimate knowledge of Prof.Eucken s philosophy. To Prof. L. P. JacksI owe the correct interpretation of the passagefrom Hegel quoted on p. 54. The translationin the "English and Foreign PhilosophicalLibrary" does not seem to bring out the realmeaning, but it was unfortunately too late to


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xvi TRANSLATORS NOTEalter it. Finally, I am greatly indebted toProf. Eucken himself for courteously givingme information on a considerable number ofdoubtful points. For any errors that theremay be, I, of course, am solely responsible.

F. L. POGSON.OXFORD, December 1908.


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CONTENTSINTRODUCTION

PAGES1-29

Philosophy the queen of sciences, I ; ancient philosophy,2 ; religion and philosophy, 2 ; philosophy and its opponents, 3 ; internal conflicts of philosophy, 4 ; the aim ofphilosophy, 5-7 ; the influence of philosophy, 8 ; philosophy as the representative of necessities of thought, 9-11;philosophy and life, 11-14 > spiritual life, 15-20 ; history,philosophy, and the spiritual life, 21-29.

CHAPTER IUNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 30-103

The systemalisation of life, 30 ; demand for unification,30 ; Greek philosophy and unity, 32-34 ; Plato s doctrineof ideas, 35 ; Aristotle s scheme of life, 37-40 ; the creativeactivity of art, 40 ; philosophy and universal reason, 42 ;the function of religion, 43 ; Plotinus and the search forunity, 44 ; unity and the spiritual life, 46 ; mysticism, 47 ;Christianity and unity, 49 ; the ethical conception of God,49 ; the Christian conception of God, 50 ; the Greekconception of the Deity, 51 ; exaltation of the individual,53 ; the Church and individual freedom, 55 ; contradictionsof Christianity, 55 ; the absorption of Christianity by theChurch, 57-59 ; Scholasticism, 61 ; freedom, 63-68 ;modern science and its aims, 68-72 ; new forms and aimsof philosophy, 72 et seq. ; individualism and society, 83 ;personality and the world, 84 ; civilisation and thespiritual life, 87 ; German philosophy, 88 ; the medievalecclesiastical system, 92 ; history and the spiritual life,94 ; philosophy and the spiritual life, 100-103.

xvii


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xviii CONTENTSCHAPTER II

PAGESCHANGE AND PERSISTENCE TIME AND ETERNITY 104-181

The endlessness of time and the longing for eternity, 105 ;religion and its influences, 106 ; Greek philosophy and itsinfluence, 107-112 ; the search for the persistent, 112-113 ;the Greek ideal of life, 115 ; eternal rest the supreme goalof religion, 117 ; the Christian scheme of life, 119-123 ;the Church the guardian of unchangeable truth, 124 ;classical antiquity and the beginnings of Christianity, 126 ;Scholasticism, 126; mysticism, 127; persistence and medievalism, 128 ; the Renaissance and the Reformation, 132 ;"middle ages": derivation of the term, 133; thedoctrine of evolution, 135 et seq. ; the conception ofevolution in Faust, 139 ; time and eternity, 139 et seq, ;three phases of evolution, 140-141 ; natural science andPositivism, 141 ; co ordination needed in spiritual work,145 ; modern philosophy, 146 ; historical modes of thought,151 ; natural law, 153 ; the futility of a restless life, 157 ;the rejuvenescence of the old Mysticism, 159 ; rationalismand optimism, 161 ; historical evolution an absurdity,163 ; the medieval system of the Roman Catholic Church,164-167 ; the illusory recourse to history, 167-168 ; independent work, 168 ; the movement of history, 169 ;faith in the ultimate rationality of reality the basis ofspiritual life, 176 ; the co-operation of philosophy and thereconciliation of time and eternity, 178-181.

CHAPTER IIITHE OUTER WORLD AND THE INNER WORLD . 182-274

The need and use of philosophy, 182-184; the twoworlds, \%$et set], ; dualism, 185-186; materialism, 187;spiritualism, 188 ; monism, 188-190 ; the relation betweenidealism and naturalism, 193-199; Greek idealism and itscomplications, 199-208 ; the later ages of antiquity andthe two worlds, 208-210; Christianity and the twoworlds, 211-218; Christianity the subject of constantstrife, 218 ; the fundamental conception of Christianity,219 ; the Christian conception of the sacrament, 225 ; thetrend of modern life and the relation of the two worlds,227-232 ; the scientific conception of the soul, 232 ; intellectual culture and the question, 234-238 ; modern


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CONTENTS xixPAGES

natural science, 238-241 ; defects of naturalism, 246-249;spiritual life a new life, 256 ; religion and the spirituallife, 262-264 ; the creative activity of art, 264-266 ;science and the question, 266 ; the close connection of thespiritual with the natural, 270-273.

CHAPTER IVTHE PROBLEM OF TRUTH . . . 275-333

Truth and happiness : opposing conditions, 275 !Augustine and Spinoza, 277-278 ; the conception oftruth, 280-283 ; the classical idea of truth, 284-293 ;Scepticism and truth, 291 ; Christianity and the question,294~32 ; faith the way to truth, 294-296 ; difficulties regarding faith, 296 ; the Roman Catholic Church and faith,297-298 ; faith, the remover of doubt, itself an object ofdoubt, 302; the Enlightenment, 307-313 ; critical philosophy, 313-319 ; constructive speculation, 319-321 ;Positivism, 322 ; Pragmatism, 322-326 ; truth and metaphysics, 322 326 ; modern philosophy and truth, 327-333.

CHAPTER VTHE PROBLEM OF HAPPINESS .... 334-394

Work and happiness, 334 ; the craving after happiness,335-337 ; a survey of world history in connection withhappiness, 337 et seq. ; the Greek idea of happiness, 338-339 ; Plato s conception of happiness, 340-342 ; Aristotleand happiness, 343-345 ; an examination of the ideal ofhappiness of the great classical thinkers, 345-357; Plotinusideal of happiness, 350-355 ; the Christian pursuit ofhappiness, 357 ; the Christian conception of pain, 360-363 ; modern idea of happiness, 366-373 ; limitations ofknowledge and complications arising therefrom, 373 etseq- ; aesthetic culture, 383-384 ; happiness and thequestion of personality, 384-386 ; philosophy and happiness, 391-394.

CONCLUSION .... , 395-403


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THELIFE OF THE SPIRIT

INTRODUCTIONTHAT philosophy is not only full of problems,but that philosophy itself as a whole is andremains a problem is shown by the variedestimation in which it has been held and thedisputed place which it occupies in the life ofmankind. On the one hand it is called thequeen of the sciences, and a life dedicated toit seems the acme of human existence ; mindsof the highest rank have laboured to serve it,and it has often intervened with great effectto modify the whole condition of humanity.This modifying influence, moreover, hasappeared in a great variety of ramifications.


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2 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRIT/ At one time, as in the case of Plato, philosophy

has wrested pure ideals from the dark tangleof everyday life and has held them up as sureguiding stars to action. At another time, as

// in the case of Aristotle, it has sought to graspthe fulness of reality in a unified whole and topenetrate the whole of life as an organizinginfluence. At still another time, as in the

ai later ages of antiquity, it has been a supportand finally a consolation amid the cares andtroubles of life. In modern times again ithas acted as an influence in liberating men sminds and as a torch of advancing culture.Moreover, it has in addition carried out avigorous examination of the traditional condition of life and has sought to enlighten men inthe most thoroughgoing way as to the limitsof their powers. No great spiritual achievement has seemed possible without the helpand co-operation of philosophy ; whenever ithas been wanting life has lost in spontaneity,in freedom of movement, in depth. Religionespecially has often enough experienced this


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INTRODUCTION 3to its grave injury. When we follow this lineof thought philosophy appears as an indispensable and most important part of the spiritualpossessions of humanity.But on the other hand every survey of

human experience shows that at all timesphilosophy has had its zealous opponents, whohave declared that it was superfluous andindeed have rejected it as harmful. This isthe case with the specialist, who believes thatthe work of knowledge is completely definedwhen the world has been divided up amongthe different scientific disciplines ; with thepractical man who regards brooding and reflection as a hindrance to keenness of action ; and,finally, with the believer in positive religion,who thinks that philosophy undermines thesecurity of faith and fills men with proud self-confidence. But more dangerous than anyattack from without is the fact that philosophyis uncertain of itself, that its work is dislocated,that it is divided into different schools, eachone of which, in order to maintain itself, thinks


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4 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITit necessary to refute all the others. This conflict threatens to remain unsettled and withoutresult ; it seems in the course of the centuriesto grow rather than to diminish. For whetherthe Sophists were in the right with theirsubjectivism, or Socrates with his doctrine ofconcepts, whether happiness in life is to besought by the way of the Stoa or by that ofEpicurus, is still an open question. Of coursethe individual actors have withdrawn from thestage, but their ideas have remained andpassionately continue the fight, like the spiritson the Catalaunian Fields. From this standpoint it remains incomprehensible how philosophy can have gained a deep influence overthought and life ; but if this influence must beaccepted as an indisputable fact, we are confronted by a riddle which necessarily impelsus to take our bearings both as to the task andthe position of philosophy.

It is true that an attempt has been made toget rid of the above contradiction by means ofa conception of philosophy which would make


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6 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITdevelopment, then to be sure it has escapedall danger, but at the same time it has lost allsignificance. For if it is thus limited itbecomes merely a registering of the results ofthe particular sciences, an encyclopaedia whichis not a genuine science, though a generoususe of language might give it the name. Inparticular it is hard to see how a mere encyclopaedia could have exerted upon thought andlife those deeply disturbing and fruitfullyelevating influences which the examples ofPlato and Kant are enough to show haveactually proceeded from it. And what if theindividual sciences do not harmonize withoutdemur, if bitter conflicts arise, if, for example,one department of science contends for theexclusive operation of mechanical causality,but another craves at least some shred offreedom therefrom ? Shall philosophy quietlysuffer such a contradiction to remain and beready to submit to it ? According to theabove conception it would not have theslightest remedy.


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INTRODUCTION 7On the other hand one who desiderates for

philosophy a separate domain of activity mayperhaps be inclined to think that it carries outa synthesis of the manifold in accordance withthe particular nature of the contemplatingsubject ; that it is not so much a sciencegoverned by strict rules as an unfettered art,and that it therefore remains inseparably boundup with the nature of the individual. According to this conception, philosophy wouldoffer an incalculable variety of pictures of theworld, some of which would quickly fade,while to others their inherent spiritual powerwould give the capacity to subjugate men sminds and to last for thousands of years.This view seems to be favoured by the factthat the history of philosophy shows us a greatabundance of figures. There is no doubt thatthis conception contains a certain amount oftruth ; the subjective element is particularlyimportant in philosophy, for a man s philosophycan least of all be separated from the wholeof his personality. But on the other hand


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8 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITthe influence which philosophy has exercisedthroughout history remains unexplained. Forhow could subjective pictures of that kindcause such passionate excitement and stir, orgive rise to so much love and hate ? Besidesthis, philosophy does not merely offer anunlimited number of individual pictures, butit also shows persistent types which seem toembody the fundamental tendencies of humanexistence and effort. Hellenism especially hasgiven rise to an abundance of types to whichhumanity has remained faithful as it has goneon its way, and which are continually producingnew effects. In spite of all the progress ofknowledge, Platonism and Aristotelianism,Stoicism and Epicureanism still maintain theirposition. Besides, it would be incomprehensible how philosophy as a purely individualand subjective reflection of reality could affectthe contents of thought and alter the conditionsof life, or how it could be for humanity a sourceof freedom, of security, and of rejuvenation.Philosophy has been often enough a com-


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INTRODUCTION 9pelling force which has transformed the wholeof the work of the spirit. Whence this compulsion if it rests purely on the caprice of theindividual ?

It is true that an attempt has been made toavoid the danger of such a relapse into puresubjectivity by regarding philosophy as therepresentative of necessities of thought whichhave not been sufficiently emphasized in everyday life and in the other sciences. By unfolding and fully developing these necessitiesphilosophy

has the right and the duty oftranscending its starting-point and reorganizing its representation of reality. It thusacquires compelling force and is bound, inparticular, to set itself the task of radicallyremoving all the contradictions which appearin our world of thought. This seems to liftits task above the risk of pure subjectivity andto make it a matter which concerns the wholeof humanity. But this conception, too, contains more complications than are apparent atfirst sight. The experience of history shows


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10 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITthat there is no unanimity as to the exactnature of that which is to count as a necessityof thought. Great thinkers have absolutelycontradicted one another on this subject:Hegel, for example, saw in contradictions apower favourable to the production and promotion of spiritual life, while to Herbart, onthe contrary, they seemed absolutely intolerable. Does not, then, the search for necessitiesof thought bring us back to the very subjectivity beyond which it was to carry us ? Andwe may be doubtful of the right of a thinkingwhich rests purely upon itself to impose itsdemands on the totality of things. Thinking,in its immediateness, is something which goeson in man : if things are to conform to thought,does there not arise a merely human interpretation of reality which may be quite foreign toreality itself? But the strongest motive inthe pursuit of truth is the desire to get beyondthe small and narrow circle of the merelyhuman and to gain full participation in thelife of things themselves, in the breadth and


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INTRODUCTION 11truth of the universe. It is, above all, thisinner expansion and liberation, this carryingof man beyond himself, which makes the workof great thinkers valuable and helpful to us ;a merely human truth is a contradiction interms, is no truth at all. If we cannot thusbe sure of some sort of inner connection withthe universe in our thinking, if we cannotfound our thinking on a wider and deeperlife, then philosophy does not exist in thesense in which it was understood at the heightof its activity, and in which it has, as a matterof fact, influenced mankind.We are thus thrown back from thought onto life life as it co-ordinates itself from withinto some sort of unified whole, directs its powersto particular ends, and adjusts itself to thetotality of its environment. We need onlyexamine the individual thinkers more exactlyas regards the inner texture of their work andthe aims which have actuated them, to becomeaware that, behind what stands before us asfully accomplished, there lies a particular


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12 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITshaping of life, and that here is the point ofdivision which

separatesthinkers and drives

them to do battle with one another. Onlybecause it was founded in such a life hasthought attained a finished form as well as aconstraining necessity ; only from this starting-point has it gained the power of taking realityup into itself and striving after inner illumination. The products of thinking have variedvery largely for the reason that, correspondingto the connection with life which is the foundation of thought, the work of knowledge hasbeen from the first conceived differently. Thefailure to recognize this connection betweenthought and life is mostly to blame for thefact that the strife of the philosophers withone another has turned out to be so unedifyingand so fruitless. The contest always ran therisk of moving in a circle, because it never gotback to the point where in reality the divisionlies, and because it treated as the main thingwhat was the effect of deeper causes. Thisconnection of thought with life enables us also


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INTRODUCTION 13to understand that in the case of philosophythe work of knowledge is so closely connectedwith the nature of the personality.But this connection of thought with life

does not seem to lead us out of our complications to a secure standpoint. The dangeragain arises of a wide separation and divisionof mankind into separate circles. For, afterall, different types of life do develop and rangethemselves side by side and put forth equalclaims. Who is to decide to which of thembelongs the higher right and leadership, andwhich, therefore, may produce a general pictureof reality that should be reckoned as definitive ?Besides, this gives no explanation how a movement which arises in man could go beyondhim, bring him into connection with the greatworld, and put him in possession of its meaning.And without this there is no knowledge oftruth in the sense in which philosophy strivesto attain it.

All these discussions come in the end tothis, that the existence of philosophy is bound


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14 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITup with definite conditions which are by nomeans perfectly obvious, and which no mereacuteness or reflection can bring to light, butas to whose existence or non-existence onlyexperience can decide. If thought is to havea root and a basis in life, and if at the sametime it is to have a constraining power and acharacter of universality, there is only onepossibility. There must appear within reachof man a life which can rise above divisionsand can counteract them, a life, further, whichcan develop out of its own movement comprehensive connections and, indeed, can showitself active in moulding the world. Finally,it must be a life which not only touches andinterprets what it lays hold of from the outside,but shapes it from within and admits it to itsown depths. Only if man is able in this wayto share in a universal life and thereby outgrowthe limits of his particular nature, can histhinking advance from a mere cognition ofthings to a true knowledge. Thus thereresults the possibility and, indeed, the neces-


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INTRODUCTION 15sity of a new way of looking at the world incontrast to that practised by the individualsciences.The question then is whether we have evi

dence of a life of this kind, which shapes ourworld and places us in a different fundamentalrelationship to reality. We believe that wecan confidently answer this question in theaffirmative. For we only need to gain akeener apprehension of what is called spirituallife, and to set it in sharper relief against theenvironment in which human existence involves it, to become aware that it offers thevery thing which we desire and seek. Spirituallife is, above all, the formation of a coherentsystem in life. In it not merely the potentialities of the subject are aroused and heightened, but confronting the subject there arisesa field, and indeed a whole kingdom, of an objective nature. Subject and object are comprehended in a self-contained activity and assisteach other s further development. Nothingshort of such a comprehension of the two sides


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16 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITcan supply life with contents and values which,with all their inwardness, possess an indubitablesuperiority over all merely human powers andopinions. It is in this way that whole provinces such as science and art, jurisprudenceand morality, grow up and develop their owncontents, their own motives, their own laws.These provinces, however, strive towards unityand finally coalesce in a unified world. Infact, they belong on the subjective side fromthe very beginning to such a unified whole,and only in connection with it can theysolve their own problem. Thus we find thatwithin man there is something which goesbeyond him ; he himself must become something different, and his whole life assumesthe form of a problem when a unifiedworld thus makes its appearance in his lifeand distinguishes itself from that which ismerely human.But what is the significance of this new life

in relation to the whole of reality ? This canonly be estimated by comparing it with that


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INTRODUCTION 17from which it distinguishes itself and which itstrives to transcend. In the first place, therealm of nature surrounds us all and penetratesdeep into the human soul. Here we see realitydissected into purely individual elements. Lifeis resolved into the relations of these elements ;it passes in purely individual processes, anddoes not get beyond mere matter-of-fact. Forthere exists here no life of the whole, whichshould comprehend the diversity, take it upinto itself and thence draw profit. But theamount of psychical life which exists here hasnot yet reached the stage at which it might becalled an individual life. For in the realm ofnature psychical life does not attain any independence ; it remains a mere concomitantphenomenon. It does not stand out as an endin itself, but forms a mere means and instrument for the preservation of living beings inthe hard struggle for existence. But the greatchange that ensues when spiritual life comesupon the scene is that now the inner lifebecomes independent and begins to prepare2


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18 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITfor itself a world of its own. This change,with its introduction of an

essentially newkind of life, and its construction of a worldfrom within, with its own particular contents,values, and order, can never be the work ofman by himself. It is only to be understoodas a movement of the whole of reality itself,which surrounds man, takes hold of him,and drives him on. Thus the movementtowards spiritual life appears as a movementof reality towards an independent consciousexistence. A depth of the world is revealedwhich before was hidden, and this gives rise toa complete transformation which must producean essentially new view of reality. But thisnew life, by the mere fact of its having constructed a state of civilization which existsside by side with what is purely natural, hasproved its power to make its way in oppositionto pre-existing forces. The achievement ofcivilization, when at its height, in producingessentially new objects and essentially newhuman characters, can have been made possible


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INTRODUCTION 19only by the force of an independent spirituallife, seeking to unfold itself.With the recognition of this movementthere is a change in the whole representationof our spiritual work. It is no longer accessoryto the main body of reality, and it is not aprivate concern of man by himself, but in itwe recognize a portion of a world-movement,of which mankind is the servant. From thisstandpoint, that work can claim superiorityboth over isolated individuals and over allmere subjectivism.But what is true of spiritual work generallyapplies also to philosophy. Man does not,out of his own inner consciousness and possiblyquite at random, put a particular complexionon the world, but his philosophy can onlypossess truth and power so far as the life ofthe world comes to clear consciousness in itand reveals its own depth. The co-ordinationof the manifold, which philosophy undertakes,cannot be imposed upon reality from the outside, but must come from within it and conduce


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20 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITto its unfolding. The task of philosophy nowis to enhance and thus to foster that co-ordination in the work of thought. In oppositionto the circumstances of humanity it will haveto be the champion and enforcer of the necessities of the spiritual life, and bring home clearlyto man the connections of that life. Fromthis point of view it is quite comprehensiblehow, throughout the course of history, philosophy was bound to accompany the life andthe struggles of humanity, and how it couldlift them to a higher level. It was able to dothis because it was not an opinion of man byhimself, but because it was a work and a demandof the spiritual life. It is only as a philosophyof spiritual life in this sense that philosophycan attain to independence and maintain theposition assigned to it by its friends. Andfrom this point of view its work can be seento be a connected task which is common tothe whole of humanity.

But at the same time, this conception explains why philosophy is exposed to so much


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INTRODUCTION 21uncertainty and strife. For spiritual life isnot something that is ready-made for us, but isa difficult problem in fact, the problem ofproblems. Certainly our being must be somehow grounded in it if we are to make aneffort after it, but as far as our consciousnessand activity are concerned, we must first winit and make it our own : only thus can it gaina clear shape and a definite content. But thisfurther opening up takes place in the individual not so much through reflection orimagination as through the labour of thewhole and as the work of history. What firstmakes history in the distinctively human sensepossible, is the fact that here a revelationof spiritual life gets started and gains groundas the development of a new stage of reality.But the testimony of experience shows thatthe course of this historical movement is byno means sure and simple. In the first place,spiritual life has no domain of its own in thehuman sphere and no independent starting-point, but it develops out of our life in


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22 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITnature and society and cannot dispense withit. In doing so it does not appear from thebeginning as a whole, but starts from separatepoints and gradually extends to larger connections, which again may diverge from oneanother. And its progress through historyis not orderly and sure, but resembles rather agroping and seeking. It makes a step forward,but encounters insurmountable obstacles andis often driven back a long way ; new startingpoints are tried, but they lead to a similarresult. The life is often split into opposites,and then again the impulse towards reconciliation gains the upper hand : much drops out ofsight, only to come up again later and exercisenew influence, and so the whole becomes moreand more complicated and involved. In particular a permanent complication proceedsfrom the relation of the spiritual life to man.Spiritual life stands in need of the feelings andfaculties of man, and so far as it gains these itraises him above that which is merely human.But at the same time this merely human


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INTRODUCTION 23element persists and is always ready to dragdown the spiritual life to its own level. Itdoes this especially when no great spiritualtension and no powerful spiritual creativeeffort exercises a counteracting influence. Atsuch times it almost appears as if this merelyhuman element looked upon the spiritual lifeas an enemy, and would like to take vengeanceon it for its troublesome interference. Nothing contributes more to impress a particularcharacter on human history than the fact thatspiritual life has to develop in the unsuitableand indeed hostile medium of human existence.But if spiritual life has often been draggeddown to the level of the merely human, it hasnot submitted for any length of time to thisdegradation. It has always escaped again,and, however much it might be disintegrated,it has always made a fresh effort to regainits unity ; in fact, throughout all the mistakesand passions of men it has made substantialprogress in self-realization. It has been ableto liberate life and thought from the tyranny


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24 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITof the mere passing moment, and by separating the temporal from the eternal, the humanfrom the spiritual, to gather up the results ofthousands of years, so as to be taken in at oneview. It has been able to reawaken what toall external appearance had perished, and tohold fast everything that it recognized asvaluable in a present which is above time andincludes time. Philosophy in particular, justas spiritual life generally, takes its stand onthis time-including present. History, however,appears on this view not as a kingdom of purereason, but as a scene where a certain amountof reason wins through in the teeth of enormousresistance.From this point of view the movement of

history, with its elevation of spiritual life abovethe position and caprice of mere man, gains aspecial significance for philosophy, and in factbecomes an introduction to a philosophy ofthe spiritual life. For, in revealing all that hasbeen unfolded of independent spiritual life, itshows what possibilities our life contains of


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INTRODUCTION 25being raised to a higher inward level, and alsowhat oppositions arise in this connection andhave to be overcome in some way or other.It goes on to exhibit the conditions and thedemands of spiritual creative effort, and thepresuppositions and environment from whichspecial kinds of spiritual life have sprung. Itshows the dominating facts both within andas opposed to the spiritual life, and also thedirections in which the movement progresses.It can further operate to free our work fromall that is casual and temporary, and to bringit into line with the necessary course of spirituallife so far as it has been revealed in the historyof the world. Our efforts will not only acquirethereby more breadth and freedom, but mayalso gain a stronger and securer positionthrough the recognition of the great guidinglines of the general movement of history.Naturally all this can only take place accordingto the capacity of the individual life on whichthe task is laid of gaining an inner masteryover the materials provided by history. For


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26 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITwithout such individual exertion history cannotimpart or teach anything : the contents ofhistory must first be awakened and revivifiedby our own work before they can be of anysignificance or use to our own life. If wethus address ourselves to the spiritual content,the revivifying of the general movement ofhistory takes the form of a comparative surveyof the spiritual possessions which we havehitherto acquired, and a summons to developand secure these possessions against the influences and accidents of the moment. Weneed not waste any time in proving that thepresent, with its sharp oppositions, its violentcleavage, and ominous levelling down of life,and its want of any ruling aim, stands inparticularly urgent need of being supplementedand developed in the way we have sketched.Historical study must press on with particularinsistence to fresh philosophical work, to acreative activity which will transform philosophy by clearly proving the untenabilityof the present spiritual state and the necessity


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INTRODUCTION 27of a new type of culture. But in this respectthe spiritual requirements which are involved,not so much in the time as in the generalposition in world history, are bound to setphilosophy definite tasks and point it indefinite directions.

A treatment of history like this, which combines the tracing out of the rise and growth ofspiritual life within the sphere of humanity withthe search for a standpoint for philosophicalwork, can be undertaken in different ways.We desire to undertake it in such a way asto emphasize some of the leading lines ofdevelopment, to exhibit the problems whichthere await us, and to show the movements,experiences, and revelations of life which haveresulted from them. It may seem that outwardly we are giving ourselves up entirely tohistory, but our aim is always directed towardsphilosophy. What history has brought us isnot reckoned as merely past, but we try tomake it present to us as living, and at thesame time to gain from it points of support


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28 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITboth for the guidance of spiritual life and forphilosophy. In these leading lines we shallfind common features, in fact an inner connection will be evident through all the diversity ; but a more exact estimation of this is tobe made at the end. We thus arrange oursections so that we progress gradually fromgeneral sketches to a more definite content,and so allow the character and the demandsof the whole to become continually moreapparent. Let us then treat in succession theproblems of unity and multiplicity, of rest andmovement, of the outer and the inner worlds,and finally the problem of truth and the problem of happiness. As far as material is concerned, let us limit our investigation to tracingout the movement from the rise of Greekcivilization to the present day. This is notmerely because it lies nearest to us externally,but also because no other historical complexcontains so much spiritual movement or hasproduced such an abundance of life and, amidviolent metamorphoses, has passed through so


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INTRODUCTION 29many experiences. But this is the point, aboveall, for philosophical contemplation. If we gothrough history in this way we do not loseourselves in an incalculable vastness, but, withall the abundance of material, we are all thetime at home. It is a kind of introspection,not so much of the individual as of the whole,which we are here striving after, and introspection is to-day, as at all times, the bestapproach to philosophy.


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CHAPTER 1UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY

NATURE, as it lies open to our view, displaysa mere juxtaposition of elements, with no innerconnection. On the natural level life does notget beyond the stage of mere correlations.But on the other hand, wherever spiritual lifemakes itself felt we find the desire to surmount the stage of mere juxtaposition, toestablish an inner connection, and, in fact, tosystematize the whole of life. All the maindirections in which our spiritual work findsits outlet involve the effort to overcome anopposition and the demand for some sort ofunification. Thus the struggle for truth seeksto overcome the separation between men andthings, between subject and object, between

30


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UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 31thought and existence. With the good, inthe narrower sense of the word, it is a caseof getting free from the pettiness of the ego,breaking through the original narrowness, andattaining inner solidarity. Beauty too seeksto overcome an opposition in endeavouring tomake the external conform completely to itsown internal standards. But just as spirituallife exercises a unifying influence in an external environment, so too, in itself, it strivesto assume the form of a coherent whole andgives rise to an inner solidarity of work. Itis a matter not for the individual man, butfor the whole race ; it strives to attain notmerely individual truths but a realm oftruth, which envelops and holds togetherthe individuals, and which, indeed, lays claimto a validity of its own, independent of mankind. It is very much the same with thegood and the beautiful ; however much controversy and dissension may prevail in thisconnection, even the controversy would beincomprehensible without the belief in a


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32 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITcommon truth and without the impellingpower of this truth.But though the striving for unity is an

incontestable and fundamental impulse of allspiritual life, it yet involves a difficult problem, which cannot be attacked by the individual but only by the age-long toil of humanity.For the question is, how the unification canbe attained, and what form the whole mustassume in order to take up the diversity intoitself and overcome the oppositions. Manydifferent attempts and much unrest will meetthe eyes of him who makes a spiritual pilgrimage through the centuries. In accordancewith our plan we begin with the life of theGreeks.From the very beginning the philosophy of

the Greeks shows the impulse towards unity.Their first thinkers, the sages of Ionia, turn atonce to the search for a single fundamentalsubstance, and the Pythagoreans co-ordinatethe wealth of phenomena into a coherentuniverse, a cosmos. Even the exclusiveness


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84 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITaloof from them, and feels that he is personallyresponsible for his own life. But then thedanger at once arises that the subject maybreak up all systems, make himself themeasure of all things, and, as a logical consequence, recognize the validity of no endsexcept those that further his own well-being.This gives rise to the most dangerous crisis,and life appears likely to suffer a completedissolution. The Sophists with their subjectivism make this very evident. In such aconvulsion nothing can be of any assistanceexcept man s own spiritual work : it is thisalone which can attempt to build up fromwithin the coherent system which the visibleworld no longer affords, and what it hereundertook for the first time is in reality aproblem of a lasting nature which our ownday too must face. With the Greeks it waspre-eminently philosophy which took uponitself this problem. A solution was soughtby affirming the existence of a world ofthought raised above all human circumstances


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UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 85and opinions and firmly established over againstthem. Plato s doctrine of Ideas brings thepower of genius to the execution of this task,and for him the constituents of that worldmore nearly acquire the character of formsendowed with fulness of life. These formswith all their diversity unite to form a whole ;the work of this whole, moreover, is to givemovement and elevation to human existence ;it supplies it with a deeper foundation and thepower of counteracting the distraction fromwhich it previously suffered. On the basisof scientific work there thus arises an artisticordering of life which brings about a peculiarcombination of unity and multiplicity. Thethought of the One takes precedence, but theMany are not in the least sacrificed, thougheach part must seek its place and its task withinthe whole in order to carry out its special workin this position. But it cannot do this withoutrecognizing limits and overcoming the crudeimpulses of nature, and thus it is ennobled and,in fact, spiritualized by the whole. Thus life


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36 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITis organized from top to bottom, marked offinto stages, made symmetrical and harmonious,and everything which is merely natural isbrought under the dominion of the spirit.A movement of this kind affects humanendeavour in all directions and gives it apeculiar character. On this view thought isnot a critical sifting and analysing, a pressingforward to the most minute elements, but it israther a comprehensive survey of the diversityof things, and a disentangling of the fundamental structure of the universe from thechaos which it presents at first sight. Itsmain movement is from the whole to theparts, and it is especially the task of philosophical knowledge to put everything that existsand everything that happens in its properplace, and to understand it from what it doesfor the whole. And the psychic life of manhas also a general work to perform, whichincludes its individual parts and stages. It isof special importance in the human community to counteract the isolation of in-


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UNITY AND MULTIPLICITY 37dividuals, with their caprice and selfishness.The thought arises of a state whose structureis based on knowledge and seeks to enforceits own realization. An essentially elevatingeffect is expected from the direction of thewhole towards spiritual goods and from thedivision and organization of work by a gradation of classes. Even the severest consequences, such as the extraordinary communismof the higher classes, are not shirked if theyseem to be necessary in order to strike at theroot of egoism. But all this surrender to thewhole does not mean any complete sacrifice ofthe individuals, for in this arrangement theysatisfy their own nature as well, and therebyattain to complete happiness.

Aristotle s scheme of life is closely relatedto Plato s, but still the modifications which heintroduced are significant. Less importanceis attached to the part played by art, and thepower of co-ordination which results fromtaking the point of view of art is less emphasized, though it is not entirely neglected.


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38 THE LIFE OF THE SPIRITBut, on the other hand, the classifying andorganizing power of thought is given thewidest scope, and it is especially the conceptionof the unfolding of life, of existence becomingfully active, that provides the guiding linesfor thought. It is here in particular thathuman activity displays a systematic character : the world, both in general and in detail,is regarded under the governing conception ofan articulated whole, an organic unity of life.Aristotle is particularly successful in enforcingthe idea that in the case of an organic livingbeing a large number of organs and functionsis subordinated to a comprehensive unity oflife, and that it is only from this point ofview, by help of the idea of an end, thatthey can be understood. This conceptionof an organism is finally transferred to thewhole universe ; this too forms a completeand rounded unity which tolerates nothing"episodic."

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The Life of the Spirit eucken