The Politics of the Internet - Week TwoOutline of Week

Discuss the history of the InternetDiscuss the history of the Internet Origins in ARPANETOrigins in ARPANET Creation of WWWCreation of WWW

Discuss what the Internet is.Discuss what the Internet is. Different layersDifferent layers

Discuss how the Internet is runDiscuss how the Internet is run IETF, ICANN etcIETF, ICANN etc

Discuss ‘topology’ of the InternetDiscuss ‘topology’ of the Internet

The Politics of the Internet – Week Two

How did the Internet begin?How did the Internet begin? Almost by accidentAlmost by accident The idea of a distributed system of The idea of a distributed system of

communication.communication. For academic institutions engaged in For academic institutions engaged in

military researchmilitary research Helped in sharing of computer resourcesHelped in sharing of computer resources More likely to survive nuclear warMore likely to survive nuclear war

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe initial proposal - ARPANET

Set up by the ARPA – a subsection of the Set up by the ARPA – a subsection of the US Department of DefenseUS Department of Defense

US company created in late 1969US company created in late 1969 (a) The software to manage a network(a) The software to manage a network (b) A network that joined together a few (b) A network that joined together a few

computers on the East and West coastcomputers on the East and West coast

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoARPANET – key features

ARPANET aspired to be ARPANET aspired to be distributeddistributed – it was – it was designed so that information could move without designed so that information could move without central organizationcentral organization

Completely different from phone systemCompletely different from phone system ARPANET was also designed to allow different ARPANET was also designed to allow different

systems to communicate (through specialized systems to communicate (through specialized computers called IMPs).computers called IMPs).

Thus, emphasis on sharing information and Thus, emphasis on sharing information and connecting networks rather than imposing a connecting networks rather than imposing a common design.common design.

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoUnexpected consequences

ARPANET was supposed to be all about ARPANET was supposed to be all about sharing of computer resources for researchsharing of computer resources for research

No commercial uses were allowedNo commercial uses were allowed Ended up being a lot moreEnded up being a lot more

Invention of email, and @ symbol in Invention of email, and @ symbol in early 1970s – a big surpriseearly 1970s – a big surprise

First computer game, “Adventure”First computer game, “Adventure”

The Politics of the Internet – Week Two

ARPANET was run by scientists and ARPANET was run by scientists and enthusiastsenthusiasts

Decisions about how the Internet would be Decisions about how the Internet would be run were taken by consensusrun were taken by consensus

Easy to manage when there were only a Easy to manage when there were only a couple of hundred people really involvedcouple of hundred people really involved

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoOrigins of the Internet

As ARPANET grew, people began thinking As ARPANET grew, people began thinking about how to connect it to other networks.about how to connect it to other networks.

A new initiative – “The Internetting A new initiative – “The Internetting Project”Project”

In 1974, creation of TCP/IP, the foundation In 1974, creation of TCP/IP, the foundation of the Internetof the Internet

Protocol allowed reliable communication Protocol allowed reliable communication between very different computers.between very different computers.

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoSpread of the Internet

In the 1980’s other networks began to In the 1980’s other networks began to emerge using the Internet standardemerge using the Internet standard

This was the “Internet”This was the “Internet” But still confined to academicsBut still confined to academics Technically challenging and unattractive for Technically challenging and unattractive for

everyday users.everyday users.

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoCreation of the World Wide Web

Key step in bringing the Internet to the Key step in bringing the Internet to the masses was the World Wide Webmasses was the World Wide Web

Invented in CERN by Tim Berners-LeeInvented in CERN by Tim Berners-Lee Idea was to create a way in which Idea was to create a way in which

documents could be organized on the documents could be organized on the InternetInternet

And could link to each other – with pictures And could link to each other – with pictures and attractive textand attractive text

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoGetting the World Wide Web off the ground

Took some years and effort to launch the Took some years and effort to launch the World Wide Web – even among academicsWorld Wide Web – even among academics

A lot of resistance to it.A lot of resistance to it. Then, first major web browser was created, Then, first major web browser was created,

Mosaic in the University of IllinoisMosaic in the University of Illinois A smart student, Marc Andreesen wrote it, A smart student, Marc Andreesen wrote it,

and soon went off to found Netscapeand soon went off to found Netscape

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoNetscape and the Web

Netscape opened up the Internet – people Netscape opened up the Internet – people began to realize that it had possibilities began to realize that it had possibilities outside universities and research institutionsoutside universities and research institutions

US government began to allow commercial US government began to allow commercial activityactivity

Creation of “dot coms” – Amazon, Ebay, Creation of “dot coms” – Amazon, Ebay, Toys.com, Pets.com etcToys.com, Pets.com etc

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe Politicization of the Internet

The Internet became a more and more The Internet became a more and more commercial spacecommercial space

Less room for old academic ethos of Less room for old academic ethos of sharing and cooperationsharing and cooperation

Also became a much more Also became a much more politicalpolitical space space Politicians started to get interested, firms Politicians started to get interested, firms

and consumers began to press for and consumers began to press for regulation.regulation.

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoKeeping the government out

US played key role in deciding how the US played key role in deciding how the Internet was runInternet was run

US policy makers sought to keep US policy makers sought to keep government out of the Internetgovernment out of the Internet

Argued that the Internet could be run by Argued that the Internet could be run by private actors, and by firmsprivate actors, and by firms

Didn’t always work out this wayDidn’t always work out this way

The Politics of the InternetWhere we are today

Internet – and Internet policy is now a Internet – and Internet policy is now a major battlegroundmajor battleground

Firms and governments fighting for their Firms and governments fighting for their interestsinterests

Some of the old legacy persistsSome of the old legacy persists Decentralization of ARPANETDecentralization of ARPANET Consensus decision making on many Consensus decision making on many

important issuesimportant issues

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoUnderstanding the Internet

What is the InternetWhat is the Internet Everyone thinks they Everyone thinks they

know – but know – but complicatedcomplicated

Take Senator Ted Take Senator Ted StevensStevens

How the Internet actually works

Hint: it’s not a series of tubes …Hint: it’s not a series of tubes … 3 levels3 levels

Physical infrastructurePhysical infrastructure Communication Protocols (TCP/IP)Communication Protocols (TCP/IP) ApplicationsApplications

The Road System

Routers, Network and BackboneRouters, Network and Backbone

The Rules of the Road

TCP/IP – Packet SwitchingTCP/IP – Packet Switching

Trucks, cars and buses

Applications layerApplications layer

World Wide Web, Email, FTPWorld Wide Web, Email, FTP

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe Physical Infrastructure

• Basic Infrastructure• A network of specialized computers.• Routers – computers that receive and forward data• Computers are connected by a network of pipelines that carry the data• Fattest pipelines make up the Internet “backbone”

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe Physical Infrastructure II - Routers

RoutersRouters Computers receive data in packetsComputers receive data in packets Then send these packets on to another Then send these packets on to another

routerrouter And so on, until the data reaches its final And so on, until the data reaches its final

destinationdestination

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe Physical Infrastructure – The Network

How does the network operate in practice?How does the network operate in practice? Telephone/Cable/DSL connections (home Telephone/Cable/DSL connections (home

users) – connect to Internet Service users) – connect to Internet Service ProviderProvider

Internet Service Provider buys bandwidth Internet Service Provider buys bandwidth on network from regional provideron network from regional provider

Regional provider buys space on backboneRegional provider buys space on backbone

The Internet Backbone – Map

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoMapping the Internet

How does information find its way around?How does information find its way around? Each computer on the Internet has an Each computer on the Internet has an

unique addressunique address There are a small number of specialized There are a small number of specialized

computers that maintain a directory of computers that maintain a directory of which computer has which addresswhich computer has which address

When packets are sent, they refer to this When packets are sent, they refer to this directory in order to figure out where to godirectory in order to figure out where to go

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWhat is a Protocol?

Origins in Greek word, Origins in Greek word, Protokollon, Protokollon, the the first index page of a manuscript.first index page of a manuscript.

Modern use of the word means an Modern use of the word means an agreement between diplomatsagreement between diplomats

Use in technology is a combination of the Use in technology is a combination of the twotwo

A protocol defines the specific form in A protocol defines the specific form in which information is communicated.which information is communicated.

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoCommunicating on a distributed network

Level Two – Communications ProtocolsLevel Two – Communications Protocols TCP/IP – the fundamental cornerstone of the TCP/IP – the fundamental cornerstone of the

Internet – allows Internet – allows packet switchingpacket switching Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Transfer Control Protocol/Internet

ProtocolProtocol

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoChopping information up

Information (say, an email) is chopped up into Information (say, an email) is chopped up into “packets”“packets”

Each packet is then given a header (like the envelope Each packet is then given a header (like the envelope of a letter)of a letter) Information about length of packetInformation about length of packet Where the packet fitsWhere the packet fits Where it is going toWhere it is going to How many other packets are out thereHow many other packets are out there

All of the packets are then sent out onto the Internet.All of the packets are then sent out onto the Internet.

The Politics of the Internet – Week Two

“Packet switching” in practice Each packet may take its own route through Each packet may take its own route through

the Internetthe Internet Different packets may go different ways – Different packets may go different ways –

depending on which parts of the network depending on which parts of the network are cloggedare clogged

Finally, all packets should reach the final Finally, all packets should reach the final destinationdestination

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoReassembling Packets

Computer at the destination then puts Computer at the destination then puts packets together againpackets together again

It knows which packets should go whereIt knows which packets should go where It also can detect if a packet has gotten It also can detect if a packet has gotten

garbledgarbled Or if a packet has gotten lostOr if a packet has gotten lost

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoApplications

Applications protocols are TCP/IP Applications protocols are TCP/IP compatible ways of exchanging specific compatible ways of exchanging specific informationinformation

If TCP/IP is the traffic control system, If TCP/IP is the traffic control system, applications protocols are the vehicles.applications protocols are the vehicles.

The Politics of the Internet – Week Two

ExamplesExamples Email – governed by a whole lot of Email – governed by a whole lot of

protocols – you really don’t want to protocols – you really don’t want to know how complex it is.know how complex it is.

FTP – File Transfer ProtocolFTP – File Transfer Protocol HTTP – the basic protocol underlying HTTP – the basic protocol underlying

communication on the World Wide Webcommunication on the World Wide Web

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWho runs the Internet

The answer is really, really complicatedThe answer is really, really complicated It depends on which of the three layers you are It depends on which of the three layers you are

talking abouttalking about (1) Physical infrastructure – run by a mix of firms (1) Physical infrastructure – run by a mix of firms

and governmentand government (2) TCP/IP run by the Internet Engineering Task (2) TCP/IP run by the Internet Engineering Task

Force (IETF)Force (IETF) Domain name system run by ICANNDomain name system run by ICANN

Other protocols run by different groups within the Other protocols run by different groups within the IETFIETF

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe physical infrastructure

Used to be run by the US governmentUsed to be run by the US government But now more and more dominated by But now more and more dominated by

private firmsprivate firms Have created their own fast speed Have created their own fast speed

communications networkscommunications networks Government and military still have some Government and military still have some

rolerole

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe TCP/IP protocol

Who created the TCP/IP protocol, and who Who created the TCP/IP protocol, and who can change it?can change it?

NOT the US governmentNOT the US government NOT the governments of the worldNOT the governments of the world NOT big business (although it is getting NOT big business (although it is getting

more and more of a voice)more and more of a voice)

Programmers

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe IETF

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Non-hierarchical organizationNon-hierarchical organization Discusses changes to TCP/IP and a lot of Discusses changes to TCP/IP and a lot of

other protocolsother protocols And then announces them – by and large, And then announces them – by and large,

people adopt these changes, although the people adopt these changes, although the IETF has no formal powers.IETF has no formal powers.

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoICANN

There is a complicated relationship with There is a complicated relationship with ICANN – “The Internet Corporation for ICANN – “The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers.”Assigned Names and Numbers.”

ICANN was set up to administer Domain ICANN was set up to administer Domain Name System – i.e. which computer on the Name System – i.e. which computer on the system gets which namesystem gets which name

Has become more and more controversial Has become more and more controversial

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe W3 Consortium

The World Wide Web (WWW) is slightly The World Wide Web (WWW) is slightly differentdifferent

It relies on a language called HTML It relies on a language called HTML (HyperText Markup Language) and HTTP (HyperText Markup Language) and HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)(HyperText Transfer Protocol)

This language is developed by a IETF-type This language is developed by a IETF-type organization called the W3 Consortiumorganization called the W3 Consortium

Same sorts of processes of decision-making.Same sorts of processes of decision-making.

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWho controls other applications

Other aspects of application protocols are Other aspects of application protocols are handled by the IETF, or sometimes by handled by the IETF, or sometimes by firmsfirms

For example, Java is run by Sun For example, Java is run by Sun MicrosystemsMicrosystems

• Control of protocols is sometimes a Control of protocols is sometimes a key commercial advantagekey commercial advantage

• Weeks on Microsoft/Netscape and Weeks on Microsoft/Netscape and Open Source SoftwareOpen Source Software

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoNetwork Topology

If the Internet is a network, what does it If the Internet is a network, what does it look like?look like?

Network Network topologytopology (i.e. the ‘shape’ of the (i.e. the ‘shape’ of the network) is key – it helps determine the network) is key – it helps determine the politics.politics.

Some kinds of network are much more Some kinds of network are much more easily subjected to political control than easily subjected to political control than others. others.

Different Kinds of Network

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWhat does the Internet look like

The Internet was supposed to be a The Internet was supposed to be a ‘distributed’ network.‘distributed’ network.

This would have meant that it was highly This would have meant that it was highly resistant to control, to breakdown and to resistant to control, to breakdown and to attacks.attacks.

But in fact, the Internet has developed in an But in fact, the Internet has developed in an unplanned way so that it isn’t a distributed unplanned way so that it isn’t a distributed network in the proper sense of the word.network in the proper sense of the word.

What The Internet Looks Like

The Politics of the Internet – Week Two

Internet looks like something between a Internet looks like something between a distributed and a decentralized network – distributed and a decentralized network – i.e. some parts of the network are much i.e. some parts of the network are much more important (have much more incoming more important (have much more incoming and outgoing links) than others.and outgoing links) than others.

This means that it is much more subject to This means that it is much more subject to disruption or to control than a classic disruption or to control than a classic decentralized network.decentralized network.

We’ll talk about the effects of this next We’ll talk about the effects of this next week.week.

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWhat we have learned - History

Beginnings of Internet in ARPANETBeginnings of Internet in ARPANET Distributed networkDistributed network Development of new, unforeseen usesDevelopment of new, unforeseen uses Creation of TCP/IPCreation of TCP/IP Creation of World Wide WebCreation of World Wide Web Popularization of InternetPopularization of Internet New Political IssuesNew Political Issues

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWhat we have learned – The Internet

Three LayersThree Layers Physical infrastructurePhysical infrastructure

Routers, pipelines, backboneRouters, pipelines, backbone Communications protocolCommunications protocol

TCP/IP and packet switchingTCP/IP and packet switching Applications protocolsApplications protocols

Email, WWW, FTPEmail, WWW, FTP

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoHow the Internet is run

Different Actors on different levelsDifferent Actors on different levels Physical infrastructurePhysical infrastructure

Run by firms, some government roleRun by firms, some government role Communications protocol/Domain namesCommunications protocol/Domain names

TCP/IP run by IETFTCP/IP run by IETF Domain name system run by ICANNDomain name system run by ICANN

Applications protocolsApplications protocols Run by IETF, WWW consortium, firmsRun by IETF, WWW consortium, firms

The Politics of the Internet – Week Two

Physical topology of the InternetPhysical topology of the Internet Differences between centralized, Differences between centralized,

decentralized and distributed networks.decentralized and distributed networks. Actual topology of the InternetActual topology of the Internet What this means for the politics of What this means for the politics of

control.control.

The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoReadings for next week

What political outlook do John Perry What political outlook do John Perry Barlow, David Post and David Johnson Barlow, David Post and David Johnson have in common?have in common?

What do they think the Internet will do to What do they think the Internet will do to governments?governments?

What would Larry Lessig’s response be to What would Larry Lessig’s response be to their arguments?their arguments?