The Politics of the Internet - Week TwoOutline of Week
Discuss the history of the InternetDiscuss the history of the Internet Origins in ARPANETOrigins in ARPANET Creation of WWWCreation of WWW
Discuss what the Internet is.Discuss what the Internet is. Different layersDifferent layers
Discuss how the Internet is runDiscuss how the Internet is run IETF, ICANN etcIETF, ICANN etc
Discuss ‘topology’ of the InternetDiscuss ‘topology’ of the Internet
The Politics of the Internet – Week Two
How did the Internet begin?How did the Internet begin? Almost by accidentAlmost by accident The idea of a distributed system of The idea of a distributed system of
communication.communication. For academic institutions engaged in For academic institutions engaged in
military researchmilitary research Helped in sharing of computer resourcesHelped in sharing of computer resources More likely to survive nuclear warMore likely to survive nuclear war
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe initial proposal - ARPANET
Set up by the ARPA – a subsection of the Set up by the ARPA – a subsection of the US Department of DefenseUS Department of Defense
US company created in late 1969US company created in late 1969 (a) The software to manage a network(a) The software to manage a network (b) A network that joined together a few (b) A network that joined together a few
computers on the East and West coastcomputers on the East and West coast
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoARPANET – key features
ARPANET aspired to be ARPANET aspired to be distributeddistributed – it was – it was designed so that information could move without designed so that information could move without central organizationcentral organization
Completely different from phone systemCompletely different from phone system ARPANET was also designed to allow different ARPANET was also designed to allow different
systems to communicate (through specialized systems to communicate (through specialized computers called IMPs).computers called IMPs).
Thus, emphasis on sharing information and Thus, emphasis on sharing information and connecting networks rather than imposing a connecting networks rather than imposing a common design.common design.
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoUnexpected consequences
ARPANET was supposed to be all about ARPANET was supposed to be all about sharing of computer resources for researchsharing of computer resources for research
No commercial uses were allowedNo commercial uses were allowed Ended up being a lot moreEnded up being a lot more
Invention of email, and @ symbol in Invention of email, and @ symbol in early 1970s – a big surpriseearly 1970s – a big surprise
First computer game, “Adventure”First computer game, “Adventure”
The Politics of the Internet – Week Two
ARPANET was run by scientists and ARPANET was run by scientists and enthusiastsenthusiasts
Decisions about how the Internet would be Decisions about how the Internet would be run were taken by consensusrun were taken by consensus
Easy to manage when there were only a Easy to manage when there were only a couple of hundred people really involvedcouple of hundred people really involved
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoOrigins of the Internet
As ARPANET grew, people began thinking As ARPANET grew, people began thinking about how to connect it to other networks.about how to connect it to other networks.
A new initiative – “The Internetting A new initiative – “The Internetting Project”Project”
In 1974, creation of TCP/IP, the foundation In 1974, creation of TCP/IP, the foundation of the Internetof the Internet
Protocol allowed reliable communication Protocol allowed reliable communication between very different computers.between very different computers.
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoSpread of the Internet
In the 1980’s other networks began to In the 1980’s other networks began to emerge using the Internet standardemerge using the Internet standard
This was the “Internet”This was the “Internet” But still confined to academicsBut still confined to academics Technically challenging and unattractive for Technically challenging and unattractive for
everyday users.everyday users.
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoCreation of the World Wide Web
Key step in bringing the Internet to the Key step in bringing the Internet to the masses was the World Wide Webmasses was the World Wide Web
Invented in CERN by Tim Berners-LeeInvented in CERN by Tim Berners-Lee Idea was to create a way in which Idea was to create a way in which
documents could be organized on the documents could be organized on the InternetInternet
And could link to each other – with pictures And could link to each other – with pictures and attractive textand attractive text
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoGetting the World Wide Web off the ground
Took some years and effort to launch the Took some years and effort to launch the World Wide Web – even among academicsWorld Wide Web – even among academics
A lot of resistance to it.A lot of resistance to it. Then, first major web browser was created, Then, first major web browser was created,
Mosaic in the University of IllinoisMosaic in the University of Illinois A smart student, Marc Andreesen wrote it, A smart student, Marc Andreesen wrote it,
and soon went off to found Netscapeand soon went off to found Netscape
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoNetscape and the Web
Netscape opened up the Internet – people Netscape opened up the Internet – people began to realize that it had possibilities began to realize that it had possibilities outside universities and research institutionsoutside universities and research institutions
US government began to allow commercial US government began to allow commercial activityactivity
Creation of “dot coms” – Amazon, Ebay, Creation of “dot coms” – Amazon, Ebay, Toys.com, Pets.com etcToys.com, Pets.com etc
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe Politicization of the Internet
The Internet became a more and more The Internet became a more and more commercial spacecommercial space
Less room for old academic ethos of Less room for old academic ethos of sharing and cooperationsharing and cooperation
Also became a much more Also became a much more politicalpolitical space space Politicians started to get interested, firms Politicians started to get interested, firms
and consumers began to press for and consumers began to press for regulation.regulation.
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoKeeping the government out
US played key role in deciding how the US played key role in deciding how the Internet was runInternet was run
US policy makers sought to keep US policy makers sought to keep government out of the Internetgovernment out of the Internet
Argued that the Internet could be run by Argued that the Internet could be run by private actors, and by firmsprivate actors, and by firms
Didn’t always work out this wayDidn’t always work out this way
The Politics of the InternetWhere we are today
Internet – and Internet policy is now a Internet – and Internet policy is now a major battlegroundmajor battleground
Firms and governments fighting for their Firms and governments fighting for their interestsinterests
Some of the old legacy persistsSome of the old legacy persists Decentralization of ARPANETDecentralization of ARPANET Consensus decision making on many Consensus decision making on many
important issuesimportant issues
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoUnderstanding the Internet
What is the InternetWhat is the Internet Everyone thinks they Everyone thinks they
know – but know – but complicatedcomplicated
Take Senator Ted Take Senator Ted StevensStevens
How the Internet actually works
Hint: it’s not a series of tubes …Hint: it’s not a series of tubes … 3 levels3 levels
Physical infrastructurePhysical infrastructure Communication Protocols (TCP/IP)Communication Protocols (TCP/IP) ApplicationsApplications
The Road System
Routers, Network and BackboneRouters, Network and Backbone
The Rules of the Road
TCP/IP – Packet SwitchingTCP/IP – Packet Switching
Trucks, cars and buses
Applications layerApplications layer
World Wide Web, Email, FTPWorld Wide Web, Email, FTP
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe Physical Infrastructure
• Basic Infrastructure• A network of specialized computers.• Routers – computers that receive and forward data• Computers are connected by a network of pipelines that carry the data• Fattest pipelines make up the Internet “backbone”
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe Physical Infrastructure II - Routers
RoutersRouters Computers receive data in packetsComputers receive data in packets Then send these packets on to another Then send these packets on to another
routerrouter And so on, until the data reaches its final And so on, until the data reaches its final
destinationdestination
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe Physical Infrastructure – The Network
How does the network operate in practice?How does the network operate in practice? Telephone/Cable/DSL connections (home Telephone/Cable/DSL connections (home
users) – connect to Internet Service users) – connect to Internet Service ProviderProvider
Internet Service Provider buys bandwidth Internet Service Provider buys bandwidth on network from regional provideron network from regional provider
Regional provider buys space on backboneRegional provider buys space on backbone
The Internet Backbone – Map
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoMapping the Internet
How does information find its way around?How does information find its way around? Each computer on the Internet has an Each computer on the Internet has an
unique addressunique address There are a small number of specialized There are a small number of specialized
computers that maintain a directory of computers that maintain a directory of which computer has which addresswhich computer has which address
When packets are sent, they refer to this When packets are sent, they refer to this directory in order to figure out where to godirectory in order to figure out where to go
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWhat is a Protocol?
Origins in Greek word, Origins in Greek word, Protokollon, Protokollon, the the first index page of a manuscript.first index page of a manuscript.
Modern use of the word means an Modern use of the word means an agreement between diplomatsagreement between diplomats
Use in technology is a combination of the Use in technology is a combination of the twotwo
A protocol defines the specific form in A protocol defines the specific form in which information is communicated.which information is communicated.
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoCommunicating on a distributed network
Level Two – Communications ProtocolsLevel Two – Communications Protocols TCP/IP – the fundamental cornerstone of the TCP/IP – the fundamental cornerstone of the
Internet – allows Internet – allows packet switchingpacket switching Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Transfer Control Protocol/Internet
ProtocolProtocol
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoChopping information up
Information (say, an email) is chopped up into Information (say, an email) is chopped up into “packets”“packets”
Each packet is then given a header (like the envelope Each packet is then given a header (like the envelope of a letter)of a letter) Information about length of packetInformation about length of packet Where the packet fitsWhere the packet fits Where it is going toWhere it is going to How many other packets are out thereHow many other packets are out there
All of the packets are then sent out onto the Internet.All of the packets are then sent out onto the Internet.
The Politics of the Internet – Week Two
“Packet switching” in practice Each packet may take its own route through Each packet may take its own route through
the Internetthe Internet Different packets may go different ways – Different packets may go different ways –
depending on which parts of the network depending on which parts of the network are cloggedare clogged
Finally, all packets should reach the final Finally, all packets should reach the final destinationdestination
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoReassembling Packets
Computer at the destination then puts Computer at the destination then puts packets together againpackets together again
It knows which packets should go whereIt knows which packets should go where It also can detect if a packet has gotten It also can detect if a packet has gotten
garbledgarbled Or if a packet has gotten lostOr if a packet has gotten lost
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoApplications
Applications protocols are TCP/IP Applications protocols are TCP/IP compatible ways of exchanging specific compatible ways of exchanging specific informationinformation
If TCP/IP is the traffic control system, If TCP/IP is the traffic control system, applications protocols are the vehicles.applications protocols are the vehicles.
The Politics of the Internet – Week Two
ExamplesExamples Email – governed by a whole lot of Email – governed by a whole lot of
protocols – you really don’t want to protocols – you really don’t want to know how complex it is.know how complex it is.
FTP – File Transfer ProtocolFTP – File Transfer Protocol HTTP – the basic protocol underlying HTTP – the basic protocol underlying
communication on the World Wide Webcommunication on the World Wide Web
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWho runs the Internet
The answer is really, really complicatedThe answer is really, really complicated It depends on which of the three layers you are It depends on which of the three layers you are
talking abouttalking about (1) Physical infrastructure – run by a mix of firms (1) Physical infrastructure – run by a mix of firms
and governmentand government (2) TCP/IP run by the Internet Engineering Task (2) TCP/IP run by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF)Force (IETF) Domain name system run by ICANNDomain name system run by ICANN
Other protocols run by different groups within the Other protocols run by different groups within the IETFIETF
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe physical infrastructure
Used to be run by the US governmentUsed to be run by the US government But now more and more dominated by But now more and more dominated by
private firmsprivate firms Have created their own fast speed Have created their own fast speed
communications networkscommunications networks Government and military still have some Government and military still have some
rolerole
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe TCP/IP protocol
Who created the TCP/IP protocol, and who Who created the TCP/IP protocol, and who can change it?can change it?
NOT the US governmentNOT the US government NOT the governments of the worldNOT the governments of the world NOT big business (although it is getting NOT big business (although it is getting
more and more of a voice)more and more of a voice)
Programmers
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe IETF
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Non-hierarchical organizationNon-hierarchical organization Discusses changes to TCP/IP and a lot of Discusses changes to TCP/IP and a lot of
other protocolsother protocols And then announces them – by and large, And then announces them – by and large,
people adopt these changes, although the people adopt these changes, although the IETF has no formal powers.IETF has no formal powers.
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoICANN
There is a complicated relationship with There is a complicated relationship with ICANN – “The Internet Corporation for ICANN – “The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers.”Assigned Names and Numbers.”
ICANN was set up to administer Domain ICANN was set up to administer Domain Name System – i.e. which computer on the Name System – i.e. which computer on the system gets which namesystem gets which name
Has become more and more controversial Has become more and more controversial
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoThe W3 Consortium
The World Wide Web (WWW) is slightly The World Wide Web (WWW) is slightly differentdifferent
It relies on a language called HTML It relies on a language called HTML (HyperText Markup Language) and HTTP (HyperText Markup Language) and HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)(HyperText Transfer Protocol)
This language is developed by a IETF-type This language is developed by a IETF-type organization called the W3 Consortiumorganization called the W3 Consortium
Same sorts of processes of decision-making.Same sorts of processes of decision-making.
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWho controls other applications
Other aspects of application protocols are Other aspects of application protocols are handled by the IETF, or sometimes by handled by the IETF, or sometimes by firmsfirms
For example, Java is run by Sun For example, Java is run by Sun MicrosystemsMicrosystems
• Control of protocols is sometimes a Control of protocols is sometimes a key commercial advantagekey commercial advantage
• Weeks on Microsoft/Netscape and Weeks on Microsoft/Netscape and Open Source SoftwareOpen Source Software
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoNetwork Topology
If the Internet is a network, what does it If the Internet is a network, what does it look like?look like?
Network Network topologytopology (i.e. the ‘shape’ of the (i.e. the ‘shape’ of the network) is key – it helps determine the network) is key – it helps determine the politics.politics.
Some kinds of network are much more Some kinds of network are much more easily subjected to political control than easily subjected to political control than others. others.
Different Kinds of Network
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWhat does the Internet look like
The Internet was supposed to be a The Internet was supposed to be a ‘distributed’ network.‘distributed’ network.
This would have meant that it was highly This would have meant that it was highly resistant to control, to breakdown and to resistant to control, to breakdown and to attacks.attacks.
But in fact, the Internet has developed in an But in fact, the Internet has developed in an unplanned way so that it isn’t a distributed unplanned way so that it isn’t a distributed network in the proper sense of the word.network in the proper sense of the word.
What The Internet Looks Like
The Politics of the Internet – Week Two
Internet looks like something between a Internet looks like something between a distributed and a decentralized network – distributed and a decentralized network – i.e. some parts of the network are much i.e. some parts of the network are much more important (have much more incoming more important (have much more incoming and outgoing links) than others.and outgoing links) than others.
This means that it is much more subject to This means that it is much more subject to disruption or to control than a classic disruption or to control than a classic decentralized network.decentralized network.
We’ll talk about the effects of this next We’ll talk about the effects of this next week.week.
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWhat we have learned - History
Beginnings of Internet in ARPANETBeginnings of Internet in ARPANET Distributed networkDistributed network Development of new, unforeseen usesDevelopment of new, unforeseen uses Creation of TCP/IPCreation of TCP/IP Creation of World Wide WebCreation of World Wide Web Popularization of InternetPopularization of Internet New Political IssuesNew Political Issues
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoWhat we have learned – The Internet
Three LayersThree Layers Physical infrastructurePhysical infrastructure
Routers, pipelines, backboneRouters, pipelines, backbone Communications protocolCommunications protocol
TCP/IP and packet switchingTCP/IP and packet switching Applications protocolsApplications protocols
Email, WWW, FTPEmail, WWW, FTP
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoHow the Internet is run
Different Actors on different levelsDifferent Actors on different levels Physical infrastructurePhysical infrastructure
Run by firms, some government roleRun by firms, some government role Communications protocol/Domain namesCommunications protocol/Domain names
TCP/IP run by IETFTCP/IP run by IETF Domain name system run by ICANNDomain name system run by ICANN
Applications protocolsApplications protocols Run by IETF, WWW consortium, firmsRun by IETF, WWW consortium, firms
The Politics of the Internet – Week Two
Physical topology of the InternetPhysical topology of the Internet Differences between centralized, Differences between centralized,
decentralized and distributed networks.decentralized and distributed networks. Actual topology of the InternetActual topology of the Internet What this means for the politics of What this means for the politics of
control.control.
The Politics of the Internet – Week TwoReadings for next week
What political outlook do John Perry What political outlook do John Perry Barlow, David Post and David Johnson Barlow, David Post and David Johnson have in common?have in common?
What do they think the Internet will do to What do they think the Internet will do to governments?governments?
What would Larry Lessig’s response be to What would Larry Lessig’s response be to their arguments?their arguments?