The Science of PsychologyChapter 1

What Is Psychology?

•Scientific study of behavior and mental processes…

Critical Thinking

What is critical thinking?

Inductive

Deductive

Analytical

Purposeful

Open

Authentic

ENDURING ISSUES

• PersonSituation

To what extent is behavior caused by internal processes such as thoughts, emotions, motives,

values, personality, and genes?

ENDURING ISSUES

• Nature vs. Nurture

Is the person we become a product of innate, inborn tendencies or a reflection of experiences?

ENDURING ISSUES

• Stability vs. Change

Are the characteristics we develop in childhood permanent and fixed, or do we change in predictable (and unpredictable) ways over the course of the lifespan?

ENDURING ISSUES

Does our understanding of human behavior apply equally well to everyone across cultures or only to men or women, particular racial or ethnic groups, or particular societies (especially our own)?

The Fields of Psychology

Developmental: Study of all aspects of human growth and change from prenatal period through old age

Physiological: Study of biological basis of human behavior, thoughts, and emotions

The Fields of Psychology

Experimental: Study of basic psychological processes

Personality: Study of differences among individuals in variety of traits

The Fields of Psychology

Clinical: Focus on diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders

Counseling: Focus on “normal”adjustment issues (your book does a poor job of explaining this)

The Fields of Psychology

Social: Explores how society influences the individual and how the individual influences society

I/O: Applies principles of psychology to practical issues of workplace…more on this later

Psychology as ScienceScientific Method Explained…

An approach to knowledge, which:Relies on collecting dataGenerates theory to explain dataProduces testable hypotheses based on the theoryTests those hypotheses empirically

Psychology as ScienceA Theory Is:

• Systematic explanation of something• Organizes what we think is fact, which…• Allows prediction of new facts• Provides some control over the phenomenon

• (What would be the point or value of this?)

An Hypothesis is

• Specific, testable predictions derived from a theory

• So an hypothesis is a part of a theory, which means you can develop multiple hypotheses from a theory

Psychology: the Early Years

• Early philosophers

• Socrates (the unexamined life…), Plato (repeatedly ask the same question…), Aristotle (gold, sliver, and bronze men)—then came Locke, Descartes, and Darwin

• The Church

• Illiteracy allowed for understanding through a religious lens

• Literature

• After the printing press, people learned about themselves and the world

The “New Psychology”: A Science of the Mind

Redefining Psychology:The Study of Behavior

• Behaviorism (Watson)• Studies only observable and measurable behavior

• Behaviorism(B. F. Skinner)• Added to Watson’s theory with concept of

reinforcement—neither wanted to consider thinking as a part of behavior

• As Chomsky points out in his Cognitive Manifesto, these are limited in explaining human behavior

The Cognitive Revolution

True or false?

Humanistic Psychology paved the way for the cognitive revolution.

The Cognitive Revolution

• Gestalt psychology• Studies how people perceive and experience objects as

whole patterns

• Humanistic psychology• Emphasizes nonverbal experience and altered states of

consciousness as a means of realizing full human potential

• Cognitive Psychology• Studies mental processes in broadest sense

New Directions

• Evolutionary Psychology• Studies evolutionary origins of behaviors and mental

processes

• Positive Psychology • Focuses on positive experiences, development of

individual characteristics, and environmental conditions

Multiple Perspectives Today

• Contemporary psychologists• See different perspectives as complimentary

• Generally agree that field advances with addition of new evidence to support or challenge existing theories

Race and EthnicityImportant Questions to Consider

• Are most ethnic minorities still underrepresented within the field of psychology?

• What can psychologists do today to deal with biases in psychological research?

Culture

• Culture • Values, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs passed from one

generation to another

• Individualistic Cultures• Cultures that value independence and personal achievement

• Collectivist Cultures• Cultures that value interdependence, fitting in, and

harmonious relationships

Types of ResearchYeah, it’s a little boring, I know—still gotta know a little bit about it, though

Culture

• Cross-cultural Research• Involves exploration of extent to which people differ

from one culture to another

Naturalistic Observation

• Naturalistic Observation Observing and recording behavior of humans or animals in their natural environment• Advantages

Behavior more likely to be more natural, spontaneous, and varied

• DisadvantagesObserver bias might distort or influence interpretation of what

actually observed

Case Studies

• Case StudyDetailed description of single individual or just few individuals• Advantages

Yields detailed descriptive information: Useful for forming hypotheses

• DisadvantagesMay not be representative sample; time consuming and expensive; potential for observer bias

Surveys

• SurveyQuestionnaire or interview administered to selected group of people• Advantages

Allows for large amount of data to be gathered quickly

• DisadvantagesPoorly constructed questions can result in ambiguous answers; accuracy related to participant honesty

Correlational Research

• Correlational Research Uses statistical methods to examine relationship between two or more variables• Advantages

Useful for predicting behavior

• Disadvantages Cannot draw conclusions about cause and effect

Experimental Research

• Experimental ResearchSome variables deliberately manipulated and subsequent effects on behavior measured• Advantages

Allows researchers conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships to be drawn

• DisadvantagesUnexpected and uncontrolled variables may confound results; many variables cannot be controlled and manipulated

Experimental Research

• Independent variable• Variable manipulated to test its effects on other

dependent variables

• Dependent variable• Variable measured to see how it is changed by

manipulations in independent variable

Experimental Research

• Experimental group• Group subjected to a change in the independent

variable

• Treatment group• Group subjected to change in independent variable

Experimental Research

Imagine you are a researcher studying the effects of parenting on adult child success.

Can you think of reasons why studying your own family might be influenced by experimenter bias?

Multimethod Research

• Multimethod research combines various research methods to obtain better insights

• Best example is a meta-analysis

The Importance of Sampling

• Sample• Subgroup of population

• Random sample• Sample in which each potential participant has equal

chance of being selected

• Representative sample• Sample in which characteristics of participants

correspond closely to characteristics of larger population

Human Diversity and Research

• Unintended biases in research• Generalization of research findings to other cultures

• Influence of the experimenter’s gender, race, or ethnicity

Ethics and Psychology:Research on Humans

•APA Ethical Guidelines for Human Subjects• Participants must be informed of the nature of the

research.• Informed consent must be documented.• Risks must be spelled out in advance.• If for course credit, alternate activity must be offered.• Participants cannot be deceived about aspects that

would affect their willingness to participate.• Deception about goals of research can only be used

when absolutely necessary.

Careers in Psychology

• Career paths for therapists• Psychiatrists

• Psychoanalysts

• Clinical Psychologists

• Counseling Psychologists

• Social Workers