The Standardized World Income Inequality · PDF fileThe Standardized World Income Inequality Database ... AtG India AtG China 15 25 35 45 55 ... The Standardized World Income Inequality

IntroductionConstructing the SWIID

Using the SWIIDConclusions

The ProblemNot-So-Attractive Solutions

The Standardized World IncomeInequality Database

Frederick SoltUniversity of Iowa

18 September 2013

Frederick Solt The SWIID




The Problem: Quantity vs. Quality

I Goal: To make valid comparisons of levels and trends inincome inequality across countries and over time

I Need: Comparable data for many countries and yearsI Issue: Most of the available data is incomparable

1. Income definition (e.g., market income, consumption)2. Unit of analysis (e.g., household, adult equivalent, individual)3. Harmonization (e.g., treatment of non-monetary income)4. Coverage (entire population vs., e.g., major cities, rural, adults)





















































A Tradeoff

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Top Incomes

All the Ginis

WIID2c

D&S Accept

OECDSEDLACEurostat

SWIID Source

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Additional Definition/Unit Combinations

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I More observations, more incomparability





Two (Not-So-Attractive) Options

I Comparable Data for a FewCountries and Years

I Luxembourg Income Study (208)I All the Ginis (590)I SWIID Source Data (962)

I But this entails giving up on manycomparisons and throwing away alot of data

I Incomparable Data for ManyCountries and Years

I Just ignore incomparability, orI Make a fixed adjustment for

different definitions and units

I But crudely reducing thesedifferences to constants meansany comparisons are extremelydubious





































































































All the Ginis

AtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG IndiaAtG India

AtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG ChinaAtG China

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2013 All the Ginis





All the Ginis with Adjustments

I Use included dummy variables to calculate adjustmentsper Milanovic (2013, 8) . . .





All the Ginis with Adjustments

AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.

AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.

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All the Ginis and the LIS

AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.AtG India w/ adj.

AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.AtG China w/ adj.

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●LIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS IndiaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS ChinaLIS China

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I Using the same income definition and unit of analysis (andharmonizing) can make a big difference




The LogicAn IllustrationConstructing the SWIID

SWIID: The Logic

I How to maximize comparability for the widest possiblecoverage?

I This is a missing-data problem, fit for multiple imputation:I LIS gives high comparability, but with ˜98% missing country-yearsI Other data informs imputations of these missing observationsI ‘Adjustment’ modeled as varying across countries and over time,

relying as much as possible on proximate years in the same countryI Error terms in the models–the residual incomparability–is

incorporated as uncertainty





SWIID: The Logic









SWIID: The Logic









SWIID: The Logic









SWIID: The Logic









SWIID: The Logic









An Illustration: Inequality in the United Kingdom

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Luxembourg Income Study






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Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Adult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult EquivalentAdult Equivalent

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SWIID Source Data: A Complete Annual Series for the UK






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Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,Net Income,HH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per CapitaHH Per Capita

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1. Counting across all countries, another series is actually more plentiful






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2. Using only the complete series discards a lot of other data






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OECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECDOECD

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3. Harmonization is important . . .






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I To get comparable data, we need to shift this series “up”:We need to multiply it by some factor greater than 1






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Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.Constant Adj.

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SWIID Source Data, Global Fixed Adjustment: G × .98






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UK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK AdjustmentUK Adjustment

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SWIID Source Data, UK Fixed Adjustment: G × 1.04






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Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.Lowess Adj.

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SWIID Source Data, Loess Estimate Adjustment: G × 1.00 to 1.08






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SWIID Estimate and 95% Confidence Interval






Net IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet IncomeNet Income

Market IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket IncomeMarket Income

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SWIID Estimates and 95% Confidence Intervals





Constructing the SWIID

1. Collect all available Gini data

2. Categorize observations by combination of income definitionand unit of analysis

3. Calculate all observed adjustment ratios ρabit = GbitGait

4. Predict unobserved ρ̂abit using:

a. Loess by country over timeb. Regression by country-decadec. Regression by countryd. Regression by ‘region’e. Regression by advanced or developing world





Constructing the SWIID

5. Make two-step predictions: ρ̂1bit = ρ̂abit × ρ̂1ait

6. Use ρ̂ and all observed Ginis to estimate standardized Ginis

7. If multiple estimates exist for a country-year, combine them:

a. Start with best-fitting estimate for each country-yearb. Incorporate additional estimates if they reduce error

8. Inform with estimates from surrounding country-years:

a. Apply weighted moving-average smoother (with exceptions)b. Interpolate completely unobserved country-years




Graphical ComparisonsStatistical Comparisons

Inequality in Net Income in Four Rich Countries

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Inequality in Net Income in Latin America

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Inequality in Net Income in Africa

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Inequality in Net Income in the BRICs

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Statistical Analysis with the SWIID

I Remember, the SWIID estimates are estimates

I Taking the standard errors into account is crucial to makingwell-grounded, defensible comparisons

I Fortunately, this is easier to do than it used to be . . .





















CCTs in Brazil

I Has inequality declined in Brazil since the introduction ofnational conditional cash transfers in 2001?

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CCTs in Brazil





CCTs in Brazil

I Has the trend in inequality changed in Brazil since 2001?





Post-Communism

I Since 1989, has inequality been increasing more rapidly inChina than in Russia?

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Post-Communism

I Since 1989, has inequality been increasing more rapidly inChina than in Russia?




The Standardized World Income Inequality Database

I The SWIID maximizes comparability for the widest possible sample

I It multiply-imputes missing data in the LIS, using as muchinformation as possible from the same country in proximate years

I Residual incomparability is represented as uncertainty

I Incorporating the standard errors is therefore crucial . . .

I . . . and is now relatively easy






































Documents

The Standardized World Income Inequality · PDF fileThe Standardized World Income Inequality Database ... AtG India AtG China 15 25 35 45 55 ... The Standardized World Income Inequality