TheEnvirotrmentalEducation

EE Toolbox-Workshop Resource Manual

Martha C. MonroeUniuersity of MichiganAnn Arbor, MI

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This project has been funded by theUnited States Environmental ProtectionAgency under assistance agreement numberEPA-G-NT901935-01 -0 to the Universityof Michigan School of Natural Resourcesand Environment.

DefinirrgEnvirorunentalEducation

John E DisingerOhio State UniuersityColumbus, OH

Env ronmenio Educolion

lNcl

EETNoiono Consodium for

School of Natural Resourcesand Environment

University of MichiganAnn Arbor, Ml 48109-1115

3r3 998-6726

Workshop Resource ManualManaging Ediiors:

Martha C. MonroeDavid Cappaert

Copy Editor:

Nancy A. Osborn

tsBN 1-884782-03-5

The contents of this documentdo not necessarily reflect theviews and policies ol theUnited States EnvironmentalProtection Agency, nor doesmention o, trade names orcommercial products consti-tute endorsement or recom.mendation for use.

O Copyright 1994 by theRegents of the Universityoi Michigan

Educators may photocopythese materials for thenon-commercial purposeof educational advancement.

Printed on paper containing50% total recycled tiber/25%post-consumer fiber usingsoy-based ink.

Designed by Margaret Re

Typeset in Sabon,News Gothic, and FranklinGothic Number 2

Contents

Introduction .........2

TheEssenceofEE. .... 3

ln a Nutshell 3

Environmental Literacy ....... 5

Responsible Environmental Behavior ... 7

TheValueof EE . ..... 8

From the Educational Perspective. . . . . . B

From the Environmental Perspective. . . . 9

From the Classic to the Contemporary 10

TheRootsof EE.....;.. 10

Societal lnfluencesand Trends., . . . . . 11

U

O Current EE Issues in our Schools

Everyone's Concern

Secondary Schools

lssues and Problem-Solving Skills . . . .

Urban lssues

ActivitiesandMasters ....... 15

Resources ....39

72

72

12

t213

13

oo

\-

Introduction

NVIRoNMENTAL EDUCATIoN (EE) offers classroom teachers a rich anddiverse arlray of meaningful activities and opportunities. The rich-ness comes from addressing topics that fall between subject areas(often science and social studies). The meaningfulness results from

addressing events, issues, observations, and phenomenathatare important toyoungsters. Typical activities might include observing the pecking order at abird feeder or mappingwater fromthe river to the kitchen sink and back again.But teachers can also "do EE" when they teach argumentation skills to debatea local land use issue, ask math students to calculate the volume of used diapersin the landfill, or investigate Native American lifestyles through historicalliterature. EE can enhance English, math, or history classes; it can include astudy of pigeons, soil chemistry) or federal legislation. It can happen in the cirythe cemetery, or the circuit court. And it can involve controversial issues.

But EE is not iust a topic; its goals include morethan learning information. EE is driven by a mission: toproduce a concerned citizenry that is intellectually andpsychologically prepared to confront and resolve environ-mental issues.

Most educators decide to teach about the envi-ronment because they understand there are urgent andcritical problems to be solved. Most of these issues are

complex and controversial. Even if an educator wants toconvince students of the "right" answeq EE must maintainafirmcommitment to the process of problem solving andevaluating information from different perspectives. Tohelp resolve environmental problems, particularly thosethatwill challengecitizens 50 years fromnow, people need

a combination of knowledge, attitudes, motivations, skills, and commitment.EE in our schools includes the lessons and exercises that help students gain alloftheseattributes. And as aresult, EEis oftencreditedwith improvingteachers'interest and ability in teaching. EE is sometimes called "good education."

As a teacher educator, you may define EE differently for variousaudiences; this unit will help you. From the environmental perspective, there aresome distinct and valuable contributions that EE can make (see p. 9). Similarly,from the educational viewpoint, there is another set of good reasons for teachersto embrace EE (see p. 8). Because history often makes a good background forexplaining trends and answering questions, this unit briefly reviews the originsof EE (pp. 10-11) and concludes with a few challenges (pp.12-1,3).

Workshop Resaurce Manual

The Essence ofEnvironmental Education

f\r*at rHE r97os, environmental education has been chara cterized as a

\ way of teaching that makes connections between science, technology,

. I economics, policy, people, and the environment. EE is fundamentallyV different from earlier versions of "nafure education" because it

addresses interrelationships between humans and the environment. It also

differs from environmental science-the scientific study of those interrelation-ships-because EE is concerned with values and skills as well as knowledge.

ln a Nutshell

The following points characterize EE as itis practiced in the United States.

t

EE inclwd.es a human amponent i.n theexploration of erruironmental problemsand solutions

Environmental solutions are not onlyscientific-they include historical, political,economic, cultural, and many other per-spectives. This also implies that the envi-ronment includes not only pine trees andcoyotes but also buildings, highways, andocean tankers. Activities 2-5 can be used todiscuss this idea.

2

EE rests on a foundation of knouledgeabout social and ecological qstems

Knowledge lays the groundwork foranalyzing environmental problems, resolv-ing conflicts, and preventing new problemsfrom arising. Activities 5 and 10 focus onthis aspect.

J

EE includes the affeaiue domain: theattitudcs, ualaes, and comruittnentsnecesscuy to build a swstainable society

The role for educators in addressing theaffective domain is not always easy, but itshould include clarifyingthat differing per-sonal values exist, that these values make itdifficult to derive the facts, and that contro-versy is often motivated by differing valuesystems. Activities 6,7 , and 8 can helpteachers see this point.

4

EE includes opportunities to bwild skilkth at enh ance hamers' problem-soluingabihties

These skills may include:

- Communication: listening, public speak-ing, persuasive writing, graphic design

- Investigation: survey design, libraryresearch, interviewing, data analysis

- Group process: leadership, decisionmaking. cooperation

Activities 9 and 10 can help you demon-strate these skills with teachers.

Defi ni ng Envi ron mental Education

Some Golnd$ to Edlafn RefonnWaves of refoim effoitS aie sweefing the country in, vaiioui stren:fiths ahd directions.fE mby be an effec,tlve veh,icle,for implementing the goals of educitlon,reform, in

naitiCutar, because it shares with EE a great similarity of purpose bnd outcome.' ::

ln many states; the attention to real;world pr"oblems and.probfqm;solv!ng skifts pro-vldesan bxcellent,niche for EE ln otherls, a learner.centered discovery procesi of teachingCn ne ennanceo with,EE instructionui .iiuiiiri.,eetow are two examptes of strong:Connect ons to EE thai may of be automat ca y made by educatorsr

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lEEi+oilld'$it,}":l ffiifleffiopr$en{,oi,higiier,order st[11*-sueii,a6r a:iiti€ei;tfiintiirl#:6:i64ffi.think!ng, i,ntefirtite thinking, and ffoblem solving*fscauie it readily pioviA'es'ieai [iob;lems thai can be studied or simulated, topics itrai can be adjusted to the developmentalevels of soeclf ii: groups of students; ano oroolems ihat cut ao,oss the curiiculum,

lTeach!ng studenii to tnini" trii neen a nasic goar ;i ;ddi6.. or" iiinitition'otrir,isgoal is the abitity to unOerstand inO 41talyze comptex into/miiion anO appty it'i; ;;wsituations. Those aohceined with'maintaining and im$iovr,1$,bnvironmentat.q,ua,Lit5r.havea OaiiiCu,lbr,ttake in,developrng,s6r.r, I mechanisms that help students understand

lnterr:etationsh;pi betwebn the nntuiai ehvironment and human aCtivity gconomlc, so; ,

cial, and political and how problems are solved. Thus, EE provlOei one context ioi thb

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A consisten! assumption has been tnat solutions to society's environmental problerns,eompiex as tney'may oe, *irf ue ti.i:rit i"O if everyone kno*s more anu iinrAo ,oi* I

when it conres tb trre enviionment. Thus, a cornpeitinei;iioniia toi er is simprv io pro.viOe eeneiat lcitizenshipt education. With a gooU envlr:onmental education, it is hopedtfrat,Ciiiieni'will:behave rnore positively towar.O itrele"vironment; actively l:essen theirinaividu,at anO collective negative e-nvironmental impalti; ind identrfy, initiate, and sup.port measures thttrwiLl serve to iesotvelenvironmenla! pr,oblems. Suin a p':ogram is likelyi9 piovide opportunities for students to prriCiice tfre skills of responsible citizlnship as

:tffiiil, qil! $$ire-r:fE:fs ital!lEia:iffi:tn:ihFip:i! ;tCI:. ivEitaEel fi+ji afiia:,at !e*iie,,,l.,EE a so piovrdes tecnnica!.education {or those who will make a career in ihe environmen.'tai biena; the assumption is ihat experiise.:Uuitt from iesearch and application, providesthe essential keys io iot"ing en"iionmbniat prob!erns. Each of ihe'aOove assumptionsmal be somewhat simplistic, though:a gqod Oeat ot evidence indicates that both,cansignl+ibanttyimprove the quality of life and,tfre enuiionri,eni.

Although the particular mix of developments that prompted the emergence of EEin the United States is unique to this countrysimilar social, scientific, and ecological phe-nomena were taking place around the world.Like the United States, many other nations

have realized the need for EE, and a fertileinteraction has enhanced the development ofEE globally. The United Nations coordinat-ed a series of meetings fuom 1974 through1978 to establish an international definitionof environmental educarion.

Warkshop Resaurce h4anuai

Delegates assembled at the 1977 UnitedNations Intergovernmental Conference inTbilisi, Georgia, USSR, agreed upon the fol-lowing definition of EE:

Enuironmental education is a processof deueloping a uorld population tbatis aware of and concerned about thetotal erwirnment a,ttd its associatedprcblems, and wbich has the knowledge,skills, attitwdes, motiuation and comtnit-ment to work indiuidually and alleaiuelytoward solwtions of cwtent problemsand the preuention ofneu ones.(Unesco, 1978)

Clearly embedded in this definitionis the unique distinction that EE fostersinvolvement of citizens in solving environ-mental problems. The extent to which thisinvolvement should be orchestrated by theteacher has made for interesting and livelydebate among theorists and practitioners.2Of course, teachers in mostschools have theprerogative, if not the mandate, to modifychildren's behavior so they do not cheat,lie, or steal. In communities where recyclingis mandatory teachers are also encouragedto instill this new environmental behaviorin their students. But will society sanctionan approach that encourages studentsto study, analyze and act on their analysisof more controversial issues? \7here thecommunity has not yet agreed upon aparticular behavior or solution, the actionsof young people are, unfortunately, likelyto be taken as the result of a teacher's one-sided approach to the issue (Adler, 1992;Poore, 1,993). Suggestions for ways teachereducators can help teachers engage theirstudents in exploring issues are presentedin another Workshop Resource Manwal unit,"Approaching Issues in the Classroom."

The conference at Tbilisi also produced12 statements, referred to as the GuidingPrinciples of Environmental Education (page

6). These statements speak to the develop-ment of a process that is more far-reachingthan formal K-12 education and to anaudience that includes citizens, adults, andenvironmental professionals (Unesco, 1978).

Educators, philosophers, researchers,and curriculum developers have workedover the last 20 years to set these GuidingPrinciples in motion. In the United States,several themes have been emphasized inthe development of materials for students,teachers, and citizens; two of which aredescribed below.

Envircnmental LiteracyToday, the creation of an environmentallyIiterate citizenry is considered a primarygoal of environmental education.' Somewill argue that environmental literacy isa necessary prerequisite for the developmentof responsible environmental behavior andimproved environmental quality. However,

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"environmental literacy" does not meanthe same thing to everyone. Although theterm has been frequently discussed overseveral decades, it seems to merely createa positive image and fails to convey muchsubstance,

A distinguishing characteristic of envi-ronmental literacy is its "action" perspective:environmental literacy is essentially thecapacity to perceive and interpret the rela-tive health of environmental systems andtake appropriate action to maintain, resroreror improve the health of those systems.

Def in i ng Env i ranmenta I Education

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According to Roth (1.992), environ-mental literacy should be defined in termsof observable behaviors. That is, peopleshould be able to demonstrate in someobservable form what they have learned-their knowledge of key concepts, skillsacquired, disposition toward issues, andthe like. Most other literacies are defined

in terms of cognition. Though knowledgeis deemed a necessary precondition ofthoughtful behavior and action, a great dealof evidence of individual and societal envi-ronmental behavior challenges the assump-tion that behavioral change follows directlyfrom the development of necessary know-ledge and skills.

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Warkshop Resau rce M a nua I

ResponsibleEnvircnmental BehaviorAs stated earlier, the environmental educationcommunity's identification of skills and valuesrelated to behavior change as an integralcomponent of environmental literacy putsit at odds with traditional educational prac-tice. A substantive framework for promot-ing responsible environmental behavior has

been proposed by researchers at SouthernIllinois Uni versity.a Th i s framework i nvolvesfour distinct levels, each of which contributesto developing environmental behavior(Hungerford, Peyton, and \Wilke, 1980).

Leuel r: Ealagical Concepts includes a

broad framework of environmental science

and ecological concepts, such as populationdynamics, biogeochemical cycling, andabiotic influences. Other educators mayadd companion goals in political, economic,psychological, and social concepts.

Leuel z : Conceptual Atuareness buildsan understanding of how individual andcollective behavior influences the relation-ship between quality of life and qualityof environment, as well as how humanbehavior results in issues that must be

resolved through insightful problem solving.

Leuel j: ksue Inuestigation and Eualuationdevelops the knowledge and skills neededto investigate environmental issues andto evaluate alternative solutions for remedi-ating them.

Leuel 4: Enuironmental Aaion Skilkdevelops the knowledge and skills needed

to take positive action to resolve environ-mental issues.

Research studies consistently indicatethat behavior change does not usuallyoccur if students are exposed only to thefirst nvo goal levels. Studies indicate thatbehavior is more likely to change if studentsare thoroughly exposed to all four. Thequality of the students' environmentalactions also tends to improve when theyhave been directly involved with their owninvestigations (at levels 3 and 4) .It is clearthat more emphasis needs to be placed on

the development and dissemination of cur-ricula that focus on the full range of goals,in particular the third and fourth ones.

Researchers in other disciplines claimthat two other areas hold great promisefor making significant contributions to thepromotionof environmentally responsiblebehavior: social marketing techniques, suchas careful audience assessment, understand-ing the motivations of the audience, andaltering the program service dimensions(Azjen and Fishbein,1970; Geller, 1989;Kotler and Roberto ,1989) and principlesof environmental psychology (DeYoung,1.993;Katzev and Johnson,l9B7; Stern andOskamp, 1,987). These principles include

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understanding the full range of motivesavailable for behavior change, removingreal and perceived barriers to change, pro-viding procedural information, establishingsocial commitment, highlighting the actionsof opinion leaders and role models, andavoiding approaches that cantrigger unwantedreactions. To the extent these elements areincluded in an educational program orinformation campaign, efforts at encourag-ing environmental behaviors are enhanced.

Def i ni ng Env i ran mental Education

The Value of

HERE ARE MANv REASoNs, from both environmental and education-al perspectives, for supporting environmental education in K-L2schools.'The school systems that you work with may share someof these goals, whether or not they have been formally stated. How

many of these statements fit your circumstances? 'Sfith how many of them doworkshop participants agree? You may be able to add to the following list.

Environmental Education

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Frcm theEducational PerspectiveErutironmental issues are hy nahtre inter-disciplinary and ideal uehicles for edacanrsdeuebping trutltidisciplhary teadting teams.

Landfill siting, nest boxes for endangeredbirds, homeless shelters, hunger, householdhazardous waste collections, and improvedtrail signage are some topics and activitiesthat could support an interdisciplinary study.

Tlte outdoorc is apouerful suppbmentto textbooks, prouiding engaging, concretematerial.

Insects, leaves, sunshine, rain, streams, andsoil are usually accessible to teachers andwill help students grasp concepts that maybe nebulous in the text.

EE emphasizes the skilk and strategiesneedcd to solue problems.

EE programs teach students to make deci-sions, analyze, and evaluate complex prob-lems-skills critical to success in anymeaningful endeavor.

Enuiromnental issues are rarely sobed.by indiuiduak.Effective EE programs use cooperativelearning techniques to help students learnto work together, share leadership, listento peersr and contribute to group projects.

Enuironmental education irruolues ualweseducation.

V4rether clarifying positions or debatingprospective solutions to moral dilemmas,EE activities give students an opportunity todevelop their ideas of right and wrong andto accept the many "gray" areas created bydifferent points of view.

Wotkshop Resource Manual

From theEnvircnmental Perspective'With the corruic-tion that cornes from theirinuestigation of an issue, studcnts mayprouide posi.tiue, responsible eneryy anduseful abematiues to local problems.

Kid Heroes of the Enuironment documentsactions that students have taken and forwhich they have won the gratitude of theircommunities (Dee, 199 L).

Good FF progra.ms can be positiueand prodwaiue aspec-ts of comrnunities.

By encouraging people to work together,learn about their environment, understanddifferences, perform leadership functions,and solve problems, EE will make commu-nities better places to live, now and in thefuture, when these same students take lead-ership roles.

EE prograrns tbat focws on the naturaland historical heitage of this continentengender patriotism, inspiration, resped

forAmerica's past, and belief in thenation's futwre.Americans are naturally motivated to pro-tect priceless treasures like the Grand Can-yon, Mesa Verde, Gerysburg, and thecotton mills of Lowell, Mass.

ln the future, imprwements i.n enuiron-menul quality are likely to be driuen moreby consumer choice and less by lzgisl.atiuemandate.

Consumers educated in today's schools willdecide how to consider the environmentalimpact in their choices of lawn mowers,outdoor grills, light bulbs, refrigerators, andmodes of transportation. EE can influencelifestyle choices and foster responsible citi-zenship.

A high-quakty EE program uill affeathe types of careers young peoplt pursweand the quality of uorkers who enter enui-ronmentalfields.

Job and career opportunities associatedwith the environment span the specffumfrom manual labor to high-technology;they represent a significant avenue for low-income individuals to gain access to skilledjobs with good pay (Task Force, 1989).

EE prouides students uith took uith uhichto eualuate the enuircnmental consequencesof messages communicated to them.

Students become more aware of media'seffect on them and the behaviors adultsare modeling with regard to consumption,waste, and responsibility.

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Def i ni ng Env i ranmenta I Educatia n

From the Classic to the Contempor ary

EACHERS IN youR woRKSHops may be curious about where EEoriginated, when it began, and what it has to do with "conservation"or "outdoor" education? "Environment" has had a presence inschool programs as long as there have been schools, partly because

the environment provides a rich and convenient source of examples for thestudy of other subjects. In this sense, EE could date back to Aristotle, Rousseau,and others interested in teaching and learning about the "real world."

But to say that EE is concerned with "learning about the outdoors" istoo simplistic.'S7ith society's escalatingconcern aboutthe effectof environmen-tal quality on human health and welfare, many educators-as well as manyenvironmentalists-believe that "environment" must include not only a studyof the environment, or studying zz the environment, but also include anunderstanding of how people improve their environment: education for theenvironment.6 The following section summarizes howthese dif{erentemphasesarose from historical influences associated with nature study outdoor educa-tion, and conservation education-the roots of environmental education.

Environmental Education:

The Roots ofEnvironmental EducationNature studg conservation education, andoutdoor education-the direct antecedentsof today's environmental education-beganto appear in school curricula early in thiscentury. All continue to exist today, in mul-tiple forms and contexts. The school districtsand environmental facilities in your area mayuse one of these definitions.

\X/ilbur Jackm an's Nature Study for th e

Common Schools (1891) first brought thenature shtdy mouementinto formal educa-tion, though Jackman had been precededby several notable proponents, includingLouis Agassiz, who insisted that his students"study nature, not books." Nature studywas also the forerunner of science teachingin elementary schools, and remains one ofits key elements. Indeed, Jackman has beencredited with setting forth some of the earlyideals for education that are still importanttoday in elementary science education: inqui-ry and discovery with first-hand observationand experience (Swan, 1,975).

During the utilitarian conservation move-ment of the early 1900s, "conservation" cameto be viewed as a moral issue-a mafterof right and wrong. Because education hashistorically been identified as a vehicle forinculcating proper behavior in children, theimplicit assumption was that teaching (andpreaching) about conservation in schoolswould improve individual and societal be-havior toward the natural woild. The DustBowl of the 1930s gave rise to consentationeducation, whose goal "was to awakenAmericans to environmental problems andthe importance of conserving various natu-ral resources" (Nash, L976l.This focus onthe environmental problems of the day wasinitiated by federal, state, regional, and localresource management agencies, Many ofthese agencies continue to see education as atool for accomplishing their missions-whenthey can afford it. Often, their staff demon-strate a strong, unwavering commitment to

Wor kshop Resou rc e Ma nu al

conservation education and are excellentresources for educators.

Traditionally, outdoor education is anapproach to education, rather than a contentarea. Its sole specification is the place forlearning-outside the school building. Itspopularity grew in the 1950s with the adventof the school camping movement. The firstand foremost philosopher of the field, L.B.Sharp, said, "Teach outdoors what is besttaught outdoors, and indoors what is mostappropriate there" (Roth, 1,97 8).

Outdoor education has been describedas a potential vehicle for all subjects of thecurriculum, among them art. music. science,mathematics, and English. Specialists in thisarea often make use of school yards andbecome involved in local community stud-ies, but usually emphasize residential campprograms. In addition to an extended hike,a pond study, or a forestry exercise (activi-ties that are also nature study and conserva-tion education), outdoor educators oftenadd living history lessons on pioneer and,Narive American life, cooperative groupchallenges, or ropes courses.

Societal lnfluences and Ttends

The progressive education movement of the1930s was another significant strand in theevolution of environmental education. Ledby John Dewey, it advocated a child-centeredand holistic approach to learning, makingeducation more responsive to the needs ofchildren. The focus ofprogressive educationwas "learning by doing," which incorporatedIearning about the environment while in theenvironment. It also encouraged holistic,integrated, interdisciplinary education. Pro-gressive educators believed that educationwas more than preparation for life-it wasa significant aspect of life.

The physical and social environmentbetween 1950 and 1,970 helped create a fer-tile ground for environmental education togrow from these earlier educational rootsinto a unique entiry. After World'S7ar II, sci-

ence and technology played a stronger rolein establishing new expectations for a "quali-ty of life," global communication improved,and the world's population increased expo-nentially.

Calls for education dealing with theenvironment became increasingly more per-sistent after the 1962 publication of SilentSpring (Carson, 19 62), commonly identifiedas the event that triggered the environmentalmovement of the 1960s and 1970s. Adlai

Def i ni ng Env i ron mental Educatia n

Stevenson's term "spaceship earthr" wasanother graphic statement that helped peoplerealizethe powerful impact humans can have

on the environment (Swan, 1975). Thisenvironmental movement differed from ear-lier 20th cenrury conservation movementsbecause it "...was far more widespread andpopular, involving public values that stressedthe quality of the human experience andhence of the human environment" (Hays,1985, emphasis added).

Frustrations over environmental catas-trophes, such as the Santa Barbara oil spilland a burning river in Cleveland, were sym-biotically interrelated with events in thesocial sphere. The civil rights marches andanti-war demonstrations represented achange in the way citizens viewed the rights

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and responsibilities of citizenship. No long-er content to be passive voters, the tumultu-ous times gave the more expressive citizensand advocacy groups opportunities to speak(Caldwell, 1976).The 1970 Earth Day cele-

brations were a landmark expression ofpublic support for a realignment of valuesand a new respect for the environment.

During this period of environmentalactivism, the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency was created and numerous federaland state laws promoting environmentalqualiry were enacted. prominent amongthem the 1969 National Environmental Pol-icy Act and the 1970 National Environmen-tal Education Act. Both identified educationas a mechanism for improving the qualiryof the human environment. The recent 1990National Environmental Education Act(P.L. 101,-619) reaffirms the purpose of theearlier act and focuses on schools as theplace for effective environmental education,while recognizing the importance of non-formal avenues for educating citizens, com-munities, and the workforce.

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Ahlgren, Andrew and F. James Rutherford 1993"\Where is Project 2061,Today?" EducationalLeadership May, pp. 192L.The authors describe Science for AII Americansand Project 2061. These proiects, curriculumplanners, decide what students should eventuallyknow what can be achieved during grades 2, 5,8, and L2. These concepts an d processes thatstudents should understand are components ofscience literacy.

Braus,Judy and David !7ood. 1993. Enuiron-mental Education in the Schools: Creating aProgram that.Works. \Tashington: Peace CorpsInformatibn Collection and Exchange.An excellent resource for teachers looking fora rationale and procedure for building EE intotheir classroom. Includes sample activities forstudents. Available from:

NAAEEP.O. Box 400Troy OH,45373513 676-2514

Disinger, John. 1983. "EnvironmentalEducation's Definitional Problem" in ERICClearinghouse for Science, Mathematics andEnvironmentai Education, Information BulletinNo.2.Discusses some of the forerunners of environ-mental education and different defiritionsof environmental education.

Gening Started: A Guide to Bringing Environ-mental Education into Your Classroom. DavidBones, ed. 1994. National Consortium for Envi-ronmental Education and Training.A sourcebook of ideas, organizations, curricula,and programs in environmental education withshort stories about classroom teachers and howthey conduct environmental educationprogramsin their schools. Available for $9.95 fromNCEET 313 998-6726.

Hungerford, Harold R. 1987. "EnvironmentalEducation and Student Behaviors," in tendsand Issues in Environmental Education: EEin School Curricula, John F. Disinger ed. Colum-bus, OH: ERIC/SMEAC, 25-38.

Hungerford, Harold R., R. Ben Peyton, andRichard \7ilke. 1980. "Goals for Curriculum

Development in Environmental Education,"Journal of Enuironmental Education 1 1(3),42-47.

Mclnnis, Noel and Don Albrecht (editors).1,97 5. What Makes Education Enuironmental?Lexington. KY: Data Courier.An old but useful resource for defining andthinking about environmental education.

Roth, Charles E. 1993. Enuironmental Literacy:lrs Roors, Euolution and Directions for the1990\. Columbus OH: ERIC/SMEAC.

Stapp, !7i11iam B. et. al. 1969.The Conceptof Environmental Education. Journal of Enui-ronmental Education 1:1 30-31. One of the firstexplicit definitions of environmentai education.

Van Matre, Steve. 1984. "Environmental Educa-tion: Mission Gone Astray" excerpts from aspeech, The Institute for Earth Education.Van Matre claims that environmental educatorshave "lost a clear sense of our direction and ourmission" and challenges educators to work to-wards creating clear environmental programs -rather than supplements to curriculum-and thensecuring them in schoois.

!7i1ke, Richard I. (editor). 1993. EnuironmentalEducation Teach er Resour ce Handb ook. Mtll-wood NY Krause International. A rich resourcefor teachers and administrators who are devel-oping an EE program in their school district,with information on assessment, definition, cur-riculum development, and resources.

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cul-tural Organization. t97 8. Final Report, lnter-gouernmental Conference on EnuironmentalEducation, Organized by Unesco in Coopera-tion with UNER TBILISI, USSR, 14-26 Ocrober1977. P aris, France: Unesco ED I}/D I 49.

'Worksbop Resource Manual in the EE Toolbox.

1994. NCEET. A series of eight additional unitsfor teacher educators that assist them in design-ing and conducting environmental education in-service programs that help meet some of thechallenges in EE today. Contact NCEET at 313998-6726.

Dai i,i t r:: t nr t ra n it arlei Ioucdtii]ll

ENoNorEs

lThere is an extensive literature dealing with thedevelopment of higher-order skills through educa-tion. A 1992 paper by John Disinger and RobertHowe, in their occasional Environmental EducationResearch News column in the British journalTheEnuironmentalisl summarizes interrelationships ofthese skills with environmental education.

2 For examples, Harold R. Hungerford and Trudi L.Volk (1990, "Changing Learning Behavior throughEnvironmental Education, J ournal of EnuironmentalEducation, 21.(3), 8-21.) maintain that the purpose ofenvironmental education is to foster responsibleenvironmental behavior through the development ofproblem-solving skills, while Bob Jickling (1991,"Environmental Education, Problem Solving, andSome Humility Please," Th e Trump eter, 8 (3 ), 1 53-155) argues that such a goal is overstated.

3 Charles E. Roth introduced the term "environmen-tal literacy" in June 1958, in an article rn Massachu-setts Audubon. This discussion in this paper is based

onhis 1.992 monograph, Enuironrnental Literucy: ltsRoots and Directions in the r99os (Columbus, OH:ERIC/SMEAC).

4 Harold Hungerford, his colleagues, students, andformer students, have for several years investigatedand published extensively on the concept anddimensions of responsible environmental behavior.The discussion here relies heavily on summaries oftheir published reports, in particular on Hunger-ford's 1987 "Environmental Education and Stu-dent Behaviors."

5 Th.s. ,t"t.-.nts are derived from several sources,

including suggestions from Edward J. McCrea,executive director of the North American Associa-

tion for Environmental Education, and discussions

with participants at the Association for Supervision

and Curriculum Development's Annual Con{erencein 7993.

6 Th" "i.,,labort/for" analysis was initiated in 1,972

by Arthur M. Lucas inhis 1972 Ph.D. dissertationEnufu onffi ent a?rd Enuironmental Education:Conceptwal Issues and Curicular Implications(Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International,73-1,1,531,1, and continues to offer a useful ap-proach to definitions of goals and operationalprocedures in environmental education.

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